UC-NRLF 


R   M   S7T   3Dt, 


UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  LIBRARY 


Mmmmmm^M 


^mmgmM^wwsm; 


/"■'••"■■■■^-^^ 

GIFT   OF 

MICHAEL  REESE 


FOODS  AND  THEIR  ADULTERATION 


WILEY 


From  "Science,"  New  York: 

Seldom  has  a  more  timely  book  appeared  than  this,  follow- 
ing so  closely  as  it  does  the  beginning  of  the  enforcement  of  the 
new  national  pure-food  law.  For  some  time  prior  to  the  pas- 
sage of  this  law  public  interest  throughout  the  country  had 
become  vitally  awakened  to  the  importance  of  the  pure-food 
issue.  Amid  a  large  mass  of  confusing  and  often  exaggerated 
newspaper  articles  dealing  with  the  subject,  it  is  a  comfort  to 
find  a  book  covering  the  field  so  completely,  so  sanely  and 
withal  in  so  interesting  a  way. 

While  the  manual,  by  the  author's  statement,  is  not 
especially  designed  for  the  expert  chemist,  and  chemical  terms 
are  carefully  explained  for  the  benefit  of  the  public,  yet  the 
food  analyst  will  need  the  book  on  his  shelves  for  reference. 
From  the  chemist's  standpoint,  the  many  tables  and  results 
showing  the  composition  of  the  various  food  products  are 
especially  useful  for  comparison.  In  many  cases  also  are  given 
some  of  the  latter  and  more  improved  tests  for  adulteration, 
which  in  some  instances  have  not  hitherto  been  so  readily 
available. 

The  book  treats  systematically  and  quite  exhaustively  of 
all  the  principal  food  products,  dealing  in  turn  with  their  manu- 
facture, properties  and  composition,  forms  of  adulteration  and 
dietetic  value,  and  including  much  information  of  a  general 
nature  concerning  them.  Beginning  with  the  animal  foods, 
it  thus  covers  meats  and  the  various  meat  preparations,  fish, 
milk  and  its  products  and  oleomargarine.  Then  follow  the 
vegetable  foods,  cereals,  vegetables  proper,  condiments,  fruits, 
sugar,  syrup,  confectionery,  honey,  and  finally  infants'  and 
invalids'  foods.     *     *     * 

Though  destined  for  a  wide  variety  of  readers,  the  book  is 
apparently  designed  first  of  all  for  the  benefit  of  the  public,  at 
a  time  when  the  public  wants  particularly  to  know  about  its 
food;  and  written  as  it  is  from  a  strictly  scientific  standpoint, 
yet  in  a  popular  way,  by  one  who  from  long  experience  knows 
so  thoroughly  his  subject,  it  will  be  widely  read  and  to  great 
advantage  by  the  people  as  consumers. 

Not  only  does  the  author  cover  the  ground  directly  sug- 
gested by  the  title,  but  in  a  general  and  useful  way  gives 
throughout  much  information  about  food  values  and  the  use  of 
food  for  bodily  nourishment.  The  colored  plates  illustrating 
the  appearance  of  cuts  of  healthy  beef,  for  example,  will  be 
found  especially  helpful  to  the  householder. 

To  the  food  manufacturer  and  dealer  the  book  is  almost 
indispensable,  since  it  describes  very  plainly  the  methods  of 
preparation  and  standards  of  purity,  the  effects  of  storage,  and, 
in  addition,  gives  much  good  and  sound  advice  regarding 
what  might  be  termed  controversial  forms  of  adulteration, 
such  as  chemical  preservatives  and  artificial  coloring,  called 
controversial  because  their  use  with  restricted  labels  has  to 
some  extent  been  legalized  under  some  of  the  ^tate  laws,  and 
because  they  have  for  years  formed  the  subject  of  much  differ- 
ence of  opinion  among  experts  in  food  litigation.     *     *     * 


FOODS  AND 
THEIR  ADULTERATION 


ORIGIN,  MANUFACTURE,  AND  COMPOSITION  OF 

FOOD  PRODUCTS;  INFANTS'  AND  INVALIDS' 

FOODS;   DETECTION  OF  COMMON 

ADULTERATIONS,  AND  FOOD 

STANDARDS 


By 
HARVEY  W.  VyiLEY,  M.D.,  PH.D. 


WITH  ELEVEN  COLORED  PLATES  AND 
EIGHTY-SEVEN  OTHER  ILLUSTRATIONS 


i^tconU  C^Httton,  EetotEieti  anU  (EnlarseU 


PHILADELPHIA 

P.  BLAKISTON'S  SON  &  CO, 

I0I2  Walnut  Street 

1911 


UBSCiS'S  »s 


Copyright,  1911,  by  P.  Blakiston's  Son  &  Co. 


WM,  F.   FELL  &  CO., 

CLECTROTYPER8    AND    PRINTERS, 

I320-24   SAN80M    STREET, 

PHILADELPHIA. 


/ 


PREFACE  TO  THE  SECOND  EDITION. 


The  text  of  the  body  of  this  work  has  been  carefully  revised  and  the 

statistical  matter  brought  up  to  date.  Many  of  the  paragraphs  have  been 
entirely  re-written,  but  in  general  the  text  and  the  sequence  of  the  articles 
remain  as  in  the  first  edition.  Two  new  parts  of  importance  have  been 
added  to  the  volume,  taking  the  place  of  the  regulations  for  inspection  and 
the  rules  and  regulations  for  the  enforcement  of  the  Food  and  Drugs  Act, 
which  are  now  of  such  wide  distribution  as  to  need  no  place  in  this  work. 

The  space  so  saved  by  the  exclusion  of  these  appendices  has  been  given 
to  an  expansion  of  the  article  on  infants'  and  invalids'  foods  and  to  a  new 
part  devoted  to  simple  tests  for  ordinary  adulterations  which  may  be  prac- 
ticed with  some  degree  of  success  in  the  household. 

In  the  section  devoted  to  infants'  and  invalids'  foods  an  attempt  has  been 
made  to  describe  in  a  practical  way  the  preparation  and  care  of  foods  of  this 
class,  accentuating  meanwhile  the  supreme  importance  of  the  natural  supply 
of  milk  for  infants  under  the  age  of  one  year,  or  where  this  is  denied  the 
substitution  of  wholesome,  fresh  cow's  milk,  modified  to  resemble,  as  nearly 
as  possible,  the  natural  sustenance  of  the  infant.  The  composition  of  some 
of  the  principal  substitutes  for  the  natural  foods  of  infants  has  been  given 
with  a  note  of  warning  as  to  the  danger  of  the  employment  of  even  the  best 
of  these  foods  to  the  exclusion  of  nature's  natural  food  supply. 

This  article  has  been  written  with  no  spirit  of  antagonism  towards  the 
prepared  foods  for  infants,  but  only  to  bring  promptly  before  the  mind  of  the 
lay  reader,  as  pointedly  as  possible,  the  supreme  importance  of  using  the 
natural  food  even  when  an  artificial  preparation  resembles  it  as  nearly  as 
can  be. 

The  article  on  invalids'  foods  has  been  written  in  the  light  of  recent 
medical  studies,  which  show  that  wholesome  food  is  not  only  the  best 
prophylactic  but  also  in  many  cases,  especially  of  chronic  diseases,  the 
best  remedy  at  the  service  of  the  physician.  Proper  nutrition  is  extremely 
effective  in  preventing  some  forms  of  disease,  and  proper  feeding,  based  on 
scientific  principles,  the  most  effective  remedy. 

In  the  treatment  of  this  subject  care  has  been  taken  to  avoid  the  danger 
into  which  so  many  writers  fall  of  uttering  dicta  regarding  nutrition  which 


213265 


VI  PREFACE    TO    SECOND   EDITION. 

are  founded  rather  on  misinformation  than  on  the  solid  basis  of  truth.  While 
the  science  of  scientific  feeding,  as  a  remedy  of  disease,  is  still  in  its  infancy 
it  is  hoped  that  the  present  contribution  may  do  much  to  enlighten  the  mind 
of  the  lay  public  on  a  question  of  such  great  importance  as  the  treatment  of 
disease  in  the  home. 

With  the  household  tests  for  simple  adulterations  an  intelligent  house- 
wife with  a  little  practice  may  be  able  to  inform  herself  of  the  most  com- 
monly occurring  adulterations.  Especially  is  this  true  if  there  be  supplied, 
at  the  same  time,  a  series  of  samples  of  the  genuine  products  which  may 
be  submitted  to  the  proposed  tests.  In  this  case  the  difference  in  reaction 
obtained  between  the  genuine  and  adulterated  articles  becomes  the  more 
evident. 

All  the  appendices  have  been  removed  from  the  revised  edition  saving 
the  standards  of  purity  of  food  products  adopted  by  the  Secretary  of  Agri- 
culture, in  harmony  with  the  provisions  made  by  Congress. 

Harvey  W.  Wiley. 
Washington,  D.  C. 


TABLE  OF  CONTENTS. 


Introduction i-io 

Proper  Ration,  3;  Social  Function  of  Food,  5;  Definition  and  Composition  of 
Foods,  6;  Classification  of  Foods,  7;  Explanation  of  Chemical  Terms,  8. 

Part  I, — Meats  and  Meat  Products 11-94 

Definition,  1 1 ;  Edible  Animals,  1 1 ;  Classificationof  Meat  Foods,  12;  Prepar- 
ation of  Animals,  12;  Inspection,  13;  Tuberculosis,  13;  Consumers' Rights, 
14;  Slaughter  and  Preparation  of  Carcasses,  14;  Names  of  Parts,  15-20;  De- 
livery of  Fresh  Meat,  21;  Storage,  23;  Disposition  of  Fragments,  23;  Detec- 
tion of  Different  Kinds  of  Meat,  24;  Dried  and  Pickled  Meat,  25;  Composi- 
tion of  Pig's  Flesh,  26-33;  Preserved  Meats,  34-38;  Argument  of  Small 
Quantities,  38-40;  Preparationfor  Canning,  41;  Parboiling,  41;  Sterilization, 
42;  Special  Studies  of  Canning,  43-48;  Relation  of  Canned  to  Fresh  Beef,  48; 
Canned  Ham  and  Bacon,  48-50;  Canned  Tongue,  50;  Fat  as  a  Test  for 
Adulteration,  51;  Potted  Meats,  51-56;  Canned  Poultn,-,  56;  Canned  Horse- 
meat,  57;  Canned  Cured  Meats,  59-60;  Magnitude  of  Industry,  61;  Gen- 
eral Observations,  62;  Lard,  63-77;  Soups,  77-78;  Beef  Extract,  79,  80; 
Beef  Juice,  82;  Soluble  Meats,  83;  Preparations  of  Blood,  83;  Beef-tea,  84; 
Dried  and  Powdered  Meats,  85;  Active  Principles  in  Meat  Extracts,  86;  Re- 
lation between  Juice  and  Nutritive  Value,  87;  Nitrogenous  Bases,  88-90; 
Gelatine,  90-92;   Terrestrial  Animal  Oils,  93. 

Part  II. — Poultry  and  Eggs  and  Game  Birds 95-116 

Application  of  Name,  94;  Domesticated  Fowls,  95-116;  Chicken,  95-104; 
Duck,  104;  Goose,  105;  Pigeon,  107;  Turkey,  107;  Forced  Fattening,  109; 
Slaughtering  and  Preparing  for  Market,  1 1 1 ;  Poisonous  Principles  in  Eggs, 
116;  Parasites  in  Eggs,  116. 

Part  III. — Fish  Foods 1 1 7-166 

Classification,  117;  Edible  Portion,  119;  Principal  Constituents,  119;  Ale- 
wives,  121;  Anchovy,  122;  Black  Bass,  122;  Bluefish,  122;  Carp,  123; 
Catfish,  123;  Codfish,  124;  Eels,  126;  Flounder,  127;  Graylings,  128;  Had- 
dock, 128;  Hake,  128;  Halibut,  128;  Herring,  129;  Horse  Mackerel,  130; 
Hog-fish,  130;  Mackerel,  131;  Menhaden,  132;  Mullet,  132;  Muskal- 
lunge,  133;  Pickerel  or  Pike,  133;  Pompano,  134;  Red  Snapper,  134;  Rock 
Bass,  135;  Salmon,  135-138;  Sardines,  139-140;  Scup,  141;  Shad,  141-142; 
Sheepshead,  143;  Smelt,  144;  Spanish  Mackerel,  144;  Sturgeon,  144; 
Caviar,  145;  Striped  Bass,  146;  Sole,  146;  Tautog,  147;  Tilefish,  147; 
Trout,  147-148;  Turbot,  149;  Weakfish,  149;  Whitefish,  150;  Fluorids  in 
Fish,  151;  Marketing,  151;  Cold  Storage,  151;  Canning,  Drying,  and  Adul- 
teration, 152;  Value  as  Food,  153;  Shellfish,  153;  Clams,  153;  Lobster,  155; 
Crabs,  155;  Crawfish,  156;  Shrimp,  157;  Aquatic  Reptiles,  157;  Turtle, 
157;  Terrapin,  158;  Mussel,  158;  Oysters,  158-164;  Animal  Oils,  165; 
Marine  Animal  Oils,  165-166. 

Part  IV. — Milk  and  Milk  Products  and  Oleomargarine 169-216 

Milk,  Limitation  of  Name,  169;  Composition,  169;  Method  of  Production, 
169-174;  Cream,  i75;/jCurd  Test  for  Purity,  176-178;  Whey  and  Kou- 
miss, 179;  Buttermilk  and  Bonnyclabber,  181;  Butter,  182-187;  Oleomar- 
garine, 187-189;  Cheese,  190;  Kinds,  191;  Adulteration  and  Misbranding, 
192;    Coloring,  193;   Cottage  Cheese,  195;  American    Cheese  Manufacture, 


VIU  TABLE   OF   CONTENTS. 


196-200;  Grading  Cheese,  200;  Cream  Cheese,  201;  Foreign  Types,  201- 
202;  Sage  Cheese,  203;  English  Cheese,  203-205;  French  Cheese,  206-208; 
Lim burger,  208;  Edam,  210;  Bacterial  Activity ,  2 1 1 ;  Chemical  Changes  in 
Ripening,  212-214;  Digestibility,  214;  Effect  of  Cold  Storage,  215;  Prepara- 
tions of  Casein,  215. 

Part  V. — Cereal  Foods 217-273 

Barley,  217-218;  Buckwheat,  219-221;  Indian  Corn  (Maize),  222-232; 
Oats,  232-236;  Rice,  236;  Rye,  237-239;  Wheat,  239-242;  Wheat  Flour, 
243-245;  Gluten,  245-247;  Bleaching,  247;  Adulterations,  248;  Standard 
Age  and  Substitutes,  248;  Bread,  249;  Yeast,  250;  Ferments,  250;  Chemical 
Aerating  Agents,  251 ;  Baking  Powders,  251-254;  Composition  of  Bread,  254- 
255;  Comparative  Nutritive  Properties,  256-257;  Biscuit,  258;  Sugar  Lost  , 
in  Fermentation,  259;  Texture  of  Loaves,  259;  Macaroni,  260-264;  Cakes, 
265-267;  Breakfast  Foods,  267-271. 

Part  VI.— Vegetables,  Condiments,  Fruits 273-388 

Succulent  Vegetables,  273;  Artichoke,  274;  Asparagus,  275;  Bean,  275- 
276;  Beets,  277;  Brussels  Sprouts,  278;  Cabbage,  278;  Carrot,  279;  Cauli- 
flower, 279;  Celery,  280;  Chicory,  280;  Cranberry,  281;  Cress,  281;  Cucum- 
bers, 281;  Egg-plant,  Garlic,  and  Gourds,  282;  Horseradish,  Jerusalem  Arti- 
choke, and  Kale,  282;  Leek,  Lettuce,  Melons,  and  Cantaloupe,  284-286; 
Okra  and  Onion,  286;  Parsnip,  287;  Peas,  287;  Potatoes,  288-298;  Potato 
Starch,  296-299;  Rhubarb,  299;  Squash,  299;  Sweet  Potato,  299-304; 
Turnip,  304;  Yam,  304;  Canned  Vegetables,  305-315;  Ketchup,  316; 
Use  of  Refuse  in  Ketchup,  317;  Starches  as  Foods,  317-321;  Condiments, 
321-326;  Fruits,  326-329;  Apples,  330-335;  Cherries,  336;  Grapes,  337-338; 
Peaches,  339-341;  Plums,  341;  Quince,  342;  Small  Fruits,  342-343;  Tropi- 
cal and  Subtropical  P'ruits,  343-348;  Citrus  Fruits,  348-369;  Composition 
of  Pineapple,  363-364;  Ash  of  Tropical  Fruits,  367;  Sugar  and  Acid  in 
Fruit,  369;  Canned  Fruits,  370-372;  Fruit  Sirups,  373-374;  Jams,  Jellies, 
and  Preserves,  375-381;  Manufacture  of  Jellies,  381-382;  Compound 
Jams  and  Jellies,  383;  Preserves,  384;  Fruit  Butter,  385;  Brandied  Fruit, 
386;    Importance  of  Preserving  Industry,  386-388. 

Part  VII. — Vegetable  Oils  and  Fats,  and  Nuts 389-428 

Definition,  389;  Chemical  Characteristics,  390;  Drying  and  Non-drying  Oils, 
391;  Physical  Characters,  392-393;  Edible  Vegetable  Oils,  394-413;  Cot- 
tonseed Oil,  397-401;  Olive  Oil,  402-405;  Peanut  Oil,  406;  Rape  Oil,  407; 
Sesame  Oil,  408;  Sunflower  Oil,  409;  Cacao- butter,  410;  Coconut  Oil,  411; 
Palm  Oil,  412;  Nuts,  413-428;  Acorn,  414;  Beechnuts,  Brazil-nut,  415; 
Butternut,  Chestnut,  416;  Chinese  Nut,  417;  Coconut,  Filbert,  418;  Hazel- 
nut, Hickory-nut,  419;  Peanuts,  420-424;  Pecan,  424-425;  Pistachio,  426; 
Walnut,  426-428. 

Part  VIII. — Fungi  as  Foods 429-454 

Mushrooms,  Production,  429-430;  Varieties,  430;  Food  Value,  430;  Distinc- 
tion between  Edible  and  Poisonous,  433-439;  Types  of  Edible  Mush- 
rooms, 440;  Horse  Mushroom,  441;  Shaggy  Mushroom,  443;  Fairy  Ring 
Mushroom,  443;  Puff-ball,  444;  Cepe,  445;  Fly  Amanita,  446;  Poisoning 
by  Mushrooms,  448;  Canned  Mushrooms,  449;  Truffles,  450-453;  Food 
Value  of  Fungi,  454. 

Part  IX. — Sugar,  Sirup,  Confectionery,  and  Honey 455-494 

Sugar,  Origin  of  Sugar,  455;  Beet  Sugar,  456-465;  Cane  Sugar,  466;  Maple 
Sugar,  467-468;  Sugar  Refining,  468-470;  Sugar  Production,  471;  Adultera- 
tion of  Sugar,  471;  Sugar  as  Food,  472;  Sirup,  Maple,  472-473;  Cane,  475; 
Sorghum,  476;  Molasses,  477-478;  Mixed  Sirups,  479;  Adulteration  of 
Sirups,  480;  Confectionery,  482;  Materials,  482;  Manufacture,  483;  Crystal- 
lized Fruits  and  Flowers,'  483;  Food  Value  of  Candy,  483;  Adulteration 
of  Confections,  483-486;  Honey,  Definition,  Historical,  486;  Preparation 
of  Honey,  487;    Beehives,  488;  Distribution  of  Honey  Industry,  489;   Comb 


TABLE    OF   CONTENTS.  IX 


Honey,  489;  Extracted  Honey,  490;  Properties  of  Honey,  491-492;  Adulter- 
ation of  Honey,  493-494. 

Miscellaneous 494-496 

Mince  Meat,  494;   Pie  Fillers,  496. 

Part  X. — Infants'  and  Invalids'  Foods 497-592 

Infants'  Foods,  497-549;  Good  Nutrition,  Feeding  Immature  Infants,  498; 
Frequency  of  Feeding,  499;  Percentage  Feeding,  500;  Calorific  Value,  501; 
Weaning,  542;  Early  and  Late  Feeding,  503-506;  Mothers'  Milk,  506-509; 
Comparative  Composition  of  Milk,  509-513;  Opinions  Respecting  Infants' 
Foods,  513-521;  Modified  Milk,  521-531;  Preservation  of  Milk,  531-537; 
Pasteurization  and  Sterilization,  537-546;  Milk  Supply  for  Large  Cities,  546- 
549;  Invalids'  Foods,  549-592;  Care  of  Foods,  549-551;  Classes  and  Tolera- 
tion, 557;,  Cause  of  Disease,  553;  Sour  Milk  and  Longevity,  554-557;  Pre- 
servation of  Fruit  Juices,  557-558;  Foods  as  Drugs,  558-559;  Meat  Prepa- 
rations, 560-564;  Analyses  of  Meat  Products,  565,  567;  Diet  in  Diabetes, 
567-576;  Diet  in  Nephritis,  577;  Diet  in  Obesity,  577-580;  Diet  in  Tuber- 
culosis, 580-589;  Analysis  of  Infants'  and  Invalids'  Foods,  590-592. 

Part  XI. — Simple  Methods  for  Detecting  Food  Adulterations 593.-611 

General  Classes  of  Adulteration,  593 ;  Some  Forms  of  Food  Adulteration,  593- 
594;  Chemical  and  Condimental  Preservatives,  and  Colors,  594-595;  Ma- 
terials and  Reagents,  596;  Tests  for  Boric  and  Benzoic  Acids,  Saccharin  and 
Salicylic  Acid,  597-598;  Detection  of  Artificial  Coloring,  598-600;  Detection 
of  Common  Adulterants,  600-602;  Examination  of  Foods  for  Adulterants, 
602-608;   Butter  and  Oleomargarine,  608-610;    Watered  Milk,  610-611. 


APPENDIX 
Food  Standards, 613-629 


Index, 631-641 


LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS. 


Colored  Plates.  Page. 

Beef  Tenderloin, Facing     15 

15 

15 

15 

IS 

15 

15 

349 

402 

414 

420 


Beef  Sirloin, 

Beef  Ribs — Regular  Cut, 

Beef  Ribs — Spencer  Cut, 

Sirloin  Butts, — 

Beef  Rib, 

Beef  Loin, 

Drying  Figs:  Smyrna,  Smyrna  Section,  Adriatic,  Adriatic  Section,. 

Olives:   Mission,  Sevillano, 

Jordan  Almond, 

Peanut  (Arichide), 


Fig. 

1.  Cuts  of  Beef, 16 

2.  Commercial  Cuts  of  Beef, 17 

3.  Diagram  of  Cuts  of  Veal, 18 

4.  Diagram  of  Cuts  of  Lamb  and  Mutton, 19 

5.  Diagram  of  Cuts  of  Pork, 19 

6.  Commercial  Cuts  of  Pork, 20 

7.  Graphic  Chart  Representing  the  Comparative  Influences  of  Foods  and  Preserva- 

tives,   39 

8.  Lard  Crystals, 67 

9.  Beef  Fat  Crystals, 67 

10.  Kettle  for  Rendering  Lard, 72 

11.  Apparatus  for  Test  of  Adulteration  of  Lard, 74 

12.  Chicken  House,  Rhode  Island  Experiment  Station, 96 

13.  Cow  Stables,  Mapletown  Farm,  Sumner,  Washington, 170 

14.  Apparatus  for  Cooling  Milk, 172 

15.  Improvised  Wisconsin  Curd  Test, 177 

16.  Milk;   Broken  Curd  in  Whey;   Matted  Curd, 177 

17.  Curd  from  a  Good  Milk, 178 

18.  Curd  from  a  Tainted  Milk, 178 

19.  Curd  from  Foul  Milk, 178 

20.  Power  Churn,  Ready  for  Use, 183 

21.  Power  Churn,  Open, 184 

22.  Barley  Starch, 218 

23.  Buckwheat  Starch, 222 

24.  Section  of  Raw  Popcorn, 224 

25.  Section  of  Popcorn  in  First  Stage  of  Popping,  Showing  Partially  Expanded  Starch 

Grains  and  Ruptured  Cell  Walls, 225 

26.  Section  of  Fully  Popped  Popcorn, 226 

27.  Indian  Corn  Starch, 229 

28.  Starch  Grains  of  Indian  Corn,  under  Polarized  Light, 230 

29.  Oat  Starch, 235 

30.  Rice  Starch, 237 

31.  Rye  Starch, 238 

32.  Wheat  Starch, 242 

2,Z-  Wheat  Starch  under  Polarized  Light, 243 

34.  Kedzie's  Farinometer  Showing  the  Parts, 246 

35.  Kedzie's  Farinometer  in  Use, ...  247 


Xll  LIST    OF   ILLUSTRATIONS. 

Fig.  Page. 

36.  Comparative  Appearance  of  Breads  of  Different  Kinds, 259 

37.  A  Field  of  Durum  Wheat, 261 

38.  Drought-resistant  Macaroni  Wheats  (Heads  and  Grains), 262 

39.  Potato  Starch, 291 

40.  Potato  Starch  under  Polarized  Light, 291 

41.  Rasping  Cylinder  for  Making  Starch, 297 

42.  Shaking  Table  for  Separating  the  Starch  from  the  Pulped  Potato, 297 

43.  The  Potato  Rasping  Cylinder  Arranged  for  Work, 298 

44.  View  of  Indian  Corn  Canning  Factory,  Showing  Accumulation  of  Husks  and  Cobs,  308 

45.  Maranta  (Arrowroot)  Starch, 318 

46.  A  Cassava  Field  in  Georgia, 319 

47.  Cassava  Starch, 321 

48.  Scuppernong  Grape  Vine,  Roanoke  Island, 338 

49.  Vineyard  Near  Fresno,  California, 339 

50.  Avocado  Tree, 346 

51.  Fig  Tree  Thirty  Feet  High  Near  Yuba,  California, 350 

52.  Jamaica  Mango  Tree, 356 

53.  An  Edge  of  a  California  Orange  Grove, 358 

4.  The  Original  Seedless  Orange  Tree, 359 

55.  A  Group  of  the  Washington  Navel  Orange  on  the  Tree, 360 

56.  Covered  Pineapple, 361 

57.  Removing  the  Oil  Cakes  from  a  Cottonseed  Press, 400 

58.  Pecan  Tree,  30  Years  Old,  Morgan  City,  La., 422 

59.  Five  Forms  of  Choice,  Thin-shelled  Pecans.     Also  Wild  Nut  Showing  Difference 

in  Size, 423 

60.  Full  Grown  Pecan  Tree, 425 

61.  Common  Mushroom,  Agaricus  campestris, 440 

62.  Edible  Mushrooms  (Agaricus  arvensis  Schaeff.), 441 

63.  Shaggy  Mushroom,  Coprinus  comatus, ^ 442 

64.  Fairy  Ring  Formed  by  Marasmius  oreades,  an  Edible  Mushroom, 444 

65.  Puff-ball,  Lycoperdon  cyathiforme,  Top  View, 445 

66.  Amanita  (Full  Grown), 446 

67.  Fly  Amanita  Buttons  {Amanita muscaria), 447 

68.  Correct  Position  of  a  Mature  Beet  in  the  Soil, 458 

69.  Map  Showing  Temperature  Zone  in  Which  the  Sugar  Beet  Attains  Its  Greatest 

Perfection, 459 

70.  A  Field  of  Beets  Ready  for  Harvesting, 460 

71.  Beets  Ready  for  Transportation  to  Factory, 461 

72.  Diffusion  Battery, •. 462 

73.  Multiple-effect  Evaporating  Apparatus, 463 

74.  Vacuum  Strike  Pan, 464 

75.  Sugar  Cane  Field  Ready  for  Harvest, 465 

76.  Cane  Field  Partly  Harvested, 466 

77.  Tapping  the  Maple  Trees, 468 

78.  Transporting  the  Sap  to  the  Sugar  House, 468 

79.  Boiling  the  Maple  Sap, 469 

80.  Small  Primitive  Mill  for  Extracting  Juice  from  Sugar  Cane  for  Sirup  Making, 473 

81.  Mill  and  Evaporating  Apparatus  for  Sirup  Making  in  Georgia, 474 

82.  Relative  Length  of  Canes  Used  for  Sirup  Making, 475 

83.  Swarm  of  Bees  on  Bough  of  Tree, '. 487 

84.  Artificial  Bee  Hives  under  Shade  of  Grape  Vine, 488 

85.  A  Frame  Containing  24  Boxes  of  Honey, 489 

86.  Showing  Box  of  Honey  Partially  Capped, 490 

87.  Straus  Home  Pasteurizer  Apparatus, 541 


OF  THE 

UNIVERSITY 

OF 
:^fFOR!l»fes 


INTRODUCTION. 


The  growing  importance  to  manufacturers,  dealers,  and  consumers  of  a 
knowledge  of  food  products  has  led  to  the  preparation  of  the  following  manual. 

Unfortunately,  many  misleading  statements  respecting  the  composition  of 
foods,  their  nutritive  value,  and  their  relation  to  health  and  digestion  have 
been  published  and  received  with  more  or  less  credence  by  the  public.  Claims 
of  superior  excellence,  which  are  entirely  baseless,  are  constantly  made  for 
certain  food  products  in  order  to  call  the  attention  of  the  public  more  directly 
to  their  value  and,  unfortunately,  at  times  to  mislead  the  public  with  respect 
to  their  true  worth. 

It  is  not  uncommon  to  see  foods  advertised  as  of  exceptional  quality,  either 
as  a  whole  or  for  certain  purposes.  Many  of  the  preparations  of  this  kind  are 
of  undoubted  excellence,  but  fail  to  reach  the  superior  standard  or  perform 
the  particular  function  which  is  attributed  to  them.  Particularly  has  it  been 
noticed  that  foods  are  offered  for  specific  purposes  or  the  nourishment  of 
certain  parts  of  the  body,  especially  of  the  brain  and  nervxs.  We  are  all 
familiar  with  the  advertisements  of  foods  to  feed  the  brain,  or  feed  the  nerves, 
or  feed  the  skin.  It  is  hardly  necessary  to  call  attention  to  the  absurdity  of 
claims  of  this  kind.  One  part  of  the  body  cannot  be  nourished  if  the  other 
parts  are  neglected,  and  the  true  principle  of  nutrition  requires  a  uniform  and 
equal  development  and  nourishment  of  all  the  tissues.  It  is  true  that  many 
of  the  tissues  have  predominant  constituents.  For  instance  in  the  bones  are 
found  large  quantities  of  phosphate  of  calcium  and  in  the  muscles  nitrogenous 
tissues  dominate.  In  the  brain  and  nerves  there  are  considerable  quantities 
of  organic  phosphorus.  All  of  these  bodies,  however,  are  contained  in  normal 
food  properly  balanced. 

It  would  be  contrary  to  the  principles  of  physiology  to  attempt  to  feed  the 
bones  by  consuming  a  large  excess  of  phosphorus  in  the  food  or  the  muscles 
by  confining  the  food  to  a  purely  nitrogenous  component.  Such  attempts, 
instead  of  nourishing  the  tissues  indicated,  will  so  unbalance  the  rations  as 
to  disarrange  the  whole  metabolic  process,  and  thus  injure  and  weaken  the, 
very  tissues  they  are  designed  to  support. 

It  seems,  therefore,  advisable  to  prepare  a  manual  which  may  be  used  in 
conjunction  with  works  on  dietetics  and  on  physiology  and  hv^iene  and  yet 
of  a  character  not  especially  designed  for  the  expert. 


2    ,  V  ;  ;/j  \/c{    ;  ''<",       ; //.   c   ,€NTRODUCTION. 

The  American  public  is  now  so  well  educated  that  any  average  citizen  is 
fully  capable  of  understanding  scientific  problems  if  presented  to  him  in  a 
non-technical  garb. 

It  is,  therefore,  not  difficult  to  see  that  the  great  army  of  manufacturers  and 
dealers  in  food  products,  as  well  as  the  still  greater  army  of  consumers,  are 
able  to  receive  and  to  utilize  information  concerning  food  products  which  is 
of  common  interest  to  all.  A  dissemination  of  knowledge  of  this  kind  will 
guide  the  manufacturer  in  his  legitimate  business  and  protect  the  public  agamst 
deceptions  such  as  those  mentioned  above. 

In  the  evolution  of  society,  economy  and  efficiency  indicate  that  specializa- 
tions should  be  made  as  completely  as  possible.  For  this  reason  it  is  advisable 
that  foods  of  a  certain  character  be  manufactured  and  prepared  for  consump- 
tion on  a  large  scale,  so  that  due  economy  and  purity  may  be  secured.  On 
the  other  hand  there  are  many  other  kinds  of  foods  which,  by  reason  of  their 
properties,  cannot  be  prepared  on  a  large  scale  but  must  be  produced  near  or 
at  the  place  of  consumption.  Milk  is  a  type  of  this  class  of  foods.  It  is  alto- 
gether probable,  therefore,  that  the  consumption  of  manufactured  foods  will 
not  decrease  but  increase  even  more  rapidly  than  the  number  of  our  population. 

In  order  that  the  people  may  be  able  to  judge  of  the  quality  and  character 
of  products  of  this  kind,  information  readily  available  appears  to  be  highly 
desirable. 

In  the  other  case  of  the  utilization  of  raw  materials,  it  is  equally  important 
that  the  people  of  this  country  understand  their  nature  and  their  functions 
in  the  digestive  process.  The  great  nutritive  value  of  our  food  is  found  in  the 
cereals,  the  meats,  the  fruits,  and  vegetables  which  we  consume.  A  descrip- 
tion of  foods  of  thife  class,  the  places  of  their  growth,  the  conditions  under 
which  they  are  matured  and  marketed,  the  problems  which  relate  to  their 
storage  and  transportation,  their  composition  in  respect  of  nutrition  and 
digestibility,  the  dangers  which  may  accrue  from  their  decay,  and  the  adultera- 
tions or  sophistications  to  which  they  may  be  subjected  are  matters  of  the 
greatest  public  importance. 

A  treatise  of  this  kind  in  order  to  be  of  its  full  value  for  which  it  is  intended 
must  be  concise,  expressed  in  simple  language,  in  a  form  easily  consulted,  and 
yet  be  of  a  character  which  will  be  reliable  and  which  will  give  full  informa- 
tion on  the  subject. 

It  is  a  common  habit  of  speech  to  divide  foods  into  two  great  classes, 
namely,  foods  and  beverages.  This  is  not  a  scientific  division,  but  is  one  which 
has  been  so  well  established  by  custom  as  to  render  it  advisable  to  divide  this 
work  into  two  portions,  one  devoted  to  food  in  the  sense  just  used  and  the 
other  to  beverages.  The  first  volume  of  this  work  devoted  to  foods  will  treat 
of  those  bodies  commonly  known  under  the  term  "  foods, " — namely,  cereals^ 
meats  of  all  kinds,  milk,  vegetables,  nuts,  and  fruits.     The  second  volume 


A   PROPER   RATION.  3 

will  embrace  the  study  of  beverages,  namely,  natural  and  artificial  mineral 
waters,^  soda  waters,  soft  drinks,  coffee,  tea,  cocoa,  wines,  cider,  beer  and 
other  fermented  beverages,  distilled  beverages  of  all  kinds,  and  mixtures 
or  compounds  thereof. 

In  connection  with  the  description  of  the  origin  of  foods  and  their  general 
characteristics  will  be  given  a  statement  of  their  chemical  composition,  especi- 
ally in  relation  to  nutritive  properties.  The  principal  adulterations  or  sophis- 
tications to  which  the  food  products  are  obnoxious  will  be  briefly  described, 
and  where  simple  methods  of  detecting  adulterations  are  know^n,  of  a  character 
to  be  applied  without  special  chemical  knowledge  or  skill,  they  will  be  given. 

An  attempt  is  thus  made  to  lay  before  those  interested,  in  as  compact  a 
form  as  possible,  the  chief  points  connected  with  the  production  of  food,  its 
manipulation,  and  its  use  for  the  nourishment  of  the  body. 

It  is  not  the  intention  of  this  manual  to  enter  at  all  into  the  subject  of  cooking 
or  the  physiology  of  foods  and  nutrition.  That  is  a  distinct  and  separate  part  of 
this  problem  and  has  already  been  treated  in  many  manuals.  In  this  connection, 
however,  attention  may  be  called  to  the  great  importance  of  proper  cooking 
in  the  use  of  food.  Raw  materials  of  the  best  character,  prepared  and  trans- 
ported in  the  most  approved  manner,  may  be  so  injured  in  the  kitchen  in  the 
process  of  cooking  as  to  be  rendered  both  unpalatable  and  difficult  of  digestion. 
On  the  contrary,  food  materials  of  an  inferior  quality,  provided  they  contain 
no  injurious  substances,  may  be  so  treated  by  the  skilled  cook  as  to  be  both 
palatable  and  nutritious.  The  desirability  of  the  dissemination  of  correct 
principles  of  cooking  is  no  less  than  that  of  giving  information  respecting  the 
materials  on  which  the  art  of  cookery  is  exercised.  It  may  be  added  that  the 
art  of  cookery  at  the  present  time  should  not  be  confined  to  the  mere  technical 
manipulation,  the  application  of  heat  and  of  condimental  substances,  but 
should  also  have  some  reference  to  the  actual  process  of  nutrition. 

Foods  should  be  prepared  in  the  kitchen,  not  only  of  a  palatable  character 
and  properly  spiced  but  also  selected  in  such  a  manner  as  to  safeguard  one 
of  the  chief  purposes  of  food,  namely,  the  proper  nutrition  of  the  body  and  the 
avoidance  of  any  injury  to  digestion. 

It  is  commonly  admitted  that  many,  perhaps  most,  of  the  diseases  of  the 
digestive  tract  to  which  the  American  people  are  so  subject  arise  from  the 
consumption  of  rations  improperly  balanced,  poorly  prepared,  or  used  in 
great  excess.  To  the  intelligent  and  scientific  cook  the  information  con- 
tained in  this  manual  will  especially  appeal. 


A  PROPER  RATION. 

The  study  of  the  science  of  nutrition  has  revealed  the  character  of  nourish- 
ment necessary  to  build  the  tissues  and  restore  their  waste.     The  term  "  food  " 


4  INTRODUCTION. 

in  its  broadest  signification  includes  all  those  substances  which  when  taken 
into  the  body  build  tissues,  restore  waste,  furnish  heat  and  energy,  and  pro- 
vide appropriate  condiments.  The  building  of  tissues  is  especially  an  import- 
ant function  during  the  early  life  of  animals  as  it  is  through  this  building  of 
tissues  that  growth  takes  place.  The  restoration  of  waste  of  tissues  assumes 
special  importance  during  that  period  of  life  when  the  weight  of  the  body 
is  supposed  to  be  reasonably  constant.  At  this  time  the  waste  of  tissue  in 
the  natural  processes  is  restored  by  the  assimilation  of  new  material  in  the  same 
proportion. 

If  the  assimilation  of  new  material  goes  on  at  a  greater  rate  than  the  waste 
of  old  material  it  manifests  itself  during  the  period  of  expected  equilibrium 
in  the  deposition  of  adipose  tissue  and  a  consequent  abnormal  increase  in 
weight. 

In  the  after  period  of  life  the  process  of  waste  is  naturally  more  vigorous 
than  that  of  assimilation,  and  the  tendency  is  manifested,  which  is  wholly 
in  harmony  with  the  laws  of  Nature,  to  gradually  diminish  the  weight  of  the 
body,  and  this  continues  to  the  extreme  emaciation  of  old  age. 

It  is  evident,  therefore,  that  the  food  consumed  should  be  adapted  to  these 
changing  periods.  The  growing  animal  needs  a  larger  quantity  of  food  in 
proportion  to  its  actual  weight  than  the  animal  which  is  in  a  state  of  equi- 
librium, that  is,  of  mature  age,  and  the  animal  which  is  entering  upon  the 
period  of  old  age  needs  a  less  quantity  of  food  in  proportion  to  its  weight 
than  in  either  of  the  other  periods  of  life.  Thus,  the  rations  of  infants  and 
children  should  be  generous,  the  rations  of  mature  man  sufficient,  and  the 
rations  of  old  age  limited. 

The  food  should  also  contain  the  various  elements  which  enter  into  nutri- 
tion in  the  proper  quantity.  The  nitrogenous  constituents  in  food,  when 
subjected  to  the  ordinary  process  of  digestion,  yield  a  certain  quantity  of 
heat  and  energy  but  their  more  important  function  is  to  nourish  the  nitrog- 
enous elements  of  the  body,  of  which  the  muscles,  hair,  skin,  and  finger- 
nails are  types.  The  mineral  constituents  of  food,  especially  phosphorus  and 
lime,  have  a  general  utility  in  promoting  the  metabolic  functions,  especially 
in  the  movement  of  the  fluids  of  the  body  through  the  cells  walls,  and  at  the 
same  time  are  actual  nourishing  materials,  entering  particularly  into  the  com- 
position of  the  bones  and  teeth. 

The  fats  and  oils  which  are  present  in  the  foods  have  the  capacity  of  pro- 
ducing large  quantities  of  heat  and  energy  during  their  combustion  in  the 
body,  and  thus  serve  as  a  source  of  animal  heat  and  muscular  activity. 

The  starches  and  sugars  which  are  the  most  abundant  elements  of  our 
food,  although  they  have  a  heat-forming  power  of  less  than  one-half  that  of 
fats,  are  largely  utilized  in  the  production  of  heat  and  energy  and  in  the  for- 
mation of  animal  fat. 


SOCIAL   FUNCTIONS   OF   FOOD.  5 

To  secure  a  proper  and  complete  nutrition  of  the  body  it  is  desirable  that 
all  these  elements  should  be  so  adjusted  as  to  provide  for  complete  nourish- 
ment without  having  any  one  of  them  in  great  excess.  It  is  evident  that  an 
excess  of  any  one  or  more  of  these  nutrient  materials  must  necessarily  impose 
on  the  organs  of  the  body  an  additional  work  in  securing  their  proper  elimi- 
nation. This  tends  to  overburden  the  excretory  organs  and  to  cause  a  pre- 
mature breakdown  thereof.  This  giving  away  of  the  organs  may  not  come 
for  many  years,  not,  perhaps,  until  advanced  life,  but  when  it  comes  it  neces- 
sarily shortens  the  period  of  human  existence. 

The  term  "balanced  ration"  means  the  adjustment  of  nutrients  in  the 
food  in  such  a  way  as  to  secure  complete  and  perfect  nutrition  without  load- 
ing the  body  with  an  excess  of  any  one  element.  This  is  also  an  important 
point  on  the  score  of  economy.  A  large  percentage  of  all  the  earnings  of  man 
is  expended  for  food  products,  and  hence  these  products  should  be  used  in 
a  manner  to  secure  the  best  results  possible.  If,  by  a  practice  of  scientific 
nutrition,  lo  percent  of  the  value  of  foods  could  be  saved  it  would  create  a 
fund  which,  could  it  be  utilized,  would  minister  in  the  highest  degree  to  the 
comfort  and  welfare  of  the  human  family  and  form  an  abundant  pension  for 
old  age. 

SOCIAL  FUNCTIONS  OF  FOOD. 

In  the  above  paragraphs  attention  has  been  directed  particularly  to  the 
nutritive  and  economic  properties  of  food.  It  must  not  be  considered  that 
mere  nutrition  is  the  sole  object  of  foods,  especially  for  man.  It  is  the  first 
object  to  be  conserved  in  the  feeding  of  domesticated  animals,  but  is  only  one 
of  the  objects  to  be  kept  in  view  in  the  feeding  of  man.  Man  is  a  social 
animal  and,  from  the  earliest  period  of  his  history,  food  has  exercised  a  most 
important  function  in  his  social  life.  Hence  in  the  study  of  food  and  of  its 
uses  a  failure  to  consider  this  factor  would  be  regrettable.  For  this  reason 
it  is  justifiable  in  the  feeding  of  man  to  expend  upon  the  mere  social  features 
of  the  meal  a  sum  which  often  is  equal  to  or  greater  than  that  expended  for 
the  mere  purpose  of  nutrition.  This  part  of  the  subject,  how^ever,  belongs 
especially  to  the  kitchen  and  dining  room,  and,  therefore,  will  not  be  dis- 
cussed at  greater  length  at  the  present  time. 

It  is  believed  that  a  more  careful  study  of  the  food  he  consumes  will  benefit 
man  in  many  ways.  It  will  lead  to  a  wider  public  interest  in  the  problem 
of  the  purity  of  food  and  the  magnitude  of  the  crime  committed  against  man- 
kind in  the  debasement,  adulteration,  and  sophistication  of  food  articles. 

This  study  will  impart  to  the  social  function  of  food  an  additional  charm, 
in  that  the  origin  and  character  of  the  material  consumed  will  be  known 
and  the  properties  which  they  possess  for  nourishing  the  body  understood. 
This  will  enable  man,  as  a  social  animal,  to  so  conduct  himself  at  table  as 


O  INTRODUCTION. 

to  secure  the  greatest  possible  pleasure  and  social  benefit  therefrom  and  at 
the  same  time  avoid  any  injury  which  ignorance  might  permit  and  invite. 

It  may  appear  that  the  inartistic  treatment  of  a  subject  of  this  kind,  as 
indicated  in  the  following  pages,  is  not  one  which  is  calculated  to  excite  any 
sympathetic  interest  or  appeal  to  the  natural  desire  for  literary  and  artistic 
expression.  Yet  the  importance  of  the  subject  is  so  great  as  to  warrant  the 
experiment  of  presenting  the  matter  in  this  form  rather  than  in  any  more 
elaborate  and  connected  way. 


DEFINITION  AND  COMPOSITION  OF  FOODS. 

Food,  in  its  general  sense,  is  that  which  nourishes  the  body  without  regard  to 
Its  physical  state,  that  is,  it  may  be  solid,  liquid,  or  gaseous.  More  particularly 
defined,  food  is  that  material  taken  into  the  body  in  the  ordinary  process  of 
eating  which  contains  the  elements  necessary  for  the  growth  of  tissues,  for 
the  repair  of  the  destruction  to  which  the  tissues  are  subjected  during  the 
ordinary  vital  processes  and  for  furnishing  heat  and  energy  necessary  to 
life.  Incident  to  the  utilization  of  these  elements  there  is  consumed,  also, 
a  considerable  quantity  of  matter  inextricably  mingled  with  food  in  a  natural 
way,  which  takes  no  direct  part  in  nutrition  and  yet  which  is  useful,  as  a 
mass,  in  promoting  the  digestive  processes.  These  bodies  are  certain  indi- 
gestible cellular  tissues  which  are  present  in  foods,  mineral  matter,  and  other 
materials  which  are  naturally  found  in  food  products.  Included  in  this* 
broad  definition,  therefore,  are  many  substances  which  are  usually  not  thought 
of  in  the  sense  of  food;  among  these  are  water  and  air.  Air,  however,  would 
probably  be  excluded  because  it  is  not  introduced  into  the  stomach,  that  is, 
not  in  quantities  which  have  any  significance  in  the  vital  processes.  Water, 
en  the  contrary,  is  one  of  the  most  indispensable  constituents  of  food  and  is 
also  used  in  considerable  quantities  as  a  beverage.  The  water,  itself,  is 
indispensable  to  nutrition  and  is  also  one  of  those  bodies  mentioned  above 
which  are  necessary  to  secure  the  proper  conduct  of  the  digestive  processes. 

By  means  of  the  oxygen  in  the  air  the  combustion  of  food  in  the  various 
parts  of  the  body  is  secured,  and  thus  animal  heat  and  energy  developed.  In 
this  respect  the  combustion  of  a  food  product  is  similar  in  every  way  to  the 
burning  of  coal  in  the  production  of  heat  and  motion.  The  same  calorific 
laws  which  govern  the  steam-engine  are  appHcable,  in  all  their  rigidity,  to 
the  animal  engine.  The  quantity  of  heat  produced  by  the  combustion  of  a 
certain  amount  of  fat  or  sugar  is  definitely  measured  in  a  calorimeter  and  is 
found  to  correspond  exactly  to  the  quantity  of  heat  produced  by  the  ordinary 
combustion  of  such  bodies.  The  term  "food,"  therefore,  in  this  respect, 
would  include  the  oxygen  of  the  air  without  which  the  development  of  animal 
heat  and  energy  would  be  impossible.     It  also  includes  those  bodies  of  a 


CLASSIFICATION   OF   FOODS.  7 

liquid  character  which  are  classed  as  beverages  rather  than  as  foods.  All 
of  these  bodies  have  nutritive  properties,  although  their  chief  value  is  condi- 
mental  and  social. 

That  large  class  of  food  products  which  are  known  as  condiments  are 
properly  termed  food,  since  they  not  only  possess  nutritive  properties  but 
through  their  condimental  character  promote  digestion  and  by  making  the 
food  more  palatable  secure  to  a  higher  degree  the  excellence  of  its  social 
function. 

It  is  now  possible  to  condense  into  a  distinct  expression  the  definition  of 
food  in  the  following  language:  Food  in  a  general  sense  embraces  those 
substances  taken  into  the  body  which  build  tissues,  restore  waste,  and  fur- 
nish heat  and  energy. 

CLASSIFICATION  OF  FOODS. 

Foods  may  be  considered  under  different  classifications.  First,  as  to  gen- 
eral appearance  and  use  three  classes  may  be  made, — foods,  beverages  and 
condiments.  As  types  of  the  first  division  of  these  foods  may  be  mentioned 
cereals  and  their  preparations,  meat  and  its  preparations  (except  meat  ex- 
tracts), fish,  fowl,  and  game.  Beverages  are  those  liquid  food  products  which 
are  more  valued  for  taste  and  flavor  than  for  actual  nutritive  value.  As  types 
of  beverages  may  be  mentioned  wines,  beers,  distilled  spirits  and  liquors  of 
all  characters,  tea,  coffee,  cocoa,  chocolate,  etc.  Under  wines,  in  this  sense, 
may  be  included  the  fermented  beverages  made  of  fruit  juices,  such  as  cider, 
perry,  etc.  Types  of  condiments  are  salt,  pepper,  spices,  vinegar,  etc.  Milk, 
although  a  liquid  substance,  is  hardly  to  be  considered  a  beverage,  and  on 
account  of  its  high  nutritive  properties  may  be  classed,  together  with  its 
preparations,  under  the  first  head. 

Foods  may  also  be  classified  as  nitrogenous,  starchy,  oily,  and  condimental. 
Nitrogenous  foods  are  those  in  which  the  proportion  of  their  material  con- 
taining nitrogen  is  large.  Lean  meat  may  be  regarded  as  a  type  of  nitrogenous 
food,  since  it  consists  almost  exclusively  of  tissues  known  as  protein  and  con- 
tains nitrogen  and  sulfur  as  essential  ingredients.  The  white  of  an  egg  is 
also  a  typical  nitrogenous  food  and,  to  a  less  extent,  the  yolk.  Among  vege- 
tables, peas  and  beans  are  typical  foods  containing  large  percentages  of 
nitrogenous  matter.  The  gluten  of  wheat  is  also  a  typical  nitrogenous  food 
and  the  zein  of  Indian  corn,  corresponding  to  gluten,  is  a  nitrogenous  material. 

Practically  all  the  vegetables  used  as  foods  contain  mere  or  less  protein 
in  their  constituents.  Among  the  cereals  oats  has  the  largest  quantity  and 
rice  the  smallest  of  this  valuable  food  material.  Of  oily  foods  the  fat  of 
animals,  including  butter,  is  a  typical,  representative.  All  meats,  fish,  fowl, 
and  game  contain  more  or  less  fat.     Of  vegetables  and  fruits  there  are  many 


8  INTRODUCTION. 

which  contain  large  quantities  of  fat,  such  as  nuts,  oily  seeds,  etc.  All  vege- 
tables contain  more  or  less  fat,  although  the  succulent  vegetables  usually 
contain  but  little  thereof.  Of  starchy  foods  there  are  no  types  in  animal 
food,  the  quantity  of  carbohydrate  material  therein  being  extremely  limited. 
The  lobster  and  horse-flesh  contain  perhaps  a  little  more  than  i  percent 
of  carbohydrate  food,  but  most  meats  contain  much  less  than  that.  Sugar 
and  starch  are  typical  carbohydrate  foods. 

The  cereal  grains  are  composed  largely  of  starchy  foods,  and  so  are  certain 
tubers,  such  as  the  potato,  cassava,  etc.  Of  the  common  cereals  rice  contains 
more  starch  than  any  other  and  oats  the  least.  Sugars  are  intimately  related 
to  starch  and  are  included  under  the  term  starchy  food  or  carbohydrate 
food.  The  carbohydrate  matter  in  the  flesh  mentioned  above,  namely  gly- 
cogen, is  of  the  nature  of  a  sugar.  Among  the  typical  sugar  foods  are  beets, 
melons,  and  fruits,  some  of  which  contain  large  percentages  of  sugar.  All  fruits 
contain  greater  or  less  quantities  of  sugar,  and  that  is  true,  also,  of  all  vege- 
tables. 

Of  the  plants  which  produce  the  sugar  of  commerce  there  may  be  mentioned 
the  sugar-cane,  the  sugar-beet,  the  maple,  and  palm  trees.  The  principal 
sources  of  the  sugar  of  commerce  are  the  sugar-cane  and  the  sugar-beet. 

Of  the  condimental  foods  may  be  mentioned  spices,  including  pepper, 
mustard,  cinnamon,  allspice,  and  other  foods  of  this  class.  Common  salt 
occupies  a  unique  position  in  food  products.  It  is  the  only  mineral  substance 
which  has  any  value  as  a  condiment  in  human  food.  But  it  also  has  a  more 
important  function  than  its  condimental  character,  namely,  it  furnishes  the 
supply  of  hydrochloric  acid  without  which  digestion  in  the  stomach  could  not 
take  place.  For  this  reason  common  salt  must  be  regarded  as  an  essential 
food  product  as  well  as  a  condiment. 

EXPLANATION  OF  CHEMICAL  TERMS. 

Inasmuch  as  this  manual  is  not  solely  intended  for  expert  chemists  and 
physiologists  but  also  for  the  general  public,  a  simple  explanation  of  the  use 
of  the  terms  used  in  analytical  data  and  tables  is  advisable. 

Under  the  term  moisture  is  included  all  the  water  which  is  present  in  a  free 
state,  that  is,  not  combined  in  any  way  with  the  ingredients  of  the  material, 
and  other  substances  volatile  at  the  temperature  of  drying.  The  water  is  de- 
termined by  drying  to  a  constant  weight  at  the  temperature  of  boiling  water  or 
slightly  above.  In  bodies  which  are  easily  oxidized  this  drying  takes  place  in 
a  vacuum  or  in  an  inert  gas  like  hydrogen  or  carbon  dioxid. 

Protein. — Under  this  term  are  included  all  the  nitrogenous  compounds 
in  a  food  product  which  contain  in  .their  composition  sulfur,  nitrogen,  car- 


EXPLANATION   OF   CHEMICAL   TERMS.  9 

bon,  hydrogen,  and  oxygen,  forming  that  class  of  tissues  represented  by  the 
gluten  in  wheat,  the  white  of  an  egg,  muscular  and  tendinous  fibers,  etc. 

Ether  Extract. — Under  this  term  is  included  the  fats  and  oils,  the  term  fat 
being  applied  to  animal  fat  and  the  term  oil  to  vegetable  products.  These 
bodies  are  all  soluble  in  ether  and  therefore  are  grouped  together  under  the 
term  "ether  extract."  There  are  some  fats  both  in  animal  and  vegetable 
substances  insoluble  in  ether,  but  they  exist  in  minute  quantities  and  there- 
fore are  not  separated  from  the  extracts,  but  the  whole  matter  is  given 
together  and  represents  practically  the  fats  and  oils  in  food. 

There  are  also  minute  quantities  of  bodies  not  fats  in  foods  soluble  in 
ether,  and  these  are  included  in  the  ether  extract. 

Ash. — The  term  ash  is  applied  to  the  residue  left  after  the  burning  of  food 
products  in  the  air  at  a  low  temperature  until  the  carbon  has  disappeared.  Ash 
is  rather  an  indefinite  term  and  is  applied  to  that  residual  material  of  a  mineral 
nature  composed  of  sand  or  silica  and  the  carbonates  or  oxids  of  alkahne 
earth  or  alkalies.  The  ash  also  contains  the  principal  part  of  phosphorus 
present  in  food  products  and  usually  a  small  proportion  of  sulfur.  These 
bodies  in  the  ash  exist  as  phosphoric  and  sulfuric  acids  or  their  salts. 

Fiber. — The  term  fiber  is  applied  to  those  carbohydrate  products  in  food 
which  are  insoluble  in  solutions  of  dilute  acid  and  dilute  alkalies  at  the  boiling 
temperature.  Inasmuch  as  these  separated  bodies  are  not  wholly  pure  cellu- 
lose they  are  often  designated  as  crude  fiber. 

Starch  and  Sugar. — The  terms  starch  and  sugar  are  applied  to  the  car- 
bohydrates in  a  food  product  of  a  starchy  or  saccharine  nature,  together  with 
the  other  carbohydrates  present  which  are  soluble  in  dilute  acids  and 
alkalies. 

Calories. — The  term  calorie  is  used  to  denote  the  amount  of  heat-forming 
material  contained  in  one  unit  weight  of  a  food  product.  The  number  given 
represents  the  number  of  degrees  of  temperature  produced  in  a  unit  mass 
of  water  by  the  heat  formed  in  burning  the  unit  weight  of  food.  The  unit 
weights  employed  are  usually  as  follows:  Of  the  food  product,  one  gram  (15 
grains);  unit  weight  of  water  to  be  heated,  one  kilogram  (2.2  pounds);  unit 
increment  of  temperature,  1°  C.  (1.8°  F.).  The  expression  4000  calories  there- 
fore means  that  if  one  gram  of  food  substance  in  a  dry  state  be  burned  the 
heat  produced  will  raise  one  gram  of  water  through  a  temperature  of  4000°  C, 
or  the  unit  of  water  (one  kilogram)  through  a  temperature  of  4°  C.  For 
convenience  the  calories  are  usually  expressed  as  small  calories,  namely 
4000,  instead  of  large  calories,  namely  4.  In  this  manual  the  expression  in 
terms  of  small  calories,  that  is,  the  temperature  increase  of  one  kilogram  of 
water  produced  by  burning  one  gram  of  substance,  multiplied  by  1000,  wall 
be  uniformly  employed. 


FOODS 


AND  THEIR 


ADULTERATION. 


PART  I. 

MEATS 


One  great  division  of  human  food  is  meat.  Technically,  perhaps,  the 
edible  flesh  of  every  animal  used  for  human  food  might  be  described  as  meat. 
In  this  manual,  however,  preference  is  given  to  the  common  meaning  of  the 
term. 

The  flesh  of  animals  is  by  common  consent  divided  into  three  principal 
classes,  namely,  the  flesh  of  terrestrial  mammals,  or  animals  not  provided  with 
wings;  second,  aerial  animals,  or  animals  provided  with  wings,  and,  third, 
aquatic  animals.  A  very  common  classification  of  these  three  kinds  of  food 
is  flesh,  fowl,  and  fish.  There  are  animals,  the  flesh  of  which  is  eaten  by 
many,  which  are  not  exactly  included  in  this  classification;  for  instance, 
animals  of  an  amphibious  nature,  living  partly  on  land  and  partly  on  sea. 
Also  many  of  the  animals  classed  as  aerial  live  chiefly  upon  the  earth;  al- 
though having  wings  they  do  not  use  them,  such  as  domesticated  fowls.  This 
classification,  however,  is  sufficiently  exact  for  the  practical  purposes  of  a 
food  manual  and,  therefore,  under  the  head  of  meat  is  included  the  edible 
flesh  of  mammals  living  on  the  land. 

Animals  Whose  Flesh  is  Edible. — Probably  the  only  complete  classifica- 
tion of  this  kind  would  be  to  include  every  animal  living  on  the  face  of  the 
earth  since,  perhaps,  the  flesh  of  every  animal  living  has  been  more  or  less 
eaten  by  man.  In  a  civilized  community,  however,  except  in  times  of  disaster 
and  dire  necessity,  certain  classes  of  animals  only  furnish  the  principal  meat 
food.  Nearly  all  the  meat  food  consumed  in  the  United  States  is  derived  from 
cattle,  sheep,  and  swine.  Goat  flesh  is  eaten  only  to  a  limited  extent  and 
horse  meat  scarcely  at  all,  and  the  only  other  meats  of  importance  are  those  of 


12  MEATS. 

wild  animals.  The  principal  wild  animals  used  for  food  are  the  deer,  bear, 
rabbit,  and  squirrel.  Many  other  wild  animals,  however,  are  eaten  and  in 
some  cases  highly  prized.  In  this  manual  only  the  principal  meat  foods 
both  of  domesticated  and  wild  animals  will  be  mentioned. 

Classification  of  Meat  Food  as  Respects  Age. — The  edible  flesh  of 
domesticated  animals  as  well  as  of  wild  animals  is  eaten  both  in  the  young 
and  full-grown  state.  Common  names,  however,  designate  these  different 
classes.  For  instance,  veal  in  the  growing  and  beef  for  the  full-grown  animal, 
lamb  for  the  young  and  mutton  for  the  full-grown  sheep,  pig  in  the  younger 
and  pork  in  the  full-grown  swine,  etc.  There  is  no  legal  limit  of  age  for  such 
a  distinction,  but  as  long  as  the  animal  is  not  fully  grown  it  may  be  classified 
under  the  name  representing  the  young  animal.  There  is  a  common  under- 
standing, however,  that  in  the  case  of  veal  and  lamb  the  animal  must  be  under 
one  year  of  age  and  usually  not  under  two  nor  more  than  eight  months  of 
age.  A  classification  of  this  kind  is  so  indefinite,  however,  that  no  strict 
definition  can  be  given  other  than  that  founded  on  the  general  principles 
above  outlined. 

Preparation  of  Animals. — The  proper  sanitary  conditions  attending 
the  fattening  of  animals  intended  for  slaughter  are  of  great  importance  to  the 
consumer.  It  is  a  common  understanding  that  animals  intended  for  slaughter 
should  be  plump  and  healthy.  Poor  animals,  either  those  which  are  meager 
from  lack  of  food  or  from  disease,  are  to  be  rigidly  excluded  from  the  slaughter 
pen.  Animals  intended  for  slaughter  should  be  fattened  under  sanitary 
conditions  with  plenty  of  fresh  water  and  fresh  air  as  well  as  good  food.  The 
stalls  in  which  they  are  fattened  should  be  clean  and  well  ventilated,  and  the 
sanitary  conditions  surrounding  them  should  be  such  as  to  exclude  contagious 
and  epidemic  diseases  and  provide  the  most  favorable  environment  for  growth 
and  preparation  for  the  market. 

It  is  evident  that  all  these  conditions  are  to  be  secured  by  proper  inspection 
of  the  animals  while  preparing  for  the  market.  The  time  will,  doubtless, 
soon  arrive  in  this  country  when  the  supervision  of  the  preparation  of  animals 
for  the  market,  the  sanitary  conditions  under  which  they  live,  and  the  general 
environment  which  surrounds  them  shall  be  subjects  of  local,  municipal,  and 
state  inspection.  Since  the  power  of  the  general  government  cannot  extend 
to  states  and  municipalities,  these  corporate  bodies  should  take  uniform  and 
scientific  action  concerning  all  these  matters.  National  and  state  conventions 
of  municipal  and  state  sanitary  authorities  should  decide  upon  uniform  sys- 
tems of  inspection  and  sanitation  to  which  all  state  and  municipal  authorities 
must  agree,  so  that  a  uniform  and  effective  method  of  inspection  and  sanitation 
will  be  secured  throughout  the  country. 

When  animals  are  transported  before  slaughter  from  one  state  to  another 
the  national  government  is  then  entitled  to  inspect  and  certify  respecting  the 


TUBERCULOSIS.  I3 

condition  of  the  animal  thus  to  be  transported  from  state  to  state.  By  thus 
combining  municipal,  state,  and  national  inspection  the  rights  of  the  consu- 
mer may  be  conserved,  and  this  is  the  only  means  by  which  they  can  be  kept 
inviolate. 

It  is  assumed,  therefore,  that  the  animal  which  has  been  brought  for 
slaughter  has  been  fattened  under  proper  sanitary  conditions,  has  not  been 
exposed  to  epidemic  or  contagious  diseases,  and  outwardly  is  not  afflicted 
with  any  disease  of  its  own.  Such  a  healthy  animal  may  then  be  certified  as 
fattened  for  slaughter. 

Inspection  after  Slaughter. — The  inspection  after  slaughter  is  of  the 
utmost  importance,  not  even  second  to  that  of  the  proper  inspection  during 
fattening  and  before  slaughter.  The  veterinarian,  skilled  in  his  science,  can 
tell  by  the  inspection  of  the  vital  organs  of  the  slaughtered  animal  whether 
it  is  affected  with  any  organic  disease.  Among  cattle  the  most  frequent 
organic  diseases  are  lumpy  jaw  and  tuberculosis.  In  the  case  of  swine  one 
of  the  most  common  of  diseases  is  trichinosis.  In  the  latter  case  an  inspection 
of  the  vital  organs  of  the  animal  is  not  sufficient.  The  muscles  of  the  swine, 
first  and  most  commonly  affected  by  trichinosis,  must  be  examined  micro- 
scopically in  order  to  eliminate  the  possibility  of  the  flesh  of  such  animals 
going  into  commerce  untagged  or  unnoticed. 

If  the  flesh  of  the  swine  impregnated  with  trichinosis  be  thoroughly  cooked 
practically  all  of  the  danger  to  man  is  eliminated.  The  consumer,  however, 
should  not  be  subjected  to  the  chance  of  imperfect  cooking.  A  swine  aff'ected 
with  trichinosis  should  either  be  refused  admission  into  consumption  or  should 
be  so  tagged  that  the  consumer  should  know  the  danger  to  which  he  is  exposed 
in  order  to  take  the  necessary  precaution  to  safeguard  his  health. 

Tuberculosis. — There  is  a  difference  of  opinion  among  veterinary  and 
hygienic  experts  respecting  the  disposition  which  is  to  be  made  of  carcasses 
affected  with  tuberculosis.  It  is  claimed  by  some  that  if  the  tuberculosis  is 
local,  that  is,  does  not  extend  beyond  the  lungs,  there  is  no  reason  why  the 
flesh  of  the  animal  should  be  refused  to  the  consumer.  The  basis  of  this 
contention  is  founded  upon  the  opinion  of  some  of  the  most  eminent  veterina- 
rians that  bovine  tuberculosis  and  human  tuberculosis  are  entirely  distinct 
diseases  and  cannot  be  transmitted  either  from  the  cow  to  man  or  vice  versa. 
It  is  not  the  province  of  this  manual  to  decide  this  controversy,  although  it 
is  only  right  that  the  consumer  should  be  given  the  benefit  of  the  doubt. 
Therefore,  if  the  carcass  of  an  animal  affected  with  local  tuberculosis  is  to  be 
passed  into  consumption  it  should  be  plainly  marked  as  the  flesh  of  a  tuber- 
culosed  animal, — not  only  the  carcass  as  a  whole,  but  every  piece  thereof  that 
is  introduced  into  consumption  directly  or  after  canning  or  mincing.  The 
consumer  is  thus  left  free  to  choose  for  himself  whether  to  eat  such  meat  or 
not.     There  is  a  universal  agreement  among  hygienists  and  veterinarians 


14  MEATS. 

that  where  tuberculosis  is  generalized,  that  is,  has  affected  practically  all  the 
organs  of  the  body,  the  carcasses  should  be  condemned.  No  one  will  take 
exceptions  to  this  ruling,  though  it  does  not  appear  very  plain  to  the  ordinary- 
consumer  why  a  little  tuberculosis  is  not  a  bad  thing  if  a  great  deal  of  it  is  a 
very  bad  thing.  There  is  an  unfortunate  tendency  in  many  quarters  tc 
neglect  minute  effects  and  only  pay  attention  to  mass  action.  This  does  no' 
seem  to  be  a  reasonable  or  desirable  method  of  procedure. 

The  Right  of  the  Consumer. — In  all  these  cases  of  post  mortenf 
inspection  it  is  the  right  of  the  consumer  to  be  informed  respecting  the  conditio! 
of  the  animal  admitted  to  slaughter.  Only  the  undoubtedly  sound  and 
healthy  carcass  should  be  given  a  free  certificate.  The  badly  diseased  carcass 
should  be  condemned  and  refused  admission  to  consumption.  If  the  partially 
diseased  carcass  is  to  be  consumed,  it  should  be  done  under  such  a  system  of 
tagging  as  will  absolutely  protect  any  consumer  against  the  use  of  the  partially 
diseased  carcass  without  his  knowledge. 

Summary. — The  general  conclusion  reached  is  that  the  consumer  has  the 
right  to  protection  in  the  character  of  food  which  comes  upon  his  table. 
This  protection  begins  at  the  time  the  animals  are  being  fed  for  slaughter. 
It  continues  during  the  time  the  animals  are  slaughtered  and  afterwards  in 
the  preparation  of  their  carcasses  for  consumption.  It  does  not  end  until 
the  meat  is  delivered  to  the  consumer  properly  certified  as  being  sound  and 
wholesome  and  warranted  to  be  free  from  deleterious  coloring  matter  and 
preservatives.  The  consumers  of  this  country  can  have  this  protection  if 
they  demand  it.  They  outnumber  the  makers  of  meat  products  to  such 
an  overwhelming  extent  as  to  be  able  to  secure  proper  legislation,  because 
the  manufacturers  themselves,  as  consumers,  are  equally  interested  with 
others  in  this  most  important  point,  and  should  themselves  receive  for  their 
families  the  same  protection  that  the  consumer  who  has  nothing  to  do 
with  the  preparation  of  meat  products  is  entitled  to. 

Since  the  above  paragraph  was  written  the  Congress  has  provided  for  a 
complete  inspection  of  meats  as  outlined  therein. 

Slaughter  and  Preparation  of  Carcasses. — It  is  not  the  purpose  of  this 
manual  to  enter  into  any  discussion  of  the  technique  of  slaughter  and  prepa- 
ration of  animals  whose  meat  is  intended  to  be  eaten.  It  is  believed  that  in 
this  country  the  mechanism  of  this  process  is  very  near  perfection,  and  espe- 
cially so  in  the  larger  establishments  where  the  highest  skill  is  employed.  In 
small  slaughtering  establishments  and  in  farm  slaughter  there  are  found  many 
points  of  technique  which  should  be  greatly  improved.  The  principal  thing 
to  be  considered  is,  first,  a  sudden  and  in  so  far  as  possible  a  painless  death 
of  the  animal;  second,  the  immediate  withdrawal  of  the  blood  of  the  slaughtered 
animal  if  slaughtered  otherwise  than  by  opening  the  principal  artery;  third,  the 
removal  of  the  intestines  and  hair  or  hide  of  the  animal;  fourth,  immediate 


NAMES    APPLIED    TO    DIFFERENT    PIECES    OF    EDIBLE    ANIMALS.  1 5 

cooling  at  a  moderately  low  temperature  until  the  animal  heat  is  entirely 
radiated;  fifth,  the  cutting  of  the  carcass  into  the  usual  form  for  consumption 
and  the  removal  and  utilization  of  the  debris  for  food  or  other  purposes;  sixth, 
the  delivery  of  the  meat,  if  to  be  eaten  in  a  fresh  state,  in  a  condition  secured 
from  contamination  and  decay  until  it  is  in  the  hands  of  the  consumer; 
seventh,  the  curing  of  the  meat  in  a  proper  manner  by  salt,  sugar,  vinegar, 
and  wood  smoke,  and  the  delivery  thereof  in  an  uncontaminated  form  to  the 
consumer. 

It  is  not  established  that  any  further  manipulation  than  that  above  out- 
lined  is  desirable  or  necessar\'.  The  use  of  any  kind  of  dye  or  coloring  matter 
directly  or  indirectly,  of  any  so-called  preservative  substance  other  than 
those  of  a  condimental  nature  already  mentioned,  or  any  further  manipulation 
save  that  to  secure  low  temperature  and  freedom  from  infection  is  not  useful^ 
necessary',  nor  desirable.  The  sooner  the  manufacturer  of  these  products 
understands  the  rights  of  the  consumer  in  this  respect  and  recognizes  the 
fundamental  verity  of  the  above  postulates  the  better  it  will  be  for  all  parties. 
When  these  conditions  are  met  all  of  the  many  and  just  objections  which  have 
been  made  to  the  meats  of  this  country  will  pass  away  and  they  will  assume 
in  the  markets  of  the  world  that  position  to  which  their  natural  merits,  when 
not  interfered  with  by  maltreating  during  curing,  entitle  them. 

Names  Applied  to  the  Different  Pieces  of  Edible  Animals. — In  the 
preparation  of  animals  for  the  market  experience  has  shown  that  they  are  best 
cut  in  certain  pieces  of  a  shape  determined  by  the  race  of  the  animal  itself 
and  to  these  pieces  or  cuts  certain  definite  names  have  been  applied.  The 
method  of  making  these  cuts  is  not  the  same  in  all  parts  of  this  country  or  in 
various  parts  of  different  countries.  The  most  common  cuts  used  in  the 
United  States  are  illustrated  in  the  accompanying  figures,  under  the  names 
which  are  attached  thereto. 

The  analyses  here  reported  apply  to  cuts  as  indicated  by  the  following  dia- 
grams. These  show  the  positions  of  the  different  cuts,  both  in  the  live  animal 
and  in  the  dressed  carcass  as  found  in  the  markets.  The  lines  of  division 
between  the  different  cuts  will  vary  slightly,  according  to  the  usage  of  the 
local  market,  even  where  the  general  method  of  cutting  is  as  here  indicated. 
The  names,  of  the  same  cuts  likewise  vary  in  different  parts  of  the  country. 

The  Cuts  of  Beef. — The  general  method  of  cutting  up  a  side  of  beef  is 
illustrated  in  Fig.  i,  which  shows  the  relative  position  of  the  cuts  in  the  animal 
and  in  a  dressed  side.  The  neck  piece  is  frequently  cut  so  as  to  include  more 
of  the  chuck  than  is  represented  by  the  diagram.  The  shoulder  clod  is 
usually  cut  without  bone,  while  the  shoulder  (not  indicated  in  diagram)  would 
include  more  or  less  of  the  shoulder  blade  and  of  the  upper  end  of  the  fore 
shank.  Shoulder  steak  is  cut  from  the  chuck.  In  many  localities  the  plate 
is  made  to  include  all  the  parts  of  the  fore  quarter  designated  on  the  diagrams 


i6 


MEATS. 


as  brisket,  cross  ribs,  plate,  and  navel,  and  different  portions  of  the  plate,  as 
thus  cut,  are  spoken  of  as  the  "  brisket  end  of  plate"  and  "  navel  end  of  plate." 
This  part  of  the  animal  is  largely  used  for  corning.  The  ribs  are  frequently 
divided  into  first,  second,  and  third  cuts,  the  latter  lying  nearest  the  chuck 
and  being  slightly  less  desirable  than  the  former.  The  chuck  is  sometimes 
subdivided  in  a  similar  manner,  the  third  cut  of  the  chuck  being  nearest  the 
neck.  The  names  applied  to  different  portions  of  the  loin 'vary  considerably 
in  different  localities.  The  part  nearest  the  ribs  is  frequently  called  "small 
end  of  loin "  or  "  short  steak."  The  other  end  of  the  loin  is  called  "  hip  sirloin  " 
or  "sirloin."  Betv^^een  the  short  and  the  sirloin  is  a  portion  quite  generally 
called  the  "tenderloin,"  for  the  reason  that  the  real  tenderloin,  the  very  tender 


Fig.  I.— Cuts  of  Beef. — {Nutrition  Bulletins,  Office  of  Experiment  Stations.') 


Strip  of  meat  lying  inside  the  loin,  is  found  most  fully  developed  in  this  cut. 
Porterhouse  steak  is  a  term  most  frequently  applied  to  either  the  short  steak  or 
the  tenderloin.  It  is  not  uncommon  to  find  the  flank  cut  so  as  to  include  more 
of  the  loin  than  is  indicated  in  the  figures,  in  which  case  the  upper  portion  is 
called  "flank  steak."  The  larger  part  of  the  flank  is,  however,  very  fre- 
quently corned,  as  is  also  the  case  with  the  rump.  In  some  markets  the  rump 
is  cut  so  as  to  include  a  portion  of  the  loin,  which  is  then  sold  as  "  rump  steak." 
The  portion  of  the  round  on  the  outside  of  the  leg  is  regarded  as  more  tender 
than  that  on  the  inside,  and  is  frequently  preferred  to  the  latter.  As  the  leg 
lies  upon  the  butcher's  table  this  outside  of  the  round  is  usually  on  the  upper, 
or  top,  side,  and  is  therefore  called  "top  round."  Occasionally  the  plate  is 
called  the  "rattle." 


Natural  Appearance  of  Cuts  of 
Healthy  Beef 


Beef  is  the  most  important  of  any  of  the  meat 
of  flesh  foods.  To  be  able  to  judg^e  of  its  fresh- 
ness and  freedom  from  disease  is  of  ^jreat 
practical  value.  The  followincr  colored  plates 
show  the  appearance  of  some  of  the  principal 
cuts  of  beef  in  the  proper  condition  for  cooking. 
By  comparing  the  appearance  of  the  beef 
bought  in  all  markets  with  these  plates  it  is 
possible  to  form  a  sound  judgment  of  their 
suitability  for  consumption. 


These  seven  Plates  are 
reproduced  by  courtesy  of 
Armour  &  Co.,  Chicago 


f% 


C ■    : 


;^TY  ]; 


NAMES    APPLIED    TO    DIFFERENT    PIECES    OF    EDIBLE    ANIMALS. 


17 


In  Fig.  2  is  shown  a  side  of  beef  with  the  various  cuts  indicated  as  used 
for  commercial  designation. 


In  Fig.  6  (page  20)  is  shown  the  interior  view  of  a  hog  carcass  with  the 
cuts  indicated  as  known  to  the  trade. 
3 


i8 


MEATS. 


The  Cuts  of  Veal. — The  method  of  cutting  up  a  side  of  veal  differs  con- 
siderably from  that  employed  with  beef.  This  is  illustrated  by  Fig.  3,  which 
shows  the  relative  position  of  the  cuts  in  the  animal  and  in  a  dressed  side. 
The  chuck  is  much  smaller  in  proportion,  and  frequently  no  distinction  is 
made  between  the  chuck  and  the  neck.  The  chuck  is  often  cut  so  as  to  include 
a  good  deal  of  the  portion  here  designated  as  shoulder,  following  more  nearly 
the  method  adopted  for  subdividing  beef.  The  shoulder  of  veal  as  here 
indicated  includes,  besides  the  portion  corresponding  to  the  shoulder  in 
beef,  the  larger  part  of  what  is  here  classed  as  chuck  in  the  adult  animal.  The 
under  part  of  the  fore  quarter,  corresponding  to  the  plate  in  the  beef,  is  often 
designated  as  breast  in  the  veal.  The  part  of  the  veal  corresponding  to  the 
rump  of  beef  is  here  included  with  the  loin,  but  is  often  cut  to  form  part  of 


Fig.  3.— Diagram  of  Cuts  of  \eai..— {Nutrition  Bulletins,  Office  of  Experiment  Stations.) 


the  leg.      In  many  localities  the  fore  and  hind  shanks  of  veal  are  called  the 
"knuckles." 

The  Cuts  of  Lamb  and  Mutton. — Fig.  4  shows  the  relative  position  of  the 
cuts  in  a  dressed  side  of  mutton  or  lamb  and  in  a  live  animal.  The  cuts  in  a 
side  of  lamb  and  mutton  number  but  six,  three  in  each  quarter.  The  chuck 
includes  the  ribs  as  far  as  the  end  of  the  shoulder  blades,  beyond  which  comes 
the  loin.  The  flank  is  made  to  include  all  the  under  side  of  the  animal.  Some 
butchers,  however,  make  a  larger  number  of  cuts  in  the  fore  quarter,  includ- 
ing a  portion  of  the  cuts  marked  "loin"  and  "chuck"  in  Fig.  4,  to  make  a 
cut  designated  as  "  rib,"  and  a  portion  of  the  "  flank"  and  "shoulder"  to  make  a 


NAMES    APPLIED    TO    DIFFERENT    PIECES    OF   EDIBLE   ANIMALS. 


19 


cut  designated  as  "  brisket."  The  term  "  chops "  is  ordinarily  used  to  des- 
ignate portions  of  either  the  loin,  ribs,  chuck,  or  shoulder,  which  are  either 
cut  or  "chopped"  by  the  butcher  into  pieces  suitable  for  frying  or  broiling. 
The  chuck  and  ribs  are  sometimes  called  the  "rack." 


Fig.  4.— Diagram   of   Cuts  of  Lamb  and  Mutton. — {Nutrition  Bulletins,  Office  of  Experiment 

Stations.) 

The  Cuts  of  Pork. — The  method  of  cutting  up  a  side  of  pork  differs  con- 
siderably from  that  employed  with  other  meats.  A  large  portion  of  the  carcass 
of  a  dressed  pig  consists  of  almost  clear  fat.  This  furnishes  the  cuts  which  are 
used  for  "salt  pork"  and  bacon.      Fig.  5  illustrates  a  common  method  of 


Fig.  5.— Diagram  of  Cuts  of  Pork.— {JVutrition  Bulletins,  Office  of  Experiment  Stations.) 


cutting  up  pork,  showing  the  relative  position  of  the  cuts  in  the  animal  and  in 
the  dressed  side.  The  cut  designated  as  "back  cut"  is  almost  clear  fat  and  is 
used  for  salting  and  pickling.  The  "  middle  cut"  is  the  portion  quite  generally 
used  for  bacon  and  for  "  lean  ends"  salt  pork.  The  belly  is  salted  or  pickled, 
or  may  be  made  into  sausages. 


20 


MEATS. 


Fig.  6.— Commercial  Cuts  ok  Vorh.— {Courtesy  of  Armour  (^f  Co.) 


ROAST  BEEF  AND  BEEFSTEAK.  21 

Beneath  the  "back  cut"  are  the  ribs  and  loin,  from  which  are  obtained 
^'spareribs,"  "chops,"  and  roasting  pieces,  not  designated  in  the  figure. 
The  hams  and  shoulders  are  more  frequently  cured,  but  are  also  sold  fresh 
as  pork  "steak."  The  tenderloin  proper  is  a  comparatively  lean  and  very 
small  strip  of  meat  lying  under  the  bones  of  the  loin  and  usually  weighing  a 
fraction  of  a  pound.  Some  fat  is  usually  trimmed  off  from  the  hams  and 
shoulders  which  is  called  "ham  and  shoulder  fat"  and  is  often  used  for  sau- 
sages, etc.  What  is  called  "leaf  lard,"  at  least  in  some  localities,  comes  from 
the  inside  of  the  back.     It  is  the  kidney  fat. 

As  stated  above,  cuts  as  shown  in  the  diagrams  herewith  correspond  to 
those  of  which  analyses  are  reported  in  the  table  beyond,  but  do  not  attempt 
to  show  the  different  methods  of  cutting  followed  in  markets  in  different  parts 
of  the  United  States. 

Delivery  of  Fresh  Meat  to  Consumers.— Perhaps  the  most  important  aid 
to  the  manufacturer,  as  well  as  a  protection  to  the  consumer,  which  modern 
science  has  offered  to  the  public  is  the  possibiHty  of  dehvering  fresh  meats  to 
consumers  at  a  low  temperature.  A  well  equipped  abattoir  is  provided  with 
apparatus  by  means  of  which  a  constantly  low  temperature  may  be  maintained 
in  the  room  where  the  fresh  meat  is  kept  after  the  preparation  described 
above.  When  the  meats  are  to  be  distributed  over  long  distances  refrigerator 
cars  or  boats  are  provided  where  low  temperature  may  be  maintained. 

Roast  Beef. — The  parts  of  the  beef  which  are  used  for  roasting  are 
shown  in  the  diagram,  comprising  a  considerable  portion  of  the  hind  quarter 
of  the  beef  and  part  of  the  ribs.  The  roast  is  perhaps  the  most  important  of 
the  parts  of  the  beef  for  edible  purposes.  The  average  composition  of  the 
edible  part  of  roast  beef  (before  cooking)  is  given  below: 

Water, 60.14  percent 

Solids, 39-86  " 

Nitrogen, 4.47  " 

Phosphoric  acid, 54  " 

Sulfur, 26  " 

Fat, 10.48 

Ash, 1.30  " 

Protein, 27.95  " 

Beefsteak. — The  most  important  parts  of  the  beef  next  to  the  roast  are 
the  parts  used  for  steak.  Beefsteaks  have  different  names,  such  as  tenderloin 
and  sirloin,  and  when  the  latter  two  are  joined  together  by  the  bone  the  whole 
is  called  porterhouse.  There  are  also  round  steaks  and  rump  steaks  which 
are  less  highly  prized  portions  of  the  meat,  but  in  nutritive  value  are  probably 
quite  as  valuable  as  the  others  mentioned.  The  average  composition  of 
the  edible  part  of  a  large  number  of  samples  of  beefsteak  is  given  in  the 
following  table  :* 

*  Means  of  numerous  analyses  in  Bureau  of  Chemistry. 


22  MEATS. 

Water, 63.95  percent 

Solids, 36-05 

Nitrogen,. 4.54 

Phosphoric  acid, 59 

Sulfur, 27 

Fat, 5.93 

Ash, 1 .48 

Protein, 28.37 

It  is  seen  that  the  roast  beef  contains  less  water,  less  protein,  and  decidedly 
more  fat  than  the  steak. 

Roast  Lamb. — The  parts  of  the  lamb  which  are  used  for  roasting  are 
usually  the  hind  quarters,  although  all  of  the  parts  are  roasted  at  times.  The 
average  composition  of  a  number  of  samples  of  lamb  roast  is  given  in  the  fol- 
lowing table:* 

.Water, 58-56  percent 

Solids, 41-44  " 

Nitrogen, 4.91  " 

Phosphoric  acid, 61  " 

Sulfur, 28 

Fat, 9.12  " 

Ash, 1.30  " 

Protein, 3o-7i  " 

Lamb  chops  or  mutton  chops  are  the  short  ribs  with  attached  flesh  of 
lamb  or  young  sheep.  They  are  considered  to  be  the  most  desirable  part  of 
the  young  sheep  or  lamb  for  edible  purposes.  The  average  composition 
of  the  edible  portion  of  a  number  of  samples  of  lamb  chops  is  given  in  the 
following  table: 

Water, 63.98  percent 

Solids, 36.02 

Nitrogen, 4.35 

Phosphoric  acid, 61 

Sulfur, 24 

Fat, 7.09 

Ash, 1.49 

Protein, 27.18 

Roast  lamb,  as  shown  by  the  above  data,  has  less  water,  more  fat,  and 
more  protein  than  lamb  chops. 

Preservation  of  Fresh  Meats. — After  delivery  the  meats  are  at  once 
consigned  to  refrigerator  departments  in  the  markets,  where  they  are  preserved 
until  they  pass  into  the  consumer's  hands.  Thus,  a  properly  fattened,  properly 
slaughtered,  and  properly  dressed  piece  of  fresh  meat  may  be  brought  into  the 
consumer's  hands  in  a  manner  at  once  unobjectionable  and  at  the  same  time 
one  which  secures  it  admirably  from  contamination  of  any  kind.  So  perfect 
are  these  means  of  transportation  that  fresh  meat  may  be  sent  not  only  from 
city  to  city  but  across  the  sea,  and  reach  the  consumer  as  near  perfection  as 
human  ingenuity  can  devise. 

*  From  numerous  analyses  made  in  the  Bureau  of  Chemistry. 


LENGTH   OF    STORAGE.  23 

Length  of  Storage.  —  The  question  of  how  long  meat  can  be  safely 
kept  in  cold  storage  of  this  kind  is  one  which  has  not  been  decided.  It  may 
be  said,  however,  that  the  period  should  not  be  extended  any  longer  than  is 
necessary  and  that  the  consumers  of  meat  should  be  provided  in  ordinary  times, 
if  transportation  is  undisturbed,  with  practically  fresh  meat.  It  is  evident 
that  if  the  principal  meat-packing  centers  are  Chicago,  Omaha,  and  Kansas 
City  the  cities  and  parts  of  the  country  remote  from  these  localities  must 
have  meat  somewhat  older  than  those  which  are  near  by.  If  we  pass  to 
distant  countries,  as  for  instance,  Europe,  where  fresh  meats  are  received 
from  the  United  States  or  even  from  Australia,  the  time  elapsing  between 
slaughter  and  consumption  must  necessarily  be  long.  Thus  the  length  of 
time  in  which  meat  should  be  left  in  cold  storage  after  it  is  properly  matured 
depends  upon  its  geographic  distribution  and  is  not  a  matter  to  be  decided 
arbitrarily. 

When  meats  are  not  only  kept  in  cold  storage  for  transportation  but  are 
actually  frozen,  as  is  often  the  case,  they  can,  of  course,  be  kept  for  a  much 
longer  time  than  when  subjected  merely  to  a  low  temperature  at  or  slightly 
above  the  freezing  point.  For  this  reason  meats  that  are  to  be  carried  to  a 
long  distance  and  not  to  be  consumed  for  a  long  time  after  preparation  are 
usually  frozen  and  kept  so  during  transport. 

Effect  of  Low  Temperature  on  Enzjmaic  Action. — Attention  has 
been  called  to  the  fact  that  low  temperature  does  not  inhibit  enzymic  action, 
and,  therefore,  it  must  be  admitted  that  this  continued  activity  must  gradually 
deteriorate  the  quality  of  the  product.  The  question,  therefore,  which  is  the 
most  important  is  not  how  long  can  meat  be  kept  in  a  frozen  condition  but 
how  short  a  time  must  it  be  kept.  In  all  cases,  therefore,  of  this  kind  the  con- 
sumer is  entitled  to  know  the  length  of  time  during  which  his  meat  has  been 
kept  frozen,  and  this  desirable  condition  of  affairs  is  easily  secured  by  the 
necessary  local,  state,  and  national  inspection  already  mentioned.  • 

Disposition  of  Fragments  Arising  From  the  Dressing  of  Beef. — It  is 
evident  that  the  fragments  of  sound,  wholesome  meat  w^hich  is  dressed  for 
delivery  to  commerce  are  themselves  edible  and  hence  there  can  be  no  hygienic 
or  other  objection  to  preparations  made  from  these  fragments,  such  as  sausage 
and  other  minced  and  comminuted  meats  which  appear  upon  the  market. 
In  other  words,  the  consumer  is  entitled  to  know  that  because  a  piece  of 
meat  is  comminuted  is  no  reason  for  supposing  that  it  is  not  edible. 

Sausage,  mince  meat,  comminuted  meat,  potted,  canned,  and  other  meats 
or  preparations  from  these  sound,  clean,  edible  fragments,  necessarily  rejected 
in  the  process  of  preparing  fresh  meats  for  curing  and  for  consumption,  are 
entitled  to  the  same  consideration  and  may  be  looked  upon  with  the  same 
certainty  of  purity  by  the  consumer  when  properly  inspected  and  prepared 
as  the  larger  pieces. 


24  MEATS. 

The  possibility  of  detecting  any  effects  of  disease  in  meats  by  inspection 
at  the  time  of  or  after  dehvery  is  very  remote  and  therefore  the  inspection 
before  kilHng  and  during  the  process  of  manufacture  should  be  a  most  rigid 
one  in  the  case  of  these  fragments.  Such  inspection  and  certification  would 
restore  public  confidence  in  the  purity  and  hygienic  properties  of  these 
meats  which  not  only  are  nutritious  but  by  the  spicing  and  condimental 
treatment  which  they  receive  are  rendered  highly  palatable  and  desirable. 


DETECTION  OF  DIFFERENT  KINDS  OF  MEAT. 

When  meats  are  in  large  pieces  they  may  be  recognized  by  their  anatomi- 
cal characteristics.  In  order  that  this  may  be  done,  however,  the  piece  of 
meat  must  either  be  of  a  sufficient  size  to  be  recognized  by  its  shape  and 
general  appearance  or  must  have  a  bone  of  sufficient  size  to  indicate  its 
anatomical  character. 

According  to  the  German  law  pieces  of  meat  of  less  than  eight  pounds 
in  weight  are  not  supposed  to  be  large  enough  to  be  recognized  anatomically 
or  otherwise  with  certainty.  This,  however,  is  a  matter  which  pertains  more 
to  the  meat  of  animals  from  which  the  bone  is  taken  rather  than  to  its  actual 
size.  It  requires  some  little  expert  knowledge  of  the  anatomy  of  animals  in 
order  to  distinguish  these  pieces,  but  one  who  is  in  the  habit  of  purchasing  or 
cutting  meats  acquires  this  knowledge  without  any  special  study. 

Odor  and  Taste. — Each  kind  of  meat  may  also  be  detected  both  by  its 
odor  and  taste,  as  well  as  by  its  physical  appearance  and  shape.  Beef,  mutton, 
pork,  and  other  meats  in  a  proper  state  of  preparation  and  preservation  have 
characteristic  odors  and  flavors  by  which  they  are  easily  detected.  One  of 
the  common  faults  of  cooking  is  the  putting  together  of  meats  of  various 
kinds  in  the  same  oven,  by  means  of  which  the  odors  become  so  intermingled 
that  in  small  pieces  even  the  experienced  taster  may  not  always  be  able  to 
discriminate  between  them. 

Detection  of  Meat  by  Microscopic  Appearance. — Meats  are  so  nearly 
related  histologically  that  the  microscope  is  not  a  certain  means  of  detecting 
the  different  varieties.  Were  this  the  case  it  would  be  easy  to  identify  the 
different  kinds  of  meat  which  may  be  found  in  a  finely  comminuted  mixture. 
The  expert  microscopist  may  have  difficulty  in  discriminating  between  differ- 
ent microscopic  portions  of  meat,  but  the  microscope  is  of  practically  no  advan- 
tage to  any  but  an  expert  and  not  a  very  great  advantage  to  him.  The  fibers 
of  some  animals  vary  in  size,  coarseness  or  fineness  of  texture,  and  other 
characteristics  as  much  as  fibers  do  from  different  animals. 

Detection  by  Chemical  Examination. — The  most  satisfactory  method 
of  detecting  meats  is  by  means  of  their  chemical  examination.  There  are 
two  distinct  points  which  are  kept  in  view  in  a  chemical  examination.     One 


DRIED    MEAT.  2$ 

is  the  presence  of  glycogen,  which  in  quantities  of  more  than  one  percent  is 
characteristic  of  horse  meat.  Unfortunately,  this  test  can  only  be  applied  to  a 
meat  in  practically  a  fresh  state,  as  the  glycogen  is  rapidly  changed  into  other 
forms  of  carbohydrate  substances,  which  makes  it  difficult  to  identify.  The 
chemical  examination,  therefore,  which  is  of  the  most  value  is  that  which  is 
performed  upon  the  fat.  The  fat  of  different  animals  has  different  physical 
and  chemical  characteristics.  The  fats  crystallize  in  different  forms  and 
have  different  melting  points, — also  the  fatty  acids  derived  therefrom.  They 
absorb  different  quantities  of  iodin  and  bromin,  and  have  other  physical  and 
chemical  properties  which  are  peculiar  to  each  variety. 

A  careful  examination  of  the  fat,  therefore,  will  lead  to  an  approximate 
degree  of  knowledge  concerning  the  character  of  the  flesh  from  which  it  has 
been  derived.  For  instance,  lard  and  beef  fat  are  easily  "distinguished  from 
each  other.  In  case  a  minced  meat  is  made  wholly  of  one  kind  of  flesh  or  of 
one  kind  of  animal  the  chemical  examination  of  the  fat  will,  with  a  considerable 
degree  of  certainty,  lead  to  its  identification.  In  the  same  manner,  if  a  minced 
meat  be  made  up  of  equal  parts  of  two  different  kinds  of  animals  the  charac- 
teristics of  the  fats  will  lead  to  the  identification  of  the  two  sources  of  meat. 
If,  however,  one  kind  of  meat  be  mixed  in  only  a  small  proportion,  say  lo  or 
15  percent,  of  another,  the  chemical  methods  of  separation  are  not  to  be 
relied  upon.  None  of  these  chemical  or  physical  methods,  unfortunately,  is 
of  value  in  the  hands  of  any  but  an  expert,  and,  therefore,  cannot  be  regarded  as 
a  common  means  of  identification.  For  this  reason  the  only  common  manner 
of  identification  of  the  kinds  of  meats  which  are  sent  out  to  the  consumer 
at  large  must  consist  in  the  general  knowledge  of  their  anatomical,  physical, 
palatable,  and  gustatory  properties  outlined  above. 

In  all  cases  the  consumer  must  eventually  rely  upon  the  official  inspection 
and  the  label  which  accompanies  the  meat  or  which  should  accompany  it. 

Dried  Meat. — A  very  effective  method  of  preserving  meat  is  practiced 
in  certain  of  the  arid  regions  of  the  country  by  exposing  it  to  the  dry  air  and 
sunlight.  Meats  prepared  in  this  way  are  often  called  "jerked"  meats. 
The  small  amount  of  aqueous  vapor  in  the  air  is  not  sufficient  to  maintain  the 
life  of  the  ordinary  fermentative  germs,  and  they  are,  therefore,  destroyed  by 
desiccation.  Meat  which  is  exposed  under  such  circumstances  does  not 
become  infected  with  any  fermentative  germ,  and  the  moisture  which  it  con- 
tains is  rapidly  given  off  in  the  dry  air  surrounding  it.  For  this  purpose  the 
meat  is  cut  into  thin  strips  and  suspended  by  appropriate  means  in  the  air 
and  exposed  to  the  direct  sunlight.  In  a  short  time  the  moisture  disappears, 
and  the  hard  dry  pieces  keep  indefinitely  in  certain  arid  regions  of  this  countiy. 
The  meat  also  maintains  a  fair  degree  of  palatability  and  practically  all  of  its 
nutrient  properties,  so  that  when  properly  cooked  it  is  a  palatable  and  nutri- 
tious dish.  Probably  of  all  the  methods  of  presenting  meat  this  one  is  the 
least  open  to  objection,  since  not  even  spices  or  condimental  substances  are 


26  MEATS. 

necessary  in  order  to  preserve  the  meat  from  decay.  By  reason  of  the  change 
in  its  physical  appearance,  however,  which  makes  it  less  attractive,  this  method 
is  not  likely  to  come  into  general  use  in  the  ordinary  preservation  of  meat. 

Dried  beef  is  also  prepared  by  preserving  the  meat  by  condimental 
substances  and,  instead  of  placing  it  in  brine,  drying  it  artificially.  Chipped 
or  dried  beef  is  a  common  article  of  commerce  and  is  prepared  in  the  manner 
described  above.  This  meat,  however,  has  already  been  treated  with  condi- 
mental substances,  and  hence  the  drying  is  only  one  of  the  means  of  preserva- 
tion. Dried  or  chipped  meats  are  often  smoked  also  as  well  as  desiccated,  so 
that  in  their  preparation  more  than  one  method  of  preservation  is  employed. 

Pickled  Meats. — The  method  of  preserving  meats  in  a  liquid  environment 
is  sometimes  called  pickling.  All  kinds  of  meat  are  pickled  in  this  w^ay,  but 
pork  especially.  The  pickling  brine  may  be  simply  made  of  common  salt, 
though  other  substances,  such  as  sugar,  vinegar,  and  spices,  are  used.  The 
brine  also  sometimes  contains  a  chemical  preservative  which  is  highly  objec- 
tionable on  the  general  ground  of  the  harmfulness  of  these  substances.  The 
preservative  commonly  used  is  either  sulfite  of  soda  or  boric  acid.  The 
making  of  a  pickled  meat  of  this  kind  should  be  discouraged.  The  vinegar 
which  is  employed  or  acetic  acid  may  be  injected  into  the  carcass  before  it  is 
cut  up.  When  the  arteries  or  veins  are  filled  with  vinegar  in  this  way  it 
rapidly  permeates  to  all  parts  of  the  meat  and  acts  as  an  excellent  and  unob- 
jectionable preservative  in  all  cases  where  an  acid  taste  is  desired.  It  is 
claimed  that  carcasses  which  have  been  injected  with  vinegar  in  this  way  are 
easily  preserved,  and  require  far  less  salt  and  other  condimental  substances 
than  when  not  so  treated.  As  vinegar  is  a  condimental  substance  used  every- 
where, and  one  which  promotes  digestion  when  used  in  proper  quantities, 
the  preservation  of  meats  or  the  pickling  of  meats  by  a  previous  injection  of 
vinegar  is  not  objectionable. 


COMPOSITION  OF  THE  FLESH  OF  PIGS. 

Extensive  investigation  of  the  composition  of  the  flesh  of  pigs  has  been 
made  in  the  Bureau  of  Chemistry  (Bulletin  53).  The  pigs  upon  which  these 
examinations  were  made  were  specially  bred  and  fattened  at  the  Agricultural 
Experiment  Station  of  Iowa,  and  were  prepared  for  the  market  by  the  most 
approved  modern  style  of  feeding.  They  were  slaughtered  according  to  the 
approved  method  and  immediately,  after  proper  preparation,  the  carcasses 
were  placed  in  cold  storage,  where  they  were  kept  until  removal  for  the  purpose 
of  dissection  and  preparation  of  the  samples  for  analyses.  Expert  butchers 
from  Washington  were  secured  for  the  dissecting  and  dressing  of  the  pigs  in 
the  manner  in  which  it  would  be  done  for  the  best  market.  The  pigs  were  of 
different  varieties,  namely,  Berkshire,  No.  i ;  Tamworth,  No.  2 ;  Chester  White, 
No.  3 ;  Poland  China,  No.  4;  Duroc  Jersey,  No.  5,  No.  6,  No.  7 ;  Yorkshire,  No.  8. 


o 

H 

w 

Pi 

f ') 

^ 

PC 

I— 1 

^ 
P^ 

< 

W 

hJ 

m 

W 

1 

P^ 

H 

< 

1 

< 

o 

Q 

Ph 

M  •^  CM 

00     ■   >A    '  r--\d 
NUN 


,00    .  f   .vq 


vO         00   »^ 

>0     .  i;--q 

Ov     •    Mvd 


^|5 

1 

^ 

<ri 

.^ 

o 

« 

ITivO 

i^ 

>/% 

lo 

M 

•i^ 

■^ 

•^ 

•^ 

•;2?^ 

•?i 

•R 

■  tr, 

. 

1- 

"^ 

« 

«o 

|3 

s 

1 

o 

„ 

fO 

Ov 

t^ 

vovq 

•n 

„ 

(M 

t^ 

■     N 

'   c^ 

•=^^ 

•8 

■   e, 

l-s 

VC 

00 

O 

'    rO 

■^ 

•^ 

■S  i  s. 


-5  a^ 


^  6  °  Si-g 
<  ■■«      o  6 


2    *  Jo  '  5- 

c5     00     t- 


5  as  £ 


.^ 


O   O.    -00     ■ 


o    .?    . 


^.*^r.^"    .^    .00    ,<:; 
M.vO'O-'t'd'Otf- 


c«n 


»/^ 


in         lo 


Sn        m        TtiO"^«s        dpi 
a    u-i.i^«io«P2«io'M_^'  -^00 

^     >^      00        cf        oi       M        w 
^   o       •*       >o       o 
;5     CO        «         .         . 


00 


ci  o 


00 


q     <>  N     \o     00      •<r 
00    .  "5  t^    ,  r~    .  ■^    .  po 

^    .  12  o    .00    .\o    ,  M 


o  o      o      o      o 

MM         ro       CO 


rt    ^    rf  ■"    rf    ^■ 


j;  *r  SO 


a^s^22||lll|:!l|l|l 

o      o      o      h      ^co'o.Sna 


27 


28 


MEATS. 


Preparation  of  Samples  for  Analyses.— The  meat  obtained  from  all  of 
the  cuts  of  the  same  kind  in  each  sample  was  passed  through  a  meat  chopper 
two  or  three  times  in  order  to  get  an  even,  finely  divided  condition.  A  portion 
of  known  weight  was  then  placed  in  a  dish  and  dried  in  a  steam  oven  at  a 
temperature  of  boiling  water  or  slightly  above  and  heated  until  the  fat  had  well 
sepairated  so  that  it  could  be  poured  off  into  a  flask,  with  care  not  to  remove  any 
of  the  water  which  may  have  separated  with  it.  Small  samples  were  removed 
before  drying  for  the  determination  of  the  exact  quantity  of  fat  and  water 
therein,  and  the  results  of  these  analyses  were  used  for  calculating  the  relative 
portion  of  the  large  samples.  Samples  of  skin,  bones,  marrow,  spinal  cord, 
tendons,  hoofs,  and  other  parts  of  the  animal  were  also  carefully  secured 
and  subjected  to  analyses.  In  this  way  the  whole  animal  was  subjected  to 
examination  for  analytical  data,  and  at  the  same  time  each  particular  part  of 
it,  in  so  far  as  its  relation  to  the  market  is  concerned,  was  kept  separated. 
In  Table  A  are  found  the  weight  of  the  whole  cut  and  the  data  relative  to 
the  preparation  of  the  air-dried  sample. 

The  data  show  that  there  was  a  slight  loss  of  water  during  the  transit 
from  Chicago  to  Washington.     The  part  of  the  pig  which  has  the  largest 


TABLE  B.— WEIGHTS  OF  PARTS  FROM  EACH   CUT  AND   DATA   RELAT- 
ING TO  THE  PREPARATION  OF  AIR-DRY  SAMPLES. 


PIG  No.  I.— BERKSHIRE. 


Names  of  Parts  and  Cuts. 


Weights  of  Parts. 


From 
each  cut. 


Meat  (fat  and  lean) :  Grams. 

Backs, 14,767.9 

Bellies, 8,230.6 

Hams, 9,407.9 


Shoulders, 

Feet, 

Spareribs, . . . 
Tenderloins, 
Neck  bones, 
Bapkbones, 


»,44».2 

325-3 

1,683.8 

470-8 

493-2 

704-0 

Trimmings, 7,02 1 .5 

Tail, 291.7 


Bones: 

Backs,, 
Bellies, 
Hams,. 


191. 1 

81.4 

879.6 


Shoulders, 693. { 

802.6 

528.2 

336.1 

^ZZ-S 

71.0 

27.1 


Feet, 
Spareribs, . . . 
Neck  bones, - 
Backbones,.. 
Trimmings, . 
Tail, 


Total, 

Marrow, 

Total  bones  less  marrow, . . . , 


69.7 


Total. 
Grams. 


51,844.9 


4,444.4 

69.7 

4,374.7 


Of  entire 

pig- 
Percent. 


88, 


19 


29 


O   w 

P^    I. 

<    " 


< 

•< 
< 

o 

•pjoi 

0>M 

58     : 

2§ 

8 

•iisy 

|!-i   ^ 

00 
•    HI               • 

o 

a    CO 

1 

•l«»oX 

8 

•sasBq  qsaj  j 

o  o 

•spiouijBpr) 

o      o       o 

o  •* 

aiqniosui    sppjojj 

g  .  8  .  5?      . 

1!  •• 

•sasBq  ijsag  JQ 

o      o        o 

?8     : 

o  o 

•uiuiojq 
Xq  pajBjidpajj 

cow 

d  d 

■saveM.  joq  m  aiq 
-njosui  spiajoid  jq 

■^  :  ^  :  q      : 

P)       o         ■* 

o  fo 

•IBlox 

lO    fO  r^  H         XT,              N 

N  q  fo  q    >^       q 
po  6  6  d    >o       d 

00    0             H 

t^  lil       o 

d  ■*     d 

00 

•uiqjpaq 

d         6    6       6 

■<r   ;  w       to 
6     6     6 

d 

fa 

•IBJox 

vq  .  ;^ .  q      . 

o 

-ajBta    I'Bnpisaj  uj 

1^            M                  M 

<s    ;  q   ;    w         ; 
d      d        M 

?2$     : 

d  d 

•aid 
-TUBS  auuBdaad  ui 

rO  w 

0  o> 

: 

1 

•F?ox 

2 
■* 

'"'7^  o   .    t^ 

q  o  ^9  :  q      : 

d    r^J 

fO 

•9ld 

PO        vO             t^ 

q^  :  q  :  ^      : 

fO            M                  Tf 

H     M               • 

^ 

^ 

H 

9 

ii 

< 

g 

•qsv 

!?::§      : 

•  t^         • 

: 

•uiqipoi 

00  ;  ,-o    fo     00 

d                       PJ         d                  M 

o     o 

g 

•sas^q  qsap  jq 

>A     .00      .     00 

d      d        M 

o  o 

•uixiiojq 
i«q  p  3  }"b  }  I  d  p3j<j 

H            1/1               Ov 

-:  :^  :  «3      : 

o      o        « 

O    M 

•J3JBM.  joq  ui  ajq 
-npsuT  sppiojd  JO 

lO       f-          o 

q^     : 

•FJox 

00  Oi  M  r^    cs          lo 
M  cj  roq    q        M 
vd  doo  d    "A        d 

,^2    J? 

00  4     d 

•;bj 

<N            Ov            00 

d    '  d    '    po 

00    M 

fO 

•j3;bav 

lo^vo        00 

qJ?      : 

VO  O 

M 

JO 

•I 

JU33 

BU3JBUI  IBUlSlJO 

J3d    'ajdra^s'  Ajp-jiy 

OOH            ^ 

s 

Bones, 

(Fat  extracted  with  ether). 
Marrow, 

(Fat  extracted  with  ether). 

Skin, 

(Fat     extracted     with 
ether)    

Spinal  cord, 

Tendons, 

(Fat     extracted      with 
ether), 

1 

30 


PREPARATION  OF  SAMPLES  FOR  ANALYSES. 


31 


percentage  of  fat  is  the  meat  of  the  tail,  while  the  smallest  percentage  is  found 
in  the  tenderloins.  The  largest  percentage  of  water  in  any  part  of  the  meat 
is  in  the  tenderloins  and  the  smallest  in  the  meat  of  the  tail. 

Similar  data  were  obtained  for  all  o'f  the  other  samples  used,  but  the  chemi- 
cal composition  is  so  nearly  the. same  that  it  is  not  advisable  to  repeat  the  data 
for  the  other  varieties.  The  Berkshire  for  which  the  data  are  given  may  be 
taken  as  a  fair  representative  of  the  composition  of  the  varied  parts  of  the  meat 
of  pigs.  The  comparative  weights  of  various  parts  of  the  Berkshire  pig 
are  given  in  Table  B. 

The  data  show  that  88.19  percent  of  the  weight  of  the  carcass,  after 
dressing,  is  composed  of  meat,  fat,  and  lean,  and  7.56  percent  of  bone.  The 
complete  data  for  the  variety  of  Berkshire  pig  may  be  taken  as  a  type  for  the 
other  varieties  and  is  given  in  Table  C. 

The  composition  of  the  bone,  marrow,  skin,  spinal  cord,  tendons,  and 
hoofs  of  the  Berkshire  pig  is  shown  in  Table  D. 

The  percentages  of  the  various  parts  of  the  original  material  of  the  Berk- 
shire pig  are  found  in  Table  E. 


TABLE  E.— REVISED  ANALYTICAL  DATA. 
PIG  No.  I.— BERKSHIRE. 
[Percents  original  material.] 


Names  of  Cuts  and 
Parts. 


Meat: 

American  backs, 

American  bellies, 

Short-cut  hams, 

New  York  shoulders,. 

Four  feet, 

Spareribs, 

Tenderloins, 

Neck  bones, 

Backbones, 

Trimmings, 

Tail, 

Bones, 

Marrow, 

Skin, 

Spinal  cord, 

Tendons, 

Hoofs, 


Water. 


32.27 

37-27 

6o.29t 

S4-97t 

61.28 

52-54 

68.06 

55-70 

52.83 

29.68t 

24.02 

38.94 

14.36 

50.24 

65.70 

58.43 

41.09 


Fat. 

Nitrogenous  Substances. 

Leci- 
thin.* 

Ash. 

Pro- 
teids, 
insolu- 
ble in 

hot 
water. 

Gela- 

ti- 
noids. 

Flesh 
bases. 

Total. 

57-69 
51-93 
22.19 
29.01 
16.83 
29.10 

8.78 
27.92 
27.22 
62.00 
68.23 
11.67 
81.51 
17.11 
26.76 
13.40 

0.86 

7.00 

7.00 

14.00 

11.25 

12.19 

13-44 

18.56 

12.44 

14.38 

5-19 

5-75 

17-50 

2.00 

1JI 

22.44 

0.50 
0.56 
0.69 
0.81 
4-69 
1-13 
0.50 
0-75 
0.87 
0.69 
0.56 
0.38 
0.19 
6.69 
0.69 
4-44 

0.91 
1.22 

::5l 

2.34 
1. 19 
1.06 
1.06 

1-44 

1-03 

0.50 
1-25 

0.06 

0.16 
0.62 

8.41 

.1:S 

13.62 
19.22 
15-76 
20.12 
14.25 
16.69 
6.91 
6.81 
19-13 

2.25 

33-31 

4-73 

27-50 

58.00 

0.15 
0.14 
0.65 
o.is 
0.61 
0.35 
0.49 
0.68 
0.26 

O.II 

0.17 

0.44 

o.46t 

0.41 

i-47§ 

0-45 

0.51 
0.55 
0.96 
0.89 
0.82 
1.00 

1. 17 
0.81 
1.24 
0.41 
0.39 

26.12 

0.63 
0.40  II 

1. 18 
0.93 

Total. 


99-03 
98.67 
99-93 
98.64 
98.76 
98.75 
98.62 
99-36 
98.24 
99.11 
99.62 
96.30 
98.58 
101.70 
97.19 
100.96 
100.88 


*  Lecithin  in  extracted  sample  only,  unless  otherwise  noted. 

t  Result  of  direct  determination  on  original  material.  Other  numbers  in  this'  column 
represent  the  sum  of  the  percent  of  water  removed  in  the  preparation  of  sample  and  the 
percent  of  water  remaining  in  the  air-dry  sample. 

t  In  fat  extract. 

§  In  fat  extract,  calculated  from  averages  for  like  cuts. 

II  Calculated  from  averages  of  like  cuts. 


Q 
W 
> 

O 

w 
p< 

z 

w 
w 
m 

o 

> 

< 

>^ 

w 

Q 

Q 
< 

< 
< 

§ 

w 
W 

w 

W 

^" 
a 

< 

P 
W 

CO 

W 
P^ 
Q 
W 
Oi 
>-^ 
H 

;z; 
w 

w 
a 

H 

o 

< 

< 


++ 

, 

^   ro  <^  f^  N   t^OO   ^  0  1^00   '-' 

t^vq       -  <N  q>>o 

ro  >^ 

|{c:j&{Q^^'^^«^^'^ 

fo  N      4  6  "  6 

M    (^ 

-^ 

li^:!  :- 

iO 

<: 

^ 

c 

*      -1- 

2    »0  N    V,  1^00    a  "    >^  fO  N    0 

1 

q  1?  5o  l^'cS  J^  : 
«  ao  ao  0 

2  0  0  ^0  1/^  >i-  f^  f^  IT)  w  a 

q>  q>  t;- 1^  t^  q>  WT) 

q.S 

,0 

ovd  "  <ri  N  ^0  6 

•<»•  ro 

M     fO           •*           ■*   fO 

10  w 

H 

c3  'I  *"  1 1    "^       "  '^ 

r;00         «^ 

VO^ 

H 

>^ 

z 

s 

H 

H 
t 

6 

X 

11 

g'<t'<tN«5vqqqNMroii;- 
«4Qo6"ri6'^'o6<N" 

10  t>.  w  vq  M  q    , 

^  -^  6  6  6  >^    • 

0% 

(1.J 

Orr,        ro 

§ 

u 

0 

^^ 

< 

§ 

i4 

goo    M    O.t<^0    ror-M    -"t^ 

vq<)  N  f  t  w    _ 

1 

0  ^ 

d^  d  6>  6  t^   • 

N     ° 

Ix 

g     t-    TfOvO      MM                                    ■* 

■*    -H                -f 

0 

cj; 

to                     M 

10 

X 

■l 

_ 

0 

2  00  M  N  -^vq  1 1  T  ^9  too 

?   (^r-M   JoroMOOvO  OvO   M 

00  >q  Tj- 1-.  MOO 

10-* 

4  10  M  fo  ci  10  ; 

rOO 

li-^ 

t^vO        vO         ro     ■ 

TJ-  M 

t^t^        10 

"" 

H             M 

4 

0 

vO  <Nv^<5  r^q   f9^r'^1   " 

^000  0.  a  •^  -^ 

0^ 

g  w  t-00  iriinOvtroa'^a 

Ov  d<>  M  4  M  d 

IT)  d 

*i 

0>    M     1000      1-1      N 

00     TT 

ni 

^3  00'  'f  <N    N                                     ^ 

t;;  10         rO 

U^ 

N 

(S 

i 

^vo  lipq  N  f^t^-'t'^q^q  i^. 

Ttvq  qvqo  N  VO 

o2 

giot^<NT}-6v46'tw-<t6 

gt-OOOMOOrowc^q 

4  to  d  ►-^  to  " 

H     fO 

U-)  0   w   «^   ro  Ov  «M 

■*  •* 

^ 

fot^     1 

!^ 

0   ■*  ^0  10  rf                               cT 

M 

c5 

Ov  -"l-  N    0    0>  t^  0 

w 

s: 

1 .     .     . 

M  t  *1  <»  q  (N  q 
06  i^  d  fo  d  d  0 

.   . 

>t 

H 
H 

fe 

00 

'     ■ 

0 

a. 

I 

■?  *r  ^r  '^  ^  "o^? 

^ 

tL 

"rt 

1  ::::::::::  : 

rj-  t^^O    rr^mu^ir 

o»   . 

H 

*:; 

00     . 

< 

H 

w'  4       cf 

t^             1 

CLi 

0 

~ 

|3 

0;  a<5  o>  N  fooo  00  <N  q  10  r- 

g  r^  d  ^06  lA  ro  6  f^  4  w  M 

§>o  '^ojNoof-aoN  0 
0  ;too'  6;oo'      w              *^ 

£1 

.; 

"rt 

, 

•c 

12 

s 

K 

■< 

d 

c 

1| 

0< 

1 

•a 

s 

■§ 

^ 

1 

1 

1 

3  u 

1 

. 

Jl 

2§c.e 

S6 

1" 

i 

4 

¥ 

p: 

tr 

a 

u. 

y 

^b 

^ 

ff 

E- 

E- 

I 
ff 

J 

c 

re 

^J 

St 

1 

32 


GENERAL   CONCLUSIONS.  33 

The  data  for  the  entire  dressed  animal  after  the  removal  of  the  head, 
hoofs,  lard,  and  kidneys  are  shown  in  Table  F. 

General  Conclusions. — The  conlposition  of  the  flesh  of  pigs  has  been 
given  in  detail  for  two  reasons.  First,  because  the  data  relative  to  this  point 
are  much  more  complete  than  those  of  any  other  flesh  product  and  were 
obtained  in  a  more  systematic  way.  In  the  second  place,  pork  is  one  of  the 
chief  meat  products  of  the  United  States, — the  industry  being  one  of  great 
magnitude,  and  pork  being  a  common  article  of  diet  among  all  classes  of 
people.  Further  than  this,  the  data  indicate  the  general  character  of  fresh 
meat,  and  illustrate  as  well  as  that  of  any  of  the  typical  animals  the  nutritive 
value  and  properties  of  flesh.  The  study  of  pork,  therefore,  may  be  regarded 
as  a  typical  study  of  meat  products.  It  is  quite  as  important  that  all  people 
should  be  informed  respecting  the  nature  of  the  wholesome  meat  which  they 
consume  and  its  value  as  a  diet  as  it  is  that  they  should  be  certain  these  meats 
are  procured  from  healthy  animals  and  in  a  sanitary  way.  These  two  classes 
of  knowledge  together  give  a  complete  scheme  of  information  which  the 
consumers  in  this  and  other  countries  are  entitled  to  have. 

Pork,  by  many  hygienists,  is  regarded  as  the  least  desirable  of  meat 
products,  and  it  is  not  the  purpose  here  to  combat  that  idea.  Granting, 
however,  for  the  sake  of  argument,  that  pork  is  a  less  desirable  meat  food 
than  those  derived  from  cattle  or  sheep,  that  is  all  the  more  reason  for  know- 
ing particularly  everything  connected  with  it.  Modem  investigations  have 
appeared  to  establish  the  fact  that  swine  are  less  subject  to  those  forms  of 
disease,  with  the  exception  of  trichinosis,  which  tend  to  infect  the  meat  and 
make  it  unfit  for  consumption  than  cattle  or  sheep.  The  diseases  to  which 
swine  are  usually  subject  act  quickly,  as  a  rule,  and  are  speedily  fatal,  as  in 
the  case  of  hog  cholera,  whereas  the  diseases  most  to  be  feared  in  cattle  and 
sheep  are  those  of  slow  activity  and  those  of  a  nature  which  is  often  not 
revealed  until  slaughter,  namely,  tubercular  diseases.  In  so  far,  therefore, 
as  infection  from  disease  is  concerned,  previous  to  slaughter,  it  appears  that 
the  flesh  of  swine  is  less  objectionable  and  less  open  to  suspicion  than  that  of 
cattle  or  sheep.  One  of  the  chief  objections  to  the  use  of  pork  in  any  form, 
whether  fresh  or  cured,  has  been  based  upon  the  unsanitary  habits  of  the 
animals  themselves.  With  the  modem  methods  of  cleanliness  and  care, 
however,  the  conditions  under  which  the  pigs  grow  and  fatten  are,  or  should 
be,  quite  as  sanitary  as  those  surrounding  cattle  and  sheep.  The  consumer, 
of  course,  has  the  right  to  insist  upon  such  sanitary  conditions  and  these, 
under  present  laws  or  those  which  are  to  be  enacted,  will  doubtless  be  supplied. 
It  is  believed  that  in  this  country  sanitary  environments  and  a  sanitary  method 
of  feeding  will  develop  types  of  animals  superior  to  those  grown  in  other 
countries,  where  the  population  is  denser  and  where  the  facilities  for  the 
proper  growth  and  fattening  of  the  animal  are  less  abundant.     It  is  hoped 


34  MEATS. 

that  the  general  diffusion  of  knowledge  respecting  all  food  products  among 
our  people  will  aid  greatly  in  securing  these  very  desirable  results. 


PRESERVED  MEATS. 

Meats  which  cannot  be  eaten  at  the  time  of  or  soon  after  slaughter  are  neces- 
sarily preserved  until  the  time  of  consumption.  It  is  difficult  to  draw  a  definite 
line  between  a  preserved  and  a  fresh  meat.  A  general  distinction  is  the  follow- 
ing: Fresh  meat  is  meat  which  is  prepared  for  consumption  without  the  use 
of  any  condiment  or  preservative,  without  sterilization ,  and  with  none  of  the 
artificial  methods  of  keeping,  except  cleanliness  and  a  low  temperature. 

The  above  definition,  as  will  be  seen,  covers  meat  placed  in  cold  storage.  A 
special  distinction,  however,  must  be  made  in  this  case  between  meat  placed 
in  cold  storage  for  the  purpose  of  transportation  only  and  meat  placed  in  cold 
storage  to  be  kept  for  an  indefinite  time.  Where  meats  are  prepared  for  con- 
sumption by  slaughter  and  appropriate  dressing  and  shipped  long  distances  to 
the  consumer  the  cold  storage  car,  ship,  and  warehouse  become  a  necessity. 
There  is  some  reasonable  limit  for  keeping  such  products,  beyond  which  they 
should  be  differentiated  from  fresh  meats.  Whenever  meats  are  kept  in  cold 
storage  so  long  as  to  afford  the  opportunity  for  the  growth  of  a  mould,  or  under- 
go other  changes  of  a  chemical  or  physical  character  which  distinguish  them 
from  the  fresh  products,  they  should  be  placed  in  a  different  class.  Fresh  meats 
may,  therefore,  be  divided  as  follows: 

Class  I.  Meats  intended  for  immediate  consumption  and  passed  to  the 
consumer  within,  at  the  most,  one  week  after  slaughter.  Class  II.  Cold 
storage  meats,  which  are  placed  in  refrigerators,  frozen,  and  kept  for  a  longer 
period  than  one  w^eek.  There  is  evidently  also  a  limit  to  the  length  of  time 
which  meat  should  remain  [u  cold  storage,  no  matter  how  low  the  temperature 
may  be,  since  the  action  of  organisms  which  produce  decay  cannot  be  entirely 
overcome.  The  exact  limit  at  which  frozen  meats  can  be  kept  without  becom- 
ing inedible  has  not  been  determined.  Without  this  determination,  however, 
it  is  advisable  that  such  limit  should  not  be  approached.  Inasmuch  as  the 
supply  of  fresh  meat  is  practically  uniform,  or  can  be  made  so  by  the  dealer 
therein ,  there  seems  no  good  reason  for  the  storage  of  meat  in  refrigerator  com- 
partments for  a  longer  time  than  is  necessary  for  transportation  and  a  reasonable 
time  thereafter  for  passing  into  consumption,  except  in  cases  of  emergency. 
It  might  be  safe  to  say  that  no  meat  should  be  kept  in  a  cold  storage  warehouse 
longer  than  a  month  after  its  reception.  Numerous  instances  might  be  cited 
in  which  meat  may  be  kept  for  a  much  longer  time,  but  the  question  for  the 
consumer  is  not  how  long  a  while  meats  can  be  kept  but  how  soon  they  can  be 
placed  in  his  hands.  In  this  connection  it  should  not  be  forgotten  that  it  is  the 
opinion  of  perhaps  the  majority  of  hygienists  and  connoisseurs  that  fresh  meat, 


CURING   OF   CONDIMENT AL   SUBSTANCES.  3$ 

especially  beef,  improves  for  a  certain  length  of  time  in  cold  storage.  It  is 
probable  that  the  fresh  beef  which  is  served  to  the  people  of  the  United  States 
is  on  an  average  a  month  old,  and  is  said  to  be  improved  by  keeping  this  length 
of  time.  This  is  a  question,  however,  which  is  still  undetermined,  and  it  de- 
serves a  further  investigation.  Under  present  conditions  it  is  well  to  know 
the  truth  respecting  these  matters  and  to  realize  that  the  fresh  meat  we  get, 
such  as  beef  and  mutton,  is  not  direct  from  the  shambles  but  has  been  kept  for 
at  least  four  weeks  in  cold  storage. 

Effect  of  Long  Cold  Storage.— It  has  been  stated  in  semi-scientific  publica- 
tions that  the  flesh  of  a  mammoth  incrusted  in  polar  ice  and  presumably  thou- 
sands of  years  old  has  been  found  to  be  intact  and  edible.  This  story,  lacking 
corroboration,  is  hardly  in  harmony  with  known  facts.  The  author  had  the 
opportunity  of  examining  a  quarter  of  beef  which  had  been  kept  frozen  in  a 
warehouse  for  more  than  eleven  years.  This  meat  was  found  to  be  wholly 
inedible.  It  had  an  unpleasant  and  mummy-like  odor,  was  light  in  fiber  and 
color,  having  evidently  lost  a  large  part  of  its  weight,  and  was  of  a  character 
wholly  unsuitable  for  consumption.  This  fact  appears  to  show  that  eleven 
years  is  too  long  a  time  in  which  to  keep  meat  frozen.  In  fact,  it  is  scarcely 
worth  while,  from  a  practical  point  of  view,  to  discuss  so  long  a  limit.  Only  the 
necessary  time  for  the  preparation  and  transportation  of  the  meat  is  to  be  con- 
sidered, and  the  sanitary  laws  of  the  nation,  states,  and  municipalities  should 
undoubtedly  regulate  the  time  of  cold  storage  and  see  that  all  packages  of  meat 
exposed  for  sale  are  plainly  tagged  as  to  the  date  of  slaughter,  in  order  that  the 
consumer  may  know. 

In  the  consideration  of  the  subject  of  preserved  meats  there  are  excluded  all 
meats  delivered  in  the  fresh  state  for  consumption  and  meats  kept  in  cold 
storage  in  a  fresh  state  during  the  necessary  time  of  preparation  and  transporta- 
tion say,  on  the  whole,  from  four  toeight  weeks.  Meats  kept  longer  than  this 
may  generally  be  considered  as  preserved  meats,  even  when  cold  is  the  only 
factor  active  in  their  preserv^ation. 

Method  of  Preserving  Meats. — Aside  from  cold  storage  there  are  four 
methods  in  vogue  for  preserving  meats.  These  may  be  classified  as  follows: 
(i)  Curing  with  the  aid  of  condimental  substances;  (2)  treatment  with  chem- 
ical and  non-condimental  preservatives;  (3)  sterilization  with  heat;  (4)  drying. 
All  of  these,  except  the  second,  may  be  regarded  as  legitimate  means  of  pre- 
serving meats. 

Curing  with  Condimental  Substances. — This  method  of  preserving  meat 
has  been  practiced  from  the  remotest  antiquity.  The  chief  condimental  sub- 
stances employed  are  salt,  sugar,  vinegar,  and  wood  smoke.  With  the  proper 
technical  skill  and  knowledge  of  the  process,  meats  can  be  preserved  in  this 
way,  and  at  the  same  time  aromas  and  flavors  developed  which  are  considered 
most  agreeable  by  the  consumer  and  which  give  an  additional  value  to  the 


$6  MEATS. 

product.  It  is  not  to  be  claimed  in  any  case  that  condimental  preservatives 
add  anything  to  the  nutritive  value  of  the  product,  except  in  so  far  as  condi- 
ments themselves  aid  the  digestion  by  exciting  in  a  perfectly  f)roper  way  the 
activity  of  the  glands  which  secrete  the  digestive  ferments. 

It  is  not  the  purpose  here  to  describe  the  technical  processes  used.  In  gen- 
eral it  may  be  said  that  the  application  of  salt  is  the  first  process,  and  this  is 
done  as  soon  after  the  slaughter  as  it  is  possible  to  secure  the  proper  cooling  of 
the  carcass,  usually  from  twenty-four  to  forty-eight  hours.  The  meat,  properly 
cut  into  the  forms  known  to  commerce,  is  carefully  packed  and  heavily  salted, 
and  allowed  to  remain  for  some  time  in  contact  with  the  salt  or  with  the  brine 
which  is  produced  therefrom.  The  salt  penetrates  to  the  interior  of  the  flesh 
and  hardens,  to  some  extent,  the  tissues,  abstracting  water  therefrom,  and,  with- 
out being  wholly  germicidal  in  character,  prevents  the  introduction  of  eggs  of 
insects  and  the  development  of  ordinary  germ  life.  The  salt,  however,  does 
not  entirely  inhibit  the  enzymic  action  which  tends  to  ripen  the  meat  and 
make  it  more  palatable.  It  naturally  gives  to  the  meat  the  salty  flavor  which 
is  demanded  by  the  taste  in  a  preparation  of  this  kind. 

Sugar  is  used,  if  at  all,  always  in  connection  with  salt  as  a  preservative  for 
meats.  It  may  be  employed  in  the  pure  state,  but  is  usually  the  yellow  or  low- 
grade  sugar  or  molasses.  It  gives  to  the  preserved  meat,  especially  ham,  a 
flavor  and  quality  much  appreciated  by  the  consumer. 

The  application  of  wood  smoke  is  usually  the  last  process  after  the  meats 
are  properly  cured  in  salt  and  sugar.  The  pieces  are  suspended  in  a  convenient 
room  and  underneath  is  built  a  fire  of  hard  wood,  which  is  kept  smouldering 
as  much  as  possible  in  order  to  produce  the  maximum  of  smoke  and  minimum 
of  heat.  Oak,  maple,  and  hickory  woods  are  most  highly  prized  for  this  pur- 
pose, since  they  develop  on  burning  a  rich  aroma  which  imparts  to  the  flesh  a 
delicate  flavor. 

The  object  of  curing  the  meat  is,  first,  to  prevent  decay;  second,  to  impart 

^    the  flavor  of  the  well  known  condiments  mentioned  above,  and  third,  to  favor 

the  development  of  the  enzymic  action  which  has  the  effect  not  only  of  making 

the  meat  more  aromatic  than  it  otherwise  would  be,  but  also  more  pleasant 

to  the  taste. 

The  curing  of  meat  in  this  respect  may  be  compared  to  the  development  of  a 
cheese,  except  that  the  enzymic  action  in  the  case  of  meat  is  one  of  minimum 
extent,  while  in  the  case  of  cheese  it  is  one  of  maximum  intensity.  In  addition 
to  the  condimental  substances  above  mentioned  spices  of  different  kinds  are 
sometimes  added.  Vinegar  is  also  used  at  times  as  a  condimental  substance 
and  is,  to  a  certain  extent,  also  a  preservative  substance,  but  vinegar  is  chiefly 
used  in  the  preservation  of  vegetable  substances  rather  than  meats  in  bulk. 
For  meats  which  are  spiced  as  well  as  preserved  as  above,  vinegar  is  often  used 
as  one  of  the  ingredients,  intended  as  a"  condimental  substance.     No  other 


PRESERVATIVES   USED.  37 

substances  than  those  mentioned  above  are  necessary  to  the  proper  curing  of 
meat,  but  convenience  of  application  and  certain  other  considerations  have  led 
packers  of  meats,  when  not  prevented  by  law,  to  abandon  the  old  methods  to 
a  certain  extent  and  substitute  what  is  known  as  the  quick-aging  process 
described  below. 

Preservation  by  Means  of  Non-condimental  Chemical  Preservatives. 
— The  use  of  non-condimental  chemicals  in  the  preservation  of  meat  is  practi- 
cally an  industry  of  the  last  quarter  of  a  century.  Up  to  that  time  the  use  of 
non-condimental  chemicals  was  practically  unknown  in  the  meat  industry. 
The  chemicals  employed  are  those  known  as  germicides.  In  the  quantities 
used  they  neither  impart  a  taste  nor  odor  to  a  preserved  meat,  but  by  their 
germicidal  properties  prevent  the  development  of  organic  ferments  and  thus 
make  the  preservation  of  meat  far  more  certain  and  very  much  less  expensive. 
By  the  use  of  some  chemicals  the  salting,  sugaring,  and  smoking  of  preserv-ed 
meats  may  be  done  with  very  much  less  care,  in  a  \ery  much  shorter  time,  and  at 
a  very  greatly  reduced  expense.  For  this  reason  the  practice  has  gained  a  great 
vogue,  not  as  a  means  of  benefiting  the  consumers,  but  rather  as  a  means  of 
enriching  the  packer  and  dealer.  Chemical  preservatives  are  also  highly 
objectionable  because  they  keep  meats  apparently  fresh,  while  in  reaUty 
changes  of  the  most  dangerous  character  may  be  going  on.  They  thus  prevent 
the  display  of  the  red  light  danger  signal. 

Preservatives  Used. — The  principal  chemical  preservatives  used  in  the 
curing  of  meats  are  borax  and  boric  acid  and  sulfite  of  soda.  There  are  many 
other  chemical  preservatives  which  have  been  employed,  but  these  are  by  far  the 
most  useful,  the  most  certain,  and  the  most  widely  employed.  Borax  and  boric 
acid,  of  the  two  classes,  are  by  far  the  more  common.  Sulfite  of  soda  is  used 
more  as  a  preservative  of  color,  and  is  probably  found  more  frequently  on  fresh 
than  on  preserv^ed  meats.  Borax  has  the  property  of  paralyzing  fermentative 
action  and  thus  securing  immunity  from  decay.  Its  use,  however,  tends  to 
diminish  the  palatability  of  the  meat  because  of  its  restraining  influence  upon 
the  condimental  method  of  preservation  described  above.  The  meats  are 
more  quickly  preserved,  require  less  condimental  substances,  and  the  borax 
probably  inhibits,  to  a  certain  degree,  the  enzymic  action  of  a  favorable  kind, 
described  above. 

The  use  of  any  kind  of  a  chemical  preserving  agent  on  meat  is  most 
reprehensible,  no  matter  what  it  may  be.  Unfortunately,  experts  differ 
respecting  the  influence  of  these  chemical  preservatives  upon  health.  The 
users  of  chemical  preserv^atives  have  employed  experts  of  known  fame  and  dis- 
tinction to  testify  in  favor  of  these  products,  while  the  consumer,  perhaps,  is  not 
able  to  go  to  the  expense  of  securing  expert  testimony,  and,  therefore,  as  re- 
spects numbers  of  witnesses,  at  least,  chemical  preserv^atives  have  an  advantage. 
In  a  case  of  this  kind  the  accused  must  be  considered  guilty  until  proven  in- 


38  MEATS. 

nocent.  It  is  not  sufficient  to  prove  in  a  given  case  that  borax  is  not  injurious. 
If  it  be  proven  that  it  is  injurious  in  a  single  case  conviction  must  ensue.  There 
is  no  doubt  of  the  fact  that  the  injurious  character  of  borax,  even  in  small 
quantities,  has  been  fully  established,  and  therefore  any  amount  of  testimony  to 
the  effect  that  in  individual  cases  it  has  not  produced  injurious  results  is  of  no 
value  whatever.  If  a  citizen  be  robbed  and  in  the  course  of  the  prosecution  it 
be  shown  that  there  are  a  million  citizens  who  have  not  been  robbed  by  this 
criminal  the  evidence  would  be  of  no  value.  If  it  has  been  shown  that  the  in- 
dividual citizen  has  been  robbed  the  prisoner  is  convicted.  No  expert  would 
testify  that  borax  has  never  been  injurious.-^even  those  who  appear  in  its. 
favor  admit  that,  but  plead  that  it  is  generally  used  in  small  quantities,  and, 
therefore,  cannot  be  harmful. 

The  Argument  of  Small  Quantities. — The  fallacy  of  the  argument  for 
small  quantities  is  so  evident  that  it  needs  only  to  be  presented  in  brief  form  to 
show  the  intelligent  and  thinking  people  of  this  country  the  fallacy  of  the  claims 
of  experts  in  favor  of  chemical  preservatives. 

The  arguments  which  have  been  advanced  in  excuse  of  the  use  of  preser- 
vatives when  used  in  minute  quantities  have,  perhaps,  been  more  vigorously 
urged  for  salicylic  acid  than  for  almost  any  other  substance.  This  argument 
has  been  urged  with  such  vigor  and  such  ingenuity  that  a  further  reference 
may  not  be  out  of  place  here.  The  principle  which  is  laid  down  is  that  a 
substance  which  is  injurious  to  health  when  added  to  foods,  if  not  a  natural 
constituent  thereof,  or  if  not  added  for  condimental  purposes,  does  not  lose 
its  power  of  injury  to  health  because  it  is  diluted  or  given  in  small  quantities. 
The  only  change  which  is  made  is  to  mask  the  injurious  effects  produced — to 
make  them  more  difficult  of  ascertainment  and  impossible  of  measurement. 
The  fallacy  of  the  argument  that  small  quantities  of  an  injurious  substance 
are  not  injurious  may,  perhaps,  be  best  represented  graphically.  The  accom- 
panying chart  (Fig.  7)  shows  theoretically  the  norriial  and  lethal  dose  of  a 
food  and  a  drug  or,  as  in  this  case,  a  chemical  preservative.  The  chart  shows 
two  curves,  one  representing  a  chemical  preservative  and  one  representing 
a  food.  The  normal  dose  of  a  food  is  that  quantity  of  food  which  maintains 
a  healthy  adult  body  in  equilibrium,  It  is  represented  in  the  chart  on  the 
right  by  the  number  100.  If  the  quantity  of  food  necessary  to  maintain  the 
equilibrium  in  a  healthy  adult  body  is  slightly  diminished,  no  apparent  change 
is  at  first  experienced  and  possibly  even  no  discomfort.  If,  however,  the 
quantity  of  food  be  still  further  diminished  progressively,  as  indicated  by 
following  the  curve  down  to  the  left,  the  point  is  finally  reached  when  no  food 
is  given  at  all  and  death  ensues,  represented  by  o  on  the  left  hand  of  the  dia- 
gram designated  "Lethal  dose."  As  the  curve  begins  to  deviate  from  the 
perpendicular  on  the  right  the  degree  of  injury  is  very  readily  noticed  and 
starvation  or  symptoms  of  starvation  are  set  up.     Thus  if  you  follow  the 


THE  ARGUMENT   OF   SMALL   QUANTITIES. 


59 


perpendicular  on  the  right  downward  to  the  point  80  the  divergence  of  the 
corresponding  point  of  the  curve  is  abeady  measurable.  As  you  descend  to 
o  the  magnitude  of  the  measurement  increases.  It  requires  but  very  little 
further  illustration  to  show  how  easily  the  effect  of  diminishing  the  normal 
dose  of  a  food  can  be  measured  immediately  after  the  curve  begins  to  vary- 
appreciably  from  the  perpendicular  on  the  right. 

Let  us  now  consider  the  perpendicular  on  the  left,  which  is  marked  at 
the  top  under  the  term  "Lethal  dose,"  namely,  a  quantity  of  the  added 
preservative  sufficient  to  destroy  life.  The  normal  dose  of  such  an  added 
chemical  preservative  is  o  and  is  shown  at  the  base  line  to  the  right,  'marked 


LETHAL  DOS£ 

100 


NORMAL  DOSE 

too 


LETHAL  DOSE 


75       NORMAL  D03E 


Fig.  7. — Graphic  Chart  Representing  the  Comparative  Influences  of  Foods  and 

Preservatives. 


•'Normal  dose."  If  you  add  a  very  minute  quantity  of  a  chemical  preserva- 
tive, the  curve  representing  it  varies  so  slightly  from  the  horizontal  base  as  to 
be  impossible  of  measurement  by  ordinary  means.  If  we  follow  along  to 
the  number  75  on  the  horizontal  base  we  see  the  deviation  of  the  curve  is 
sufficiently  great  to  measure.  At  50  it  is  still  greater,  at  25  still  greater,  while 
at  the  left  of  the  basic  line  it  is  a  maximum  extending  from  o  to  100,  or  the 
lethal  dose.  It  is  easy  to  show  by  mathematical  data  that  no  matter  how 
small  the  quantity  of  an  injurious  substance  or  preservative  it  will  still  produce 
an  injurious  effect  which  may  be  infinitely  small  if  the  dose  be  infinitely  small. 
It  follows,  then,  as  a  mathematical  demonstration  that  any  quantity  of  an 


or -HE 


40  MEATS. 

injurious  substance  added  to  a  food  product  must  of  necessity  be  injurious, 
provided  it  is  in  the  nature  of  a  drug  and  the  body  is  in  a  perfectly  healthy, 
normal  condition. 

Hence  the  argument  which  has  been  so  persistently  urged  in  favor  of  a 
chemical  preservative,  that  if  in  small  quantities  it  is  harmless,  is  shown  to 
be  wholly  untenable.  While  there  is  no  necessity  for  the  addition  of  a  harm- 
ful substance,  where  no  particular  benefit  is  secured  thereby,  and  where  there 
is  no  disturbance  of  the  normal  state  of  health,  there  can  be  no  possible  excuse 
of  a  valid  nature  to  offer  for  the  exhibition  of  even  minute  quantities.  That 
these  minute  quantities  would  not  be  dangerous  in  so  far  as  producing  any 
fatal  effect  is  concerned  is  conceded,  but  that  in  the  end  they  do  not  produce 
an  injury  even  in  these  small  quantities  is  certainly  to  be  denied.  The  course 
of  safety,  therefore,  in  all  these  cases  is  to  guard  the  opening  of  the  door. 
If  the  admission  of  small  quantities  is  permitted,  then  there  can  never  be  any 
agreement  among  experts  or  others  respecting  the  magnitude  of  the  small 
quantity,  and  continued  litigation  and  disagreement  must  follow.  On  the 
other  hand,  when  the  harmfulness  of  any  substance  which  it  is  proposed  to 
add  to  food  is  established  and  no  reason  for  its  use  can  be  given  other  than 
the  convenience,  carelessness,  or  indifference  of  the  manufacturer,  the  exclu- 
sion of  such  bodies  entirely  from  food  products  follows  as  a  logical  sequence 
and  a  hygienic  necessity. 

The  third  method  of  preparing  or  preserving  meat  is  by  sterilization.  Of 
all  the  various  methods  which  have  been  proposed  there  is  probably  none  which 
is,  theoretically,  so  free  of  objections  as  the  preservation  of  meat  by  sterilization, 
in  other  words,  as  canned  meats.  The  only  important  thing  is  that  the  raw 
material  used  in  canning  must  itself  be  meat  free  of  disease,  obtained  under 
sanitary  conditions,  and  subjected  to  sterilization  before  any  fermentation  or 
decay  takes  place.  Pure,  wholesome  meat  thus  prepared  and  thoroughly 
sterilized  will  remain  in  an  edible  condition  for  a  reasonable  length  of  time. 
Unfortunately,  as  has  has  been  shown  in  the  testimony  respecting  the  packing 
industry  of  the  country,  canned  meats  have  not  always  been  selected  solely  for 
freedom  from  disease  and  for  palatability.  The  question  of  diseased  meat  is 
discussed  in  another  part  of  this  book  and,  therefore,  may  not  be  taken  up  here. 
There  have  been  used  for  canning  purposes  the  fragments  and,  perhaps,  in- 
edible portions  of  carcasses,  and  this  practice  cannot  be  too  severely  condemned. 
This  does  not  mean  that  these  fragments  and  portions  of  carcasses  are  not 
fit  for  food,  but  they  should  be  collected,  prepared,  and  sold  as  such  with  plain 
notices  to  the  consumers  of  their  origin.  A  cheaper  supply  of  beef  would  thus 
be  furnished  for  those  in  humbler  circumstances,  and  no  imposition  of  any  kind 
would  be  practiced  because  the  nature  of  the  meat  would  be  fully  understood. 

Preparation  of  Meat  for  Canning. — In  the  following  description  it  is 
understood  that  the  ordinary  processes  of  canning  sound,  properly  prepared 


PARBOILING.  41 

beef  are  described.     The  question  of  the  canning  of  improper  samples  is  re- 
served for  the  remarks  on  adulterations. 

There  is  no  uniform  practice  followed,  as  has  been  carefully  ascertained  by  a 
study  of  the  different  packing  houses  and  processes  for  selecting  and  preparing 
meats  for  canning.  The  exigencies  of  trade  determine  this  to  a  greater  or  less 
extent.  When  there  is  a  demand  in  the  fresh  state  for  all  the  beef  which  can  be 
supplied  the  canning  industry  will  necessarily  suffer.  WTien  there  is  a  surplus 
of  beef  offered  for  sale  or  in  case  of  war,  where  the  army  contracts  for  large 
quantities  of  canned  meat,  the  opposite  conditions  probably  prevail,  and  the 
best  meats  are  used  for  canning  purposes  and  those  of  a  less  desirable  quality 
offered  for  sale  in  the  fresh  state.  The  portions  of  the  carcass  used,  as 
described  in  Bulletin  13,  Part  10,  Bureau  of  Chemistry,  depend,  to  some  ex- 
tent, upon  the  market  of  fresh  beef.  All  of  the  meat  on  the  fore  quarter,  ex- 
cept the  shank  and  the  "third  rib,"  is  usually  canned,  and  in  some  cases  those 
portions  are  not  reserved.  The  cheaper  cuts  from  the  hind  quarter  are  also 
used  for  preserving  purposes.  Very  fat,  and  therefore  easily  marketed,  car- 
casses are  not  used  for  canning  purposes  except  in  case  of  unusual  demand 
as  above  stated.  There  are  two  reasons  for  this,  one  of  which  has  already 
been  outlined,  namely,  that  such  meat  brings  a  better  price  in  the  fresh  state, 
and,  in  the  second  place,  lean  meat  has  a  better  appearance  in  the  canned  state 
than  the  fat  meat.  For  these  reasons,  in  the  proper  preparation  of  the  meat 
for  canning,  the  more  fatty  portions,  together  with  the  gristle,  are  removed  and 
sent  to  other  parts  of  the  factory  for  making  up  into  other  kinds  of  food. 

The  meat  having  been  selected,  it  is  cut  into  pieces  of  approximately  from  one 
to  four  pounds  in  weight,  according  to  the  size  of  the  tins  in  which  it  is  to  be 
placed.  It  is  important,  for  the  purpose  of  appearances,  that  the  size  of  the 
pieces  of  meat  in  each  tin  be  approximately  the  same.  Also  for  the  process 
of  sterilization  the  pieces  of  meat  should  be  practically  the  same  size,  so  that  they 
can  all  be  thoroughly  sterilized  at  the  same  time.  If  the  pieces  be  of  different 
sizes  the  small  ones  would  become  thoroughly  cooked  and  disintegrated  before 
the  large  ones  became  thoroughly  sterilized,  and  thus  the  mass  which  would  be 
presented  to  the  view  on  opening  the  can  would  be  unpleasant  to  the  sight. 

Parboiling. — After  the  pieces  have  been  selected  and  dressed  they  are  par- 
boiled before  being  sterilized.  The  time  of  parboiling  varies  in  different  pack- 
ing establishments  from  eight  to  twenty  minutes,  according  to  the  size  of  the 
pieces  of  meat.  In  some  cases  a  uniform  time  for  parboiling  is  prescribed, 
irrespective  of  the  size  of  the  pieces'.  One  of  the  principal  reasons  for  parboil- 
ing the  mekt  is  to  secure  the  shrinkage,  which  always  takes  place  on  heating, 
before  the  meat  is  placed  in  the  tins. 

The  experiments  have  shown  that  meats  when  put  in  tins  in  a  fresh  state 
and  sterilized  shrink  to  about  two-thirds  of  their  original  volume.  Parboiling 
is,  in  the  essence,  a  process  of  shrinking.     When  the  meat  is  put  at  once  into 


42  MEATS. 

boiling  water  there  is  less  loss  of  protein  matter  than  when  the  meat  is  placed 
in  cold  water  and  heated  gradually.  The  substances  removed  in  parboiling 
are  water,  fat,  soluble  mineral  matter,  and  the  meat  bases.  The  fat  is  removed 
by  becoming  rendered,  and  rises  to  the  surface  where  it  can  be  skimmed 
off.  A  little  over  one  percent  of  the  protein  content  of  meat  is  lost  by  par- 
boiling while  the  total  meat  bases  lost  amount  to  almost  one-third  of  the  total 
quantity  contained  in  the  meat.  Of  mineral  matter  in  the  meat  as  high  as  50 
percent  is  lost  in  parboiling. 

By  shrinking,  parboiling  tends  to  make  a  more  concentrated  article  and  thus 
favors  transportation.  Practically  the  nutritive  value  of  a  pound  of  properly 
canned  beef  is  about  one-third  greater  than  that  of  one  pound  of  the  fresh  beef 
of  the  same  kind.  Hence  parboiling  may  be  regarded  as  a  perfectly  legitimate 
and  desirable  process  without  which  the  beef  could  not  be  properly  prepared 
for  canning. 

Tiniling. — After  the  meat  is  properly  parboiled  it  is  placed  in  the  tins  either 
by  machinery  or  by  hand.  To  each  tin  is  added  a  small  quantity  of  a  liquid 
preparation  made  by  the  canners  and  known  as  soup  liquor.  This  liquor 
generally  contains  salt,  and  sometimes  a  little  sugar  or  molasses.  The  compo- 
sition of  soup  liquor  is  as  follows : 

Solids, 

Protein, 

Meat  bases, 

Ash, 

Salt, 

Water, 98 

This  soup  liquor  may  be  regarded  as  a  thin  soup.  The  origin  of  the  liquid 
analyzed  above  was  not  disclosed,  and,  therefore,  no  expression  can  be  made  of 
the  way  in  which  it  was  formed.  It  was  probably  made  from  soup  stock,  namely, 
the  waste  meat  and  bones  of  the  factory.  There  is  no  objection  to  a  soup  liquor 
of  this  kind  provided  it  is  made  from  sound,  clean,  and  wholesome  material. 
There  are  two  reasons  for  adding  this  liquid,  namely,  to  fill  up  the  space  which 
would  otherwise  exist  between  the  pieces  of  meat  and  thus  aid  in  the  preservation 
of  the  material,  and,  second,  to  add  a  condimental  substance  which  makes  the 
contents  of  the  tin  more  palatable. 

Sterilization. — After  the  cans  are  filled  in  this  way  and  closed  by  soldering 
or  otherwise  they  are  placed  in  retorts  which  are  composed  of  strong  iron  or  steel 
boilers,  properly  covered  and  secured,  and  when  these  boilers  are  full  they  are 
subjected  to  the  action  of  steam  heat  under  pressure.  Usually  a  small  hole  is 
left  in  the  can  through  which  any  gas,  air  or  other  kind,  is  expelled  from  the  can. 
As  soon  as  everything  is  complete  the  retorts  are  opened  and  the  cans  are  sealed. 

In  all  cases,  however,  after  sealing  the  cans  they  are  subjected  to  a  second 
heating  at  a  temperature  of  from  225  to  250  degrees  F.  The  time  of  heating 
varies  from  one  to  two  hours.     After  removal  from  the  retorts  the  cans  are  washed 


.Q2 

percent 

•OQ 

•23 

.28 

.11 

•37 

EFFECT   OF   PARBOILING.  43 

with  a  spray  of  cold  water  for  several  hours,  and  they  are  then  dried,  painted, 
and  labeled. 

The  above  is  a  general  description  of  the  process  employed  which,  however,  is 
varied  to  some  extent  in  different  packing  houses. 

A  modification  of  the  above  method  consists  in  exhausting  the  cans  in  vacuo 
and  automatically  sealing  them  in  the  exhausted  state,  thus  removing  all  air 
and  other  gases  therefrom.  The  cans  are  then  placed  upon  an  endless  con- 
veyor and  dipped  into  an  oil  bath  at  a  temperature  of  240  degrees,  the  speed  of 
the  conveyer  being  so  regulated  that  the  cans  remain  in  the  bath  a  sufficient 
length  of  time  to  complete  sterilization  before  being  carried  out  at  the  op- 
posite end.  After  passing  through  this  bath  they  are  carried  automatically  into 
another  bath  consisting  of  a  solution  of  carbonate  of  soda  and,  finally,  into  a 
bath  of  pure  water.  The  cans  are  then  painted  and  labeled  as  originally 
described. 


SPECIAL  STUDIES  OF  METHODS  OF  CANNING  BEEF  MADE  IN 
BUREAU  OF  CHEMISTRY. 
Composition  of  Beef  Used  for  Canning. — Samples  of  fresh  beef  in- 
tended for  canning  purposes,  and  examined  in  the  Bureau  of  Chemistry, 
have  the  following  composition: 

Water, 7i-i7  percent 

Insoluble  protein, 13-87 

Globulins, 1,38 

Proteoses,  peptones,  and  gelatin, 1.31 

Meat  bases, 1.09 

Fat, 9.89 

Ash, 96 

Salt, 04 

Undetermined, 33 

The  sample,  of  which  the  above  data  are  representative,  was  secured  from  a 
mass  of  meat  weighing  356  pounds,  after  passing  through  a  sausage  grinder 
and  being  thoroughly  mixed.  The  class  of  cattle  which  are  sold  imder  the  term 
"  canners"  on  the  Chicago  market  bring  the  lowest  prices  of  any  edible  animals 
offered  for  sale.  This  would  indicate  that  canned  beef  is  not  of  as  good  quality 
as  the  ordinary  beef  bought  on  the  market. 

Effect  of  Parboiling. — A  similar  lot  of  meat  secured  in  the  same  way 
and  from  the  same  carcass  weighed  358  pounds  and  was  parboiled  as  fol- 
lows: The  meat  was  placed  in  water  in  a  steam- jacketed  tank,  the  tem- 
perature of  which  stood  at  196  degrees  F.  The  reduction  in  the  temperature 
caused  by  the  meat  was  restored  by  heating  the  contents  of  the  retort,  and  it 
was  kept  at  196  degrees  F.  for  15  minutes.  It  is  thus  seen  that  this  parboihng 
was  accomplished  at  a  temperature  below  the  boiling  point  of  water.  After  the 
parboiling  was  completed  it  was  found  that  the  meat  weighed  235  pounds, 
showing  a  net  shrinkage  in  weight  of  1 23  pounds.     This  sample  of  meat  ^'^'^s 


44 


MEATS. 


then  tinned  in  two-pound  cans  with  the  addition  to  each  can  of  two  ounces  of 
canning  jelly  of  the  following  composition: 

Water, 95-i8  percent 

Protein, 1.75        " 

Common  salt, 2.85        " 

Ash, 22        « 

After  sterilizing,  the  cans  were  opened  and  the  contents  subjected  to  analysis. 
The  data  obtained  are  as  follows: 

Water, 62.47  percent 

Total  protein, 24.88 

Insoluble  protein, 22.25 

Proteoses,  peptones,  and  gelatin, 2.63 

Meat  bases, 1.15 

Fat, 9.87 

Ash, 91 

Salt, 19 

Composition  oj  Parboiling  Water. — The  liquor,  after  parboiHng  the  above 
sample,  weighed  280  pounds  and  had  the  following  composition: 

Water, 99.12  percent 

Protein, 06        " 

Meat  bases, 25        " 

Ash, : 25 

Salt, 05 

The  above  data  show  that  the  general  effect  of  parboiling  upon  the  canned 
meat  is  to  diminish  its  content  of  water.  Only  a  small  quantity  of  the  soluble 
proteids  is  found  in  the  liquor,  and  the  other  principal  constituents  removed,  aside 
from  water,  are  the  meat  bases  and  mineral  content  or  ash.  The  fat  in  the 
soup  Hquor  was  not  determined  because  it  rises  to  the  surface  and  is  not  in  any 
sense  a  constituent  of  the  liquor  itself.  Considerable  quantities  of  fat  were  re- 
moved in  parboiling,  the  amount  depending  largely  upon  the  temperature. 
At  a  low  temperature  of  parboiling,  such  as  described,  the  amount  of  fat  se- 
cured is  far  less  than  when  the  temperature  of  parboihng  is  higher. 


Table  Showing  the  Comparative  Effect  or  Parboiling  and  Sterilizing  upon 

THE  Fresh  Beef. 


Constituents. 


Water, 

Protein, 

Meat  bases,... 

Fat, 

Ash, 

Salt, 

Undetermined, 
Total... 


Fresh  Beef. 


Lbs. 

254.8 

59-3 

3-9 

35-4 

3-4 

.1 

1.2 

358^ 


Extracted  by 
Boiling. 


Lbs. 
122. 1 
.1 

•7 
12.2 

•7 
.1 


Added  in 
Canning. 


Lbs. 

14.1 
.1 
.0 

.2 
.2 


Composition 
OF  Canned 
Beef  as  De- 
termined BY 

Analysis. 


Lbs. 
146.8 

58.5 

2.7 

23.2 

2.1 

.4 

1-7 

235-4 


PARBOILING.  45 

Preparation  of  Canned  Beef  with  More  Intensive  Parboiling. — In  another  ex- 
periment, determining  the  effect  of  the  changes  produced  upon  the  fresh  meat, 
more  vigorous  preparatory  operations  were  performed.  Samples  were  secured 
from  eight  healthy  carcasses  for  use  in  this  determination.  Half  of  the  sample 
was  reduced  to  sausage  and  secured  for  analysis  as  described,  and  the  other, 
submitted  to  parboiling,  sterilizing,  and  ana-lysis. 

Composition  of  the  Sample  of  Fresh  Meat. 

Water, 69.33  percent 

Total  protein, 16.81  " 

Insoluble  protein, 12.69  " 

Globulins, 3.06  " 

Proteoses,  peptones,  and  gelatin, 1,06  " 

Meat  bases, 1.12  " 

Fat, 10.68 

Ash, 1. 13 

Salt, 24  " 

The  original  sample  represented  over  a  thousand  pounds.  The  opposite 
sides  of  the  carcasses  were  prepared  for  canning  and  produced  the  following 
amount  of  articles  as  sold  on  the  market : 

Total  weight  of  half  carcasses, 1,761  pounds 

3  ribs, 53 

5  rolls, 43 

5  loins, 166 

3  tenderloins, 13 

3  sirloin  butts, 28 

3  boneless  strips, 24 

8  rump  butts, 36 

8  flank  steaks, 8 

8  kidneys, 9 

24  beef  hams, 261 

Shank  meat, 85 

Soft  bones, , .  198 

Shank  bones, 107 

Tank  tallow, 132 

Canning  meat, 598 

The  above  data  show  that  only  about  one-third  of  the  whole  carcass  is  suit- 
able for  canning  purposes.  The  best  and  juiciest  pieces,  it  is  noticed,  are  cut 
away  and  sold  for  other  purposes.  In  explanation  of  the  above  data  it  should 
be  stated  that  only  the  fore-quarters  of  the  carcass  were  used  and  not  the  whole 
carcass. 

The  above  is  another  evidence  of  the  fact  that  canned  meat  is  not  of  first-class 
quahty.  This,  however,  does  not  imply  that  it  may  not  be  made  of  healthy 
animals  nor  that  it  is  not  nutritious.  The  canning  of  low  grade  meats  tends  to 
raise  the  price  of  the  higher  grades. 

Parboiling. — The  parboiling  of  this  sample  was  accomplished  in  the  follow- 
ing manner:  The  meat  was  first  placed  in  cold  water,  50  degrees  F.,  and 
heated  by  means  of  injected  steam.  In  five  minutes  the  temperature  had 
reached  122  degrees  F.,  and  at  the  end  of  eleven  minutes  the  boiling  temperature 


46  MEATS. 

was  reached  and  continued  for  one  hour.     The  soup  liquor  resulting  from  the 
parboihng  weighed  1,500  pounds  and  had  the  following  composition: 

Water, 99.08  percent 

Protein, 09        " 

Meat  bases, 23        " 

Ash, 28 

Salt, II 

These  data  show  that,  as  in  the  other  cases,  the  chief  extraction  from  the 
meat  during  parboiling  is  water  and  the  next  most  important  removal  is  of 
meat  bases  and  mineral  matter  or  ash.  After  sterilization  in  the  usual  way  the 
cans  were  opened  and  the  canned  beef  subjected  to  analysis.  The  composi- 
tion of  the  canned  beef  was  as  follows: ' 

Water, 56.18  percent 

Total  protein, 3i-57  " 

Insoluble  protein, 27.94  " 

Proteoses,  peptones,  and  gelatin, 3.63  " 

Meat  bases, 1.44  " 

Fat, 7.72 

Ash, 82 

Common  salt, 04  " 

Composition  of  the  Fresh  and  Canned  Meat, — Below  is  found  a  table  simi- 
lar to  that  already  given  for  the  other  sample,  showing  the  composition  of 
fresh  beef  and  the  resulting  canned  beef. 


Constituents. 

Fresh  Beef. 

Extracted  by 
Boiling. 

Added  in 
Canning. 

Composition 
OF  Canned 
Beef  as  De- 
termined BY 

Analysis. 

Water, 

Lbs. 
414.6 
100.5 
6.7 

63-9 
6.8 

5-5 

598 

Lbs. 
243.2 

1-3 

3-4 

39-2 

4.2 

Lbs. 
12.9 

Lbs. 

184.3 

lOI 

Proteins, 

4.6 

24.7 

2.6 

Fat, 

Ash, 

Undetermined, 

2.8 

Total, 

.... 

320 

From  the  above  table  it  is  seen  that  the  shrinkage  during  parboiling  amounts 
to  46.49  percent  of  the  weight  of  the  fresh  meat.  Of  this  shrinkage  82.85  per- 
cent is  water,  14. 11  percent  is  fat,  1.51  percent  ash,  and  0.82  percent  meat 
bases.  It  is  noticed  that  more  than  half  of  the  water  originally  found  in  the 
meat  is  extracted  by  parboiling. 

It  seems  rather  anomalous  that  boiling  a  substance  with  water  would  extract 
water  from  it,  but  in  the  case  of  meats  it  is  seen  that  half  the  water,  or  even 
more,  which  a  meat  contains' is  extracted  from  it  by  boiling  in  water. 


CANNING   OF   BEEF   WITHOUT    PARBOILING.  47 

The  two  samples  given  are  extreme  cases  in  the  method  of  preparing  meats  for 
canning.  In  the  first  instance  the  meat  is  placed  at  once  into  hot  water  just  be- 
low the  boiling  point  and  kept  there  for  only  a  short  time.  In  the  second  case 
the  meat  is  placed  in  cold  water  and  is  brought  to  the  boiling  point  and  main- 
tained there  for  one  hour.  In  the  last  case  the  low  temperature  of  the  w^ater  in 
which  the  meat  was  originally  placed  favors  the  extraction  of  a  portion  of  the 
soluble  protein  matter,  namely,  albumins,  globulins,  etc.,  while,  on  the  other 
hand,  the  long-continued  boiling  to  which  it  was  subjected  tends  to  decompose 
the  connective  tissues  of  the  meat  and  causes  the  loss  of  small  particles  of  the  in- 
soluble protein  thus  separated  by  disintegration.  Although  in  the  last  case 
the  shrinkage  w^as  much  greater  than  in  the  preceding  experiment,  practically 
no  insoluble  protein  matter  was  extracted,  mechanically  or  otherwise* 

Canning  of  Beef  without  Parboiling. — To  determine  the  amount  of  shrink- 
age which  takes  place  and  the  general  effect  which  is  produced  by  canning 
meats  without  parboiling,  samples  were  prepared,  sterilized,  and  canned  in 
the  usual  way,  wuth  the  exception  of  the  omission  of  parboiling.  On  opening 
the  cans  it  was  found  in  each  case  that  the  meat  had  shrunk  to  about  two- 
thirds  of  its  former  volume  and  that  the  place  was  occupied  by  a  liquid  con- 
taining a  number  of  particles  of  solid  matter.  The  appearance  of  the  sample 
was  much  less  inviting  than  that  of  meat  canned  after  parboiling. 

An  analysis  of  the  sample  was  made,  with  the  following  results:  Total  weight 
of  sample,  31  ounces;  weight  of  canned  meat,  21  ounces. 

Water, 63.83  percent 

Protein, 27.25         " 

Meat  bases, i  .09        " 

Fat, , : 4-62 

Ash, - i.oi 

Salt, 04 

Undetermined, 1.20        " 

Composition  oj  Liquid. — The  liquid  in  the  can  was  examined  with  the  fol- 
lowing result:  Weight  of  liquor,  10  ounces. 

Solids, 6.93  percent 

Protein  and  gelatin, i  .94        " 

Meat  bases, 1.84        " 

Ash, 1.22        " 

Salt, • 1. 15        " 

The  above  data  show  that  the  beef  lost  32.06  percent  of  its  weight  in  the 
canning,  a  little  over  half  of  which  is  water. 

It  appears  that  less  protein  matter  is  extracted  when  the  meat  is  parboiled 
by  being  plunged  into  boiling  water  than  when  it  is  packed  in  a  can  without  par- 
boiling and  subsequently  subjected  to  the  temperature  of  sterilization.  In  the 
former  case  the  soluble  proteins  in  meat  near  the  surface  are  coagulated  before 
they  can  diffuse  into  the  surrounding  water.     In  the  other  case,  owing  to  the 


48  MEATS. 

low  conductivity  of  meat,  the  temperature  at  the  surface  of  the  can  penetrates 
slowly  to  the  interior  and  the  juices  which  are  extracted  from  the  meat  carry 
with  them  protein  matter  in  solution  which  is  afterwards  precipitated  by  heat 
and  remains  in  the  liquid  as  matter  coagulated  at  the  temperature  of  steriliza- 
tion. 

It  is  seen  that  parboiling  has  many  advantages.  It  extracts  less  of  the 
valuable  matter  from  the  meat,  it  shrinks  the  meat  before  packing  so  that  the 
ins  contain  more  nutrient  matter,  and  it  improves  the  appearance  of  the  meat 
to  the  consumer  when  opened.    , 

Relation  of  Canned  to  Fresh  Meat. — In  the  following  table  is  given  the 
number  of  ounces  of  canned  meat  in  a  number  of  cans  compared  with  the 
equivalent  amount  of  fresh  beef  used  in  filling  them: 

No.  OF  Can.  Canned  Beef,      Equivalent  to  Fresh  Beef. 

Ounces.  Ounces. 

I, 29  44.2 

2, 29.9  42.6 

3, 28.5  38.7 

4, 12.6  19 

5> 30-5  57 

6, - 30-6  50-0 

Means, 26.9  42.1 

It  thus  appears  that  a  can  of  26.9  ounces  of  beef  contains,  as  an  average  con- 
tent, an  amount  of  meat  equivalent  to  42.1  ounces  of  fresh  beef,  and  retains 
practically  all  of  the  nutrient  value  of  the  larger  quantity  of  fresh  beef. 

Canned  Ham  and  Bacon. — It  seems  unnecessary,  as  a  rule,  to  can  ham  and 
bacon  properly  cured  and  transported  in  a  suitable  manner.  There  are  occa- 
sions justifying  the  use  of  these  products  in  tropical  countries  and  in  other  places 
far  remote  from  the  sources  of  manufacture,  and  where  the  preservation  of 
them,  by  reason  of  the  character  of  the  climate,  is  difficult. 

The  proper  preparation  of  these  articles,  packing  in  tins  and  sterilizing,  makes 
it  possible  to  send  them  to  the  most  distant  points  and  to  have  them  consumed 
in  the  most  unfavorable  climatic  conditions.  Canned  ham,  as  it  is  found  upon 
the  market,  has  a  higher  percentage  of  fat  and  a  consequently  lower  per- 
centage of  protein  than  canned  beef.  The  ham  is  packed  closely  and  the 
smaller  pieces  added  for  the  purpose  of  filling  up  interstices  between  the 
larger  pieces  of  meat  and  keeping  the  can  full.  It  is  reasonable  to  infer  that 
the  added  meat  is  pork,  although  very  probably  it  may  not  always  be  so. 

Composition  of  Canned  Ham  and  Bacon. — The  character  of  the  canned 
ham  and  bacon  upon  the  market  may  be  illustrated  by  the  composition  of 
the  following  samples  (these  samples  were  purchased  in  the  open  market 
and  are  presumably  representative  of  the  products  as  commonly  sold  in  the 
shops) : 


CANNED   HAM   AND    BACON. 


49 


puoma  mnipog 


o^ 


^^sy 


■i^d 


lOOvO  t^-<r<N  -"l-t^CN  t^  -g-oo 


.   M^OO  t^Q'O  t^t^N   urjrOQ  lO 
.  oc  vd  t^  d^vO  rOt^r<7<svd  t-^iOO 


■(!='z-9XN)«P10-id 


•FJox 


^   O  O^  O^  IT-  'O  1 


Ot+  o  ^O   I-I  c 


•puo|qD  ranipog 


•qsv 


J  00  Tj-  q  ro  rooq  f^  »9  q  c^o  ^t^ 

.  CO  uo  lO  Ttod  CO  M  ro  iTi  dv  CO  pJ 


•S9SBq  JB3J\: 

•UIUI 

-ojq    ^q    p3iB;idp3Jd 
sppjojd  pu-B  spiouijB|3Q 

•spiajojd  p3jBin3B03 

(J  « >^oq  vq  PI  q  q  q^^^  <»  ^oq 
d'2  S'd  ii?d  °  d  ;:^«^'^"^"^<^ 

•(S2-9XN)  apioJJ 

.  cs  to  r4o6  d^  CO  p)  00  >-H  lovd  oo  co 

sas^q  jB3p^ 


•uiuiojq  i{q  pajBjidpajj 


spia^ojd  p3jB^n3B03 


•F^ox 


•IBJ 


•aauBjsqns  33jj-;bj  m  lajB^ 


•J3JB\\^ 


CO  UOOO  •«*■  O  ( 


;\g  O   g^pj   O^^  t^j*-<J-^0  g-O  >0 


t^  lO  P)   CO  lOOO  •*  Tj-0 


r^  uo  CO  TT  t~^  uo  o 

d^^d  r^ 

■  p)  Pi 


o  o  1^  CO  r^  -"^^O  r^  Tf  o  ro  o^  < 
00  CO  p)  m  t^  f^  lAjoo  c^.  lO  t^vo  o 
CO  rood  >-<  \d  d  vd  d  lOoo  d  d^  ■ 
-^in-^ri-co-^coioi-i  «  p<  -<  I 


S—  o  ^ 
rt  <"  o  c/5  c 


_a;33 
5  O 


coo 

O  W" 

T) 
O     -       TO  ■■  ■ 
o  a;  r     •^- 

C  rt  o  1-  .o  rt-r-4< 
J  rC  K  CT;  02  cn  O  tin 


50  MEATS. 

Adulteration  of  Canned  Ham  and  Bacon. — From  the  above  data  it  is 
seen  that  the  products  are  probably  true  to  name,  and  are  actually  ham  and 
bacon.  The  principal  adulterations  which  are  found  in  these  articles  are 
preservatives  and  coloring  matters.  The  coloring  matter  usually  found  is 
saltpeter  which,  in  one  instance,  was  present  to  the  extent  of  one-tenth  of  one 
percent  and  the  average  quantity  found  was  one-twentieth  of  one  percent. 
Saltpeter  is  not  used  as  a  preservative,  although  it  is  often  claimed  by  packers 
that  such  is  the  case.  In  the  minute  quantities  in  which  it  is  employed  it 
has  little  or  no  effect  as  a  preservative  if,  indeed,  it  could  be  deemed  a  ger- 
micidal substance.  The  principal  preservative  which  is  found  is  boric  acid. 
In  fourteen  cases  examined,  however,  only  two  contained  this  preservative, 
which  shows  that  there  is  no  necessity  for  its  use  on  any  occasion.  Under 
the  new  meat  inspection  law  all  meat  products  prepared  for  interstate  and  for- 
eign commerce  are  packed  under  direct  supervision  of  the  Department  of 
Agriculture  and  the  use  of  boron  compounds  is  prohibited. 

Canned  Tongue. — Several  varieties  of  canned  tongue  are  found  upon  the 
market  known  as  ox  tongue,  lamb  tongue,  luncheon  tongue,  etc.  The  tongues 
of  calves,  steers,  sheep,  lambs,  and  swine  are  the  ones  which  are  usually  canned, 
and  they  may  be  previously  pickled  before  canning.  The  average  composition 
of  the  canned  tongue  upon  the  market  is  shown  from  the  following  data  based 
upon  the  examination  of  seventeen  samples: 

Water, 55- 1 7  percent 

Fat, 20,23  " 

Protein, 19-43  " 

Meat  bases, 1.23  " 

Glycogen, 24  " 

Total  ash,   3.71  " 

Of  which  common  salt,     2.90  " 

The  data  show  that  in  the  canning  of  tongue  a  large  quantity  of  fat  is 
present,  more  than  the  true  part  of  the  tongue  contains.  Nearly  all  of  the 
samples  examined  contained  saltpeter,  the  largest  quantity  found  being 
.15  percent. 

Adulteration  of  Canned  Tongue. — It  is  not  probable  that  any  meat,  except 
the  tongue  itself,  is  used  for  canning,  but  the  contents  may  not  be  true  to  name. 
The  fat  dressing  employed  is  not  specified,  and  probably  its  character  and  amount 
rest  alone  with  the  ideas  of  the  manufacturer  relative  thereto.  Presumably 
the  fat  should  be  of  the  same  animal  as  the  tongue.  A  critical  examination  of 
the  fat  will,  however,  reveal  whether  or  not  this  is  the  case. 

Saltpeter  is  the  most  common  adulteration,  and  is  used  solely  to  impart  or 
preserve  the  red  color  of  the  fresh  meat.  Boric  acid  is  also  occasionally  em- 
ployed.    One  of  the  samples  contained  boric  acid. 

Without  inspection  of  the  process  of  manufacture,  it  is  not  possible  to  be 
assiu"ed  of  the  sanitary  conditions  of  the  meats  which  are  sold  as  canned  tongue 


POTTED    MEATS. 


51 


and  also  of  the  sanitary  conditions  of  the  canning  itself.  These  are  all  matters 
of  the  highest  importance  to  the  consumer,  and  should  be  attested  by  proper  in- 
spection certificates.  Under  the  new  meat  law  only  the  proper  articles  can  be 
certified  by  the  officials  in  charge  of  inspection. 

Examination  of  Fat  as  a  Test  for  Adulterations. — It  is  evident,  from 
what  has  already  been  said,  that  the  character  of  the  fats  which  are  used  in  the 
canning  of  preserved  meats  is  not  always  the  same  as  that  of  the  meat  to 
which  they  are  added.  A  careful  study  has  been  made  in  the  Bureau  of 
Chemistry  of  the  fats  extracted  from  different  canned  meats.  The  chemical 
and  physical  characteristics  of  these  fats  are  given  in  the  following  table: 


Source  of  Fat. 

Melting 
Point. 

Chilling              Iodin 
Point.             Number. 

Maumen£ 

>■  UMBER. 

Degrees  Bu- 

tyro-refrac- 

tometer. 

Canned  roast  beef, 

Canned  smoked  beef, 

Canned  ham  and  bacon, . 
Fowl, 

36.5-43.9 
37.7-41.8 
23.6-30.5 
28.0-34.0 

C.° 

27.8-37.0 
22.0-29.0 
17.5-24.0 
12.0-36.5 

36.1-50.6 

50-9-57-5 
48.5-68.2 
67.0-86.4 

C.° 
35.6-36.0 

39.8-43.5 
38.9-52.0 

47-0-55-5 

51-0-58.5 
49.0-58.2 
49.0-62.5 

It  has  been  noticed  that  the  crystals  deposited  by  the  evaporation  of  the 
ether  solution  of  chicken  fat  resemble  beef  stearin  in  shape,  but  are  much 
smaller  and  more  delicate.  It  is  seen  that  the  melting  point  of  fat  in  ham  and 
bacon  is  rather  lower  than  in  leaf  lard.  It  is  evident,  therefore,  that  this 
fat  is  not  lard  or,  at  least,  not  wholly  composed  of  the  best  lard,  but  prob- 
ably consists  of  the  fat  not  usually  employed  for  lard  making. 

Potted  Meats. — There  is  found  on  the  market  a  large  number  of  varieties  of 
potted  meat.  It  is  difficult  to  describe  in  any  scientific  way  these  potted  meats 
because  the  term  "potted"  is  employed  by  all  manufacturers  to  describe  a 
mixture  of  a  great  many  different  articles,  the  exact  composition  of  which  is 
usually  a  trade  secret.  There  is,  apparently,  an  understanding  among  manu- 
facturers that  the  labels  of  potted  goods  are  not  intended  in  any  way  to  indicate 
the  variety  of  meat  or  principal  meats  contained  in  the  package.  In  the  ab- 
sence of  any  trade,  sanitary,  or  chemical  standard  it  is  difficult  to  make  any 
just  criticism  of  the  character  of  the  potted  goods  upon  the  market. 

The  principal  object  of  mentioning  them  here  is  to  inform  the  consumer  of 
the  probable  character  of  the  potted  goods  which  he  may  consume,  and  to  let 
him  understand  that  it  is  by  no  means  certain  that  the  name  of  the  meat  upon 
the  label  describes  the  character  of  the  meat  which  he  is  actually  eating.  The 
chief  object  in  the  manufacture  of  potted  meat  is  to  make  a  supply  of  uniform 
character  and  consistency,  and  properly  spiced  and  flavored  to  attract  and  hold 
the  patronage  of  the  consumer. 

A  certain  degree  of  consistency  is  estabhshed  by  each  manufacturer  for  each 
variety  of  potted  goods  made,  and  to  obtain  this  consistence  more  or  less  fat 


52  MEATS. 

meat  of  some  kind  is  added.  It  may  thus  be  of  some  advantage  to  add  the 
fat  of  pork  rather  than  the  fat  of  beef  or  mixtures  of  the  two.  It  is  claimed 
by  many  manufacturers  that  a  single  kind  of  meat  does  not  give  the  desired 
flavor  in  potted  and  deviled  goods.  Therefore,  meats  of  different  origin 
are  finely  ground  and  mixed  together,  and  a  sufficient  quantity  of  oil  or  fat 
added  to  secure  the  required  physical  consistence.  For  this  reason  cured 
meats,  such  as  beef  and  pork,  are  often  preferred  for  making  potted  and 
deviled  meats  because  of  the  agreeable  flavor  and  aroma  which  they  impart 
thereto.  These  meats  are  therefore  used  in  potting,  although  they  cost  more 
than  corresponding  quantities  of  fresh  meat.  In  a  character  of  goods  so  varie- 
gated as  these  it  is  impossible  to  lay  down  any  rule  which  may  guide  the 
consumer  in  his  choice.  The  widest  latitude  is  left  to  the  manufacturer,  and 
the  only  real  protection  is  in  a  strict  inspection  of  the  factory  or  factories  where 
such  goods  are  made.  It  is  there  only  that  the  character  of  the  materials  em- 
ployed and  the  quality  of  the  condiments  or  other  substances  added  can  be 
determined.  The  day  is  doubtless  rapidly  approaching  when  consumers  will 
be  perfectly  protected  in  this  matter,  and  when  no  canned,  potted,  or  deviled 
meats  of  any  description  will  be  allowed  to  enter  into  commerce  without 
bearing  the  certificate  of  competent  inspection  officers  as  to  the  kind  of  meats 
used,  their  sanitary  character,  etc. 

Potted  meats  should  always  be  carefully  sterilized  and  the  contents  of  the 
tins  should  be  consumed  as  soon  as  possible  after  they  are  opened. 

Potted  Beef. — Potted  beef  corresponds  more  closely  to  the  character  of 
the  meat  named  on  its  label  than  do  any  of  the  other  potted  products.  Of  four 
samples  of  commercially  potted  beef  examined  in  the  Bureau  of  Chemistry 
only  one  appeared  to  contain  any  other  meat  than  beef.  The  composition  of 
the  potted  beef  is  shown  in  the  table  on  page  53. 

Adulteration  of  Potted  Beef. — From  the  following  average  data  it  is 
seen  that  the  principal  adulteration  in  potted  beef,  assuming  that  the  meat  is 
beef,  is  starch.  Two  of  the  four  samples  contained  starch,  one  more  than  14 
percent  and  one  more  than  1 1  percent.  The  admixture  of  starch  is  evidently 
solely  for  fraudulent  purposes,  to  increase  the  weight  and  bulk  with  a  very 
much  cheaper  substance  and  one  for  which  no  necessity  for  the  addition  can  be 
claimed.  It  also  increases  the  quantity  of  water  which  the  product  will 
carry.  Saltpeter  was  found  in  one  of  the  four  samples  and  boric  acid  in  two. 
One  of  the  samples  contained  a  large  quantity  of  tin,  due  probably  to  the 
action  of  the  potted  meat  upon  the  tin  lining  of  the  can. 

Potted  Deviled  Meats. — The  term  "deviled  meat "  is  applied  to  a  mixture  of 
finely  ground  meat  with  spices,  condiments,  and  other  substances,  and,  like  the 
term  "potted,"  is  used  rather  to  indicate  a  miscellaneous  mixture  than  any 
single  compound. 

All  that  has  been  said  respecting  the  composition  of  potted  meat  applies 


POTTED   DEVILED   MEATS. 


53 


■puoiip  ranipog 


'HSV 


•;bj 


>  cr-M  r^ U-) 


•(Ss-9XN)ai3»oij 


^j  r^     0000 
coco 


0^  c<3 


'l^^ox 


•S9A1}BAJ3S3J<J 


•uiBjaoipi  J3d  siBjaui  iLvB3H 


•puoup  ranipog 


•qsB  iBjox 


•jajadji^ 


•IBU34BUI  33JJ-1^J 


•qoiBlS 


•sasuq  JB3j\^ 


•uiuioaq  itq 
pajBlidpaad  sppi 
-ojd  puB  spioapBiap 


ui  3iqn|osai  spi3joj<j 


•(Sz-9  X  N)  upjojj 


•sasBq  jB3j^ 


•Ib;ox 


•;bj 


•3DUBJSqnS  93JJ-JBJ  UI  JajB^ 


^H 


•^ 


U   Si 


K 


"S^ 


VO   -"S- 


■V*  O^OO  o\o 
vjoB  mr^<N 


•J3JBAV 


V)  p»  00  OMO 

.  OO'   >->   -4  lO 


with  equal  force  to  deviled  meat. 
If  there  be  any  difference  at  all 
it  is  understood  by  the  term 
deviled  that  the  spices  and  con- 
diments are  more  pronounced  in 
character  and  greater  in  quantity 
and  the  miscellaneous  character 
of  the  goods  more  pronounced. 
Under  the  terms  of  "deviled'* 
and  "potted"  may  be  found 
every  kind  of  mixed  and  miscel- 
laneous finely  comminuted  meat, 
flavored  with  all  kinds  of  condi- 
mental  substances  and  prepared 
so  as  to  appeal  as  strongly  as 
possible  to  the  taste  and  desire 
of  the  consumer. 

It  may  be  said,  in  connection 
with  these  goods,  that  there  is 
no  objection  whatever  to  their 
manufacture  and  sale  provided 
the  meat  used  in  their  prepara- 
tion is  sound  and  sanitary,  the 
conditions  of  manufacture  clean 
and  free  of  infection,  and  pro- 
vided the  fraudulent  additions 
for  the  purpose  of  increasing 
bulk  and  weight  are  excluded, 
together  with  injurious  preser- 
vatives and  coloring  matters,  such 
as  borax,  saltpeter,  sulfite  of 
soda,  etc. 

Potted  and  deviled  are  not 
the  only  terms,  however,  which 
are  used  to  express  miscellaneous 
mixtures  of  meat  products.  The 
term  "pates"  is  also  employed 
for  a  large  class  of  goods,  among 
which  the  principal  ones  are  the 
familiar  pates  de  foie  gras, 
which  should  be  made  largely 
of  fatty  goose  livers. 


54  MEATS. 

Composition  of  P^t^s. — The  result  of  the  examination  of  large  quantities 
of  pates  in  the  Bureau  of  Chemistry  indicates  that  they  are  made  up  principally 
of  the  meat  of  beef  and  pork.  It  is  not  quite  certain  in  any  of  the  cases  that 
the  highly  prized  livers  cf  fat  geese  have  been  employed  to  any  considerable 
extent.  There  are  no  forms  of  comminuted  meats  of  any  description  which  are 
so  objectionable  in  name  as  those  that  are  sold  under  the  name  of  pates,  es- 
pecially when  they  are  ascribed  to  a  particular  composition,  as  is  the  case  with 
pate  de  foie  gras.  As  has  been  remarked  before,  there  is  certainly  no  objection 
to  the  manufacture  of  these  mixtures,  but  misleading  statements  concerning 
them  are  to  be  condemned.  The  manufacturer  and  consumer  of  pate  de  foie 
gras  should  establish  some  standard  of  the  percentage  of  goose  livers  which  they 
should  contain,  and  each  package  should  be  accompanied  by  an  official  certifica- 
tion that  it  has  been  inspected  and  found  to  be  up  to  the  standard.  It  is  only 
in  this  way  that  the  public  can  be  protected  against  fraud  and  imposition. 
Where  no  descriptive  word  at  all  is  used  with  the  word  pate  there  is  no  reason- 
able limit  to  be  placed  upon  the  kind  of  meat  used,  provided  it  is  of  a  sound  and 
sanitary  character.  The  term  pate  itself  means  a  mixture  and,  therefore,  it  is 
no  deception  and  imposition  upon  the  public  to  sell  a  pate  of  a  miscellaneous 
character,  provided  it  does  not  bear  any  false  statement  regarding  origin  or 
character. 

The  mean  composition  of  forty-three  samples  of  pates  and  purees  is  found 
In  the  following  data: 

Water, 45-87  percent 

Water  in  fat-free  substance,. . '. 71.18  " 

Fat, 35.41  " 

Protein, 1 1 .92  " 

Meat  bases, 82  " 

Starch, 7.44  " 

Total  ash, 2.88 

Of  which  sodium  chlorid 97  "' 

From  the  above  data  it  is  seen  that  the  pates  are  characterized  by  a  very  high 
percentage  of  fat  and  a  correspondingly  low  percentage  of  protein.  A  very  large 
majority  of  the  samples  examined  contained  starch,  the  highest  quantity  found 
being  15.80  percent.  Only  two  of  the  samples  were  found  to  contain  saltpeter; 
six  contained  boric  acid  and  three  benzoic  acid.  Tin  and  zinc  were  found  in  a 
few  cases. 

Principal  Adulterations  of  Mixed,  Miscellaneous,  Potted,  Deviled, 
and  Comminuted  Meats. — As  has  been  observed  in  the  analyses  of  the  com- 
mercial articles  which  have  been  submitted  it  is  evident  that  no  detection  of 
the  adulteration  of  these  minced  meats  with  impure,  fragmentary,  diseased,  or 
unwholesome  articles  is  possible  in  so  far  as  chemical  analysis  is  concerned. 
A  microscopic  analysis  also  often  fails  to  reveal  the  true  character  of  the  meats 
which  have  been  used  in  the  preparation  of  these  products.     Hence  the  adul- 


INDIRECT    COLORING    MATTER.  55 

teration  of  these  goods  with  diseased,  unwholesome,  unfit,  and  unsanitan^  meats 
cannot  be  controlled  nor  even  positively  affirmed  after  the  meats  are  prepared 
and  canned.  Such  adulterations  are  doubtless  frequent  and  are  the  most  ob- 
jectionable. The  only  protection  to  the  consumer  is  in  a  certificate  of  inspec- 
tion before  preparation  and  packing.  The  consumer,  by  refusing  to  purchase 
such  comminuted  meats  in  the  absence  of  such  a  certificate,  would  soon  compel 
the  manufacturer  to  secure  official  inspection  and  certification  of  his"  products. 

Adulteration  with  Starch. — One  of  the  chief  adulterants  in  sausages  and 
prepared  meats  is  starch.  It  has  been  said  by  some  hygienists  that  starch  is  not 
an  objectionable  adulterant  on  hygienic  grounds.  This,  however,  is  not 
strictly  true.  The  injection  of  large  quantities  of  starch  into  meat  tends  to  un- 
balance a  ration  which  is  fixed  with  certain  quantities  of  other  food  and  tends  to 
increase  the  proportion  of  starchy  matter  therein.  There  are  many  conditions 
of  disordered  digestion  in  which  such  increases  of  starch,  unknown  to  the 
physician  or  patient  or  even  known,  are  highly  objectionable.  Hence  the  use 
of  starch  as  an  adulterant  in  meat  of  this  kind  is  reprehensible  on  hygienic 
grounds.  The  principal  purpose  for  using  starch  is  deception.  Starch  in- 
creases the  bulk  and  weight  of  goods,  and,  in  the  process  of  cooking,  prevents 
undue  shrinkage.  The  consumer,  therefore,  thinks  that  he  has  secured  a 
larger  quantity  and  better  quality  of  meat  than  he  really  has,  and  is,  to  this 
extent,  defrauded  and  deceived. 

Preservatives. — The  preservatives  which  are  principally  used  in  meat  are 
borax,  boric  acid,  sulfite  of  soda,  and  benzoic  acid.  All  of  these  preserva- 
tives have  been  shown,  by  the  work  of  many  investigators,  to  be  celeterious 
to  health.  They  should  be  rigidly  excluded  from  all  meat  as  well  as  other 
food  products. 

Coloring  Matter. — Dyes  are  frequently  used  for  coloring  sausage  and  other 
minced  meats.  All  such  dyeing  materials  are  reprehensible,  both  on  account 
of  the  danger  to  health  and  deception.  Preserved  meats  gradually  lose  the 
natural  red  tint  of  the  fresh  meat,  and  to  that  extent  the  color  is  an  index  of  the 
time  during  which  they  have  been  preserved.  Inasmuch  as  consumers  prefer 
fresh  meats  preserved  as  short  a  time  as  possible,  they  are  deceived  and  to 
that  extent  injured  by  the  use  of  dyestufiFs  which  impart  to  preserved  meats  a 
fresh  appearance. 

Indirect  Coloring  Matter. — Certain  chemicals,  which  of  themselves  have 
no  color,  serve  to  fix  and  hold,  or  even  accentuate,  the  natural  color  of  meat. 
The  two  principal  chemicals  used  for  this  purpose  are  saltpeter  and  sulfite  of 
soda.  Saltpeter  is  used  generally  in  preserved  meats  to  retain  and  accentuate 
the  red  color  thereof.  Sulfite  of  soda  is  used  principally  on  fresh  meats,  where  it 
acts  both  as  a  preservative  and  as  a  retainer  of  color.  Sprinkled  over  the  freshly 
cut  surface  of  fresh  meat,  sulfite  of  soda  preserves  the  red  tint,  and  the  customer 
thinks  it  has  just  been  cut.     In  this  way  he  is  deceived.     Both  of  these  sub- 


56  MEATS. 

Stances  are  highly  objectionable  not  only  on  account  of  deception  but  on  ac- 
count of  being  injurious  to  health.  In  the  case  of  saltpeter,  the  general  opinion 
concerning  its  therapeutic  action  is  that  it  is  not  a  proper  substance  to  mix 
with  foods.  It  is  no  more  than  fair  to  the  consumer,  therefore,  for  the  packer, 
if  he  deems  it  necessary  to  use  bodies  of  this  kind,  to  plainly  state  upon  each 
package  the  character  and  quantity  of  preservatives  and  coloring  matter 
employed.  The  consumer  is  then  left  to  judge  for  himself  whether  or  not 
he  desires  to  eat  these  bodies. 

The  principal  objection  to  notifications  of  this  kind  is  that  the  consumer,  not 
being  an  expert  as  a  rule,  cannot  form  any  intelligent  opinion  respecting  the 
desirability  of  these  substances  in  food.  He  is  more  apt  to  be  guided  by  com- 
mon practice  in  this  matter  and  by  his  own  opinion  than  by  any  general  prin- 
ciples of  chemistry  and  hygiene. 

Potted  Tongue. — The  term  ''potted  tongue"  may  apply  equally  to  tongue 
of  a  single  character,  such  as  beef,  lamb,  pork,  or  swine,  or  the  mixture  thereof. 
The  examinations  which  have  been  made  of  the  potted  tongues  of  commerce 
do  not  indicate  whether  they  are  of  a  single  character  or  whether  the  tongues 
are  derived  from  a  variety  of  sources.  The  mean  composition  of  twenty-one 
samples  bought  in  the  open  market,  as  found  in  the  Bureau  of  Chemistry,  is 
given  in  the  following  table: 

Water, 52.50  percent 

Water  in  the  fat-free  substance, 67.67        " 

Fat, 22.Q9        " 

Protein, 1 7.80        " 

Meat  bases, 75        " 

Total  ash, 5.46        " 

Adulteration  of  Potted  Tongue. — In  the  samples  examined  above  starch  was 
found  in  four  cases,  the  largest  amount  being  11.6  percent.  Saltpeter  was 
found  in  eighteen  cases,  the  largest  amount  being  .06  percent.  Tin  was 
present  in  thirteen  cases  and  zinc  in  eight  cases.  Boric  acid  was  found  in 
fourteen  cases. 

From  the  above  it  is  evident  that  the  principal  adulterations  in  potted  tongue, 
aside  from  the  use  of  meats  w^hich  are  not  tongue,  and  which  chemical  analysis 
cannot  disclose,  are  the  addition  of  starch,  saltpeter,  tin,  and  zinc,  the  two  latter 
derived  either  from  the  solder  or  from  the  can  in  which  the  goods  are  placed. 

Canned  Poultry. — Other  fresh  meats,  in  addition  to  beef  and  pork,  are 
canned  in  a  fresh  state.  In  the  case  of  poultry  the  fowls  are  dressed  and 
drawn  and  the  whole  carcass  boiled  until  the  meat  is  sufficiently  cooked  to  fa- 
cilitate the  separation  from  the  bones.  The  bones  are  then  removed  and  the 
meat  is  canned  and  sterilized  by  practically  the  same  method  as  practiced  with 
canned  beef.  Game  and  wild  fowl  meats  are  also  subjected  to  the  same 
process  of  canning  as  the  domesticated  chickens,  geese,  ducks,  turkeys,  etc. 
In  general  it  may  be  said  that  there  are  no  differences   in  the  processes 


CANNED   HORSE   MEAT.  57 

employed,  but  the  important  question  to  the  consumer  is  the  character  of 
the  raw  materials  used,  the  sanitary  conditions  which  attended  their  prep- 
aration, and  their  freedom  from  admixtures  of  other  meats  cheaper  in  price 
and  of  different  dietetic  values. 

Adulteration  of  Canned  Fresh  Meat. — Fortunately  the  process  of  steriliza- 
tion is  of  such  a  character,  when  properly  carried  out,  as  to  exclude  all  necessity 
for  the  addition  of  any  preservative  substances  to  canned  fresh  meat.  The 
use  of  ordinary  condimental  substances  in  moderate  quantities  cannot  be  re- 
garded as  an  adulteration.  Hence,  the  addition  of  small  quantities  of  salt, 
sugar,  vinegar,  and  the  ordinary  spices,  when  used  solely  for  the  improvement 
of  the  taste  and  flavor  and  not  for  preservative  purposes,  is  regarded  as  unob- 
jectionable. 

The  common  preservatives  used  in  canned  meat  are,  fir? t,  those  which  give 
color  to  the  meat  and  preserve  its  natural  red  tint.  For  this  purpose  saltpeter 
and  sulfite  of  soda  are  most  commonly  employed.  Red  dyes  of  any  description 
are  rarely,  if  ever,  found.  The  preservative  which  is  used  most  frequently  in 
canned  meat  is  borax  or  boric  acid.  That  this  use  is  not  necessary  is  evident 
from  the  investigations  which  have  been  made  by  many  investigators  which 
show  that  in  most  cases  no  preservatives  at  all  are  used.  The  addition 
of  any  chemical  preservative  is,  therefore,  to  be  regarded  as  unnecessary  and 
as  an  adulteration. 

The  use  of  any  diseased,  tainted,  decomposed,  or  filthy  meat,  even  if  it  is  of 
the  same  origin  as  that  in  the  can,  is  an  adulteration  of  the  most  serious  char- 
acter and  one  that  can  only  be  effectually  controlled  by  the  inspection  men- 
tioned. The  adulteration  of  the  meat  of  fowls  of  all  descriptions  by  cheaper 
meats,  such  as  pork  or  veal,  even  if  they  be  of  wholesome  and  sound  character, 
is  an  adulteration  said  to  be  often  practiced  and  one  which  it  is  difficult  to 
detect  if  the  particles  of  meat  are  finely  comminuted. 

Standard  for  Preserved  Meats. — The  standard  for  preserved  meat  is  the 
same  as  that  for  fresh  meat  which  is  given  in  Circular  19,  Office  of  the  Secretary, 
U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture.  The  meat  must  be  sound,  wholesome, 
clean,  freshly  taken  from  the  slaughtered  animal,  and  not  from  one  that  has 
died  from  disease,  suffocation,  or  accident,  and  must  conform  in  name  and 
character  to  the  meat  of  the  animal. 

Frequency  of  Adulteration. — The  examination  made  of  numerous  samples 
of  canned  meat  by  many  investigators  shows  that  the  adulteration  of  these 
foods  is  rather  common  but  by  no  means  general. 

Canned  Horse  Meat. — Horse  meat  is  commonly  used  for  human  food  in 
many  European  countries,  although  it  is  believed  that  it  is  not  used  to  any  ex- 
tent in  the  United  States.  ^Vhen  procured  from  healthy  animals  in  a  proper 
way  there  is  no  hygienic  objection  to  its  use,  though  it  is  considered  to  be  some- 
what tougher  than  the  flesh  of  other  animals  more  commonly  employed  as  food, 


58  MEATS. 

but  that  is  probably  due  to  the  fact  that  horses  are  not  raised  for  food  purposes 
and  are  usually  not  used  for  such  until  they  are  worn  out  in  domestic  service. 
There  are  many  sentimental  and  often  religious  objections  to  the  use  of  horse 
meat,  but  experience  has  shown  that  it  is  wholesome  and  nutritious.  Horse 
meat  is  characteristic  in  containing  more  natural  sugar,  commonly  known  as 
glycogen,  than  any  of  the  other  ordinary  meats  used  for  human  consumption. 
It  approaches  in  its  content  of  sugar  some  of  the  shell-fish  flesh,  such  as  that  of 
the  lobster.  Practically  all  of  the  horse  meat  which  is  prepared  in  this  country 
is  exported  to  Europe.  There  are  cases,  however,  on  record  of  the  sale  of 
horse  flesh  to  domestic  consumers.  Especially  could  it  be  used  in  this  way  in 
the  form  of  sausage  or  other  finely  comminuted  products  without  much  danger 
of  detection. 

Composition  of  Horse  Meat. — A  number  of  samples  of  horse  meat  of  un- 
doubted origin  and  wholesomeness  have  been  examined  in  the  Bureau  of 
Chemistry  and  the  data  tabulated.  The  average  composition  of  sixteen 
samples  of  horse  meat,  representing  different  parts  of  the  carcass,  is  shown  in 
the  foUowing  table: 

Water, 69.81  percent 

Water  in  fat-free  substance, 76.91  " 

Fat, 9.61  " 

Protein, 19-47  " 

Protein  insoluble  in  water, 14-83  " 

Gelatinous  protein, 1.23  " 

Meat  bases, 1.70  " 

Glycogen, i  .82  " 

Ash, i.oi 

Composition  of  Dry  Material. — 

Protein, 67.98  percent 

Fat, 27.71         " 

Ash, 3.18 

Undetermined, 1.13        " 

The  high  percentage  of  glycogen  in  horse  meat  is  one  of  the  safest 
methods  of  determining  its  character  when  comminuted  or  cut  up  into  pieces 
so  small  as  not  to  be  identified  by  the  usual  anatomical  characteristics.  Very 
few  other  kinds  of  edible  flesh  contain  as  much  as  one  percent  of  glycogen. 
Glycogen  is  a  transitory  product  which  tends  naturally  to  be  broken  up  into 
other  substances,  and,  hence,  even  in  horse  meat  after  slaughter,  it  may  rapidly 
disappear  and  thus,  unless  the  meat  is  examined  at  once,  very  little  glycogen 
may  be  found  in  it.  A  safer  test  for  horse  meat  is  in  the  nature  of  the  fat 
therein.  This  fat  does  not  tend  to  change  as  the  glycogen  does,  and,  therefore, 
in  a  pure  preparation  of  horse  meat  even  in  a  finely  comminuted  state  the 
separation  and  examination  of  the  fat  will  lead  to  a  determination  of  the  char- 
acter of  meat  employed.     The  fats  of  horse  meat  have  a  lower  melting  point. 


CANNED   SAUSAGE.  59 

a  higher  iodin  number,  and  a  higher  heat  value  when  mixed  with  sulfuric  acid 
than  those  of  beef. 

Indeed,  these  differences  are  so  marked  as  to  afford  a  ready  means  of  de- 
tection to  the  practical  chemist.  Even  in  the  mixture  of  horse  meat  with  other 
meat  the  variation  in  the  character  of  the  fats  will  be  such  as  to  lead  to  a  correct 
judgment  respecting  the  approximate  amount  of  horse  meat  which  has  been 
used,  provided  it  forms  any  notable  amount  of  the  mixture. 

Canned  Cured  Meats. — Sterilization  is  such  a  certain  method  of  preventing 
the  decay  of  meats  that  it  has  now  come  into  use  to  a  large  extent  in  the  final 
preservation  of  shipments  of  cured  meats.  The  object  of  curing,  as  has  already 
been  stated,  is  not  merely  to  prevent  the  meat  from  decaying,  nor  is  it  intended 
to  inhibit  entirely  enzymic  action.  On  the  contrary,  if  the  method  of  curing 
were  such  as  to  entirely  stop  fermentative  action,  the  flavors  and  aromas  of 
preserved  meats,  upon  which  their  value  so  much  depends,  would  be  eliminated, 
and  we  would  simply  have  a  mass  of  tasteless  meat,  preserved  from  decay  by 
the  application  of  chemical  preservatives  of  a  character  to  impart  neither  flavor 
nor  aroma  to  the  meat  and  at  the  same  time  prevent  the  activity  of  the  various 
ferments  above  described.  Such  methods  of  preparation,  naturally,  should 
never  be  of  general  use,  because  in  cured  meats  the  consumer  demands  the 
flavor  which  naturally  proceeds  from  the  ordinary  method  of  curing.  After 
curing  and  when  subjected  to  transportation  the  meats  may  undergo  decom- 
position and  reach  their  destination  in  a  spoiled  state.  To  avoid  this  it  has 
been  a  customary  practice  to  pack  the  meat  in  a  chemical  preservative,  such  as 
borax.  This  is,  however,  a  very  objectionable  practice  because  even  in  the 
cured  state  the  meat  is  still  absorptive,  and  the  borax,  which  is  packed  exter- 
nally upon  it,  as  a  precaution  during  transit,  must  necessarily  penetrate  to  a 
certain  extent  to  the  interior  of  the  meat.  By  packing  cured  meat  in  tins  and 
subjecting  these  tins  to  sterilization  complete  immunity  from  decay  may  be  se- 
cured and  there  is  no  damage  done  to  the  aroma  or  flavor.  We,  therefore,  find 
upon  the  market  at  the  present  time  in  tinned,  canned,  or  potted  form  almost 
every  variety  of  meat  that  is  used  either  in  a  fresh  state  or  after  the  usual 
method  of  curing. 

Canned  Sausage. — One  of  the  most  important  of  cured  meats  which  is 
offered  for  sale  is  sausage.  Sausage  may  be  canned  either  in  the  fresh  or  cured 
state  and,  of  course,  may  be  adulterated  in  both  conditions.  Canned  sausage 
should  have  a  clean  bill  of  health  from  the  local  inspector  the  same  as  any  other 
meat  food. 

There  is,  perhaps,  more  room  for  deception  in  the  manufacture  of  sausage 
than  in  almost  any  other  form  of  comminuted  meat.  When  properly  treated 
with  condimental  substances,  such  as  salt,  spices,  vinegar,  etc.,  sausages  are 
highly  prized  as  a  food  product,  and  justly  so.     In  the  canned  state  sausage 


6o  MEATS. 

should  undergo  no  other  manipulation  than  spicing  and  sterilization  at  a  tem- 
perature necessary  to  kill  all  fermentative  germs  and  prevent  decay. 

Composition  oj  Canned  Sausage. — Twenty-five  samples  of  canned  sausage  ex- 
amined in  the  Bureau  of  Chemistry  had  the  following  average  composition: 

Water, 58.51  percent 

Water  in  fat-free  substance, 75-59 

Fat, 21.82 

Protein, 13-92 

Protein  insoluble  in  water, ii-37 

Gelatinous  protein, 1.21 

Meat  bases, 67 

Ash, 2.86 

Sodium  chlorid, i  .02 

The  above  data  show  that  canned  sausage  differs  largely  from  fresh  meat  in 
its  composition,  especially  in  the  much  higher  content  of  fat  and  lower  content  of 
water  which  is  found  therein. 

Adulteration  oj  Canned  Sausage. — The  principal  adulteration,  as  has  already 
been  stated,  is  in  the  admixture  of  meats  of  unknown  and  miscellaneous  origin 
and  possibly  inedible  in  character.  The  degree  of  comminution  to  which 
sausage  is  subjected  renders  it  difficult  in  the  inspection  of  sausage  itself  to 
determine  the  character  of  the  animal  from  which  it  is  made.  The  study  of 
the  fat  is  the  most  useful  guide  in  such  cases.  Presumably  sausage  is  made 
almost  exclusively  of  beef  and  pork,  but,  as  a  matter  of  fact,  much  which  is  not 
eaten  under  its  own  name  may  be  found  in  sausage. 

Next  to  the  introduction  of  meat  of  an  improper  character  the  most  important 
adulteration  is  the  common  use  of  starch.  Starch  is  very  much  cheaper  than 
meat,  and  its  abundant  use  enables  a  greater  profit  to  be  made.  It  is  highly 
esteemed,  also,  as  a  "filler,"  on  the  ground  that  it  prevents  the  shrinkage  of 
sausage  when  fried.  Starch  granules  under  the  influence  of  heat  are  gelatinous, 
holding  moisture  with  tenacity  and  preventing  shrinkage  in  bulk. 

The  presence  of  starch  in  sausage  must  be  regarded  as  an  unjustifiable 
adulteration  unless  the  amount  therein  is  plainly  marked  on  the  label  of  the 
package. 

The  use  of  preservatives  in  the  curing  of  sausage  is  a  very  common  practice 
and,  hence,  canned  sausages  are  found  to  often  contain  boric  acid  or  borax 
and  sulfite  of  soda  especially.  Dyes  of  various  kinds  are  also  used  in  coloring 
sausage  or  its  covering,  largely  of  a  coal  tar  origin. 

The  proper  safeguard  for  the  consumer  in  regard  to  the  character  of  sausage 
is  in  the  inspection  of  the  factory.  It  is  highly  important  that  each  municipality 
and  state  should  have  a  rigid  system  for  the  inspection  of  sausage,  and  the 
sausage  thus  inspected  should  bear  the  certification  of  the  kind  of  meat  used 
and  its  general  character.  The  presence  of  inspectors  in  factories  would 
prevent  the  use  of  preservatives  which,  it  has  been  shown  by  the  researches  of 
many  investigators,  are  prejudicial  to  health. 


MAGNITUDE   OF   MEAT   INDUSTRY.  6l 

Magnitude  of  the  Meat  Industry. — According  to  the  census  of  1905, 
there  has  been  a  large  increase  in  the  slaughtering  and  meat  packing  industry 
in  the  United  States,  as  compared  with  the  statistics  of  1900.  The  data  for 
the  Census  of  19 10  are  not  yet  available.  Owing  to  the  extension  of  the  meat 
inspection  service  there  are  now  876  establishments  in  240  cities  and  towns 
under  inspection.  The  number  of  animals  submitted  to  ante  mortem  inspec- 
tion in  1909  was  56,545,737  and  to  post  mortem  inspection  55,672,075.  Of 
this  latter  number  141,057  were  condemned. 

Comparative  figures  for  1905  and  1900  are  shown  in  the  following  summary: 


1905. 

Number  of  establishments, 929 

Capital, $237,699,440 

Salaried  officials,  clerks,  etc.: 

Number, 12,075 

Salaries, $13,377,908 

Wage-earners: 

Average  number, 74>i32 

Wages,. $40,447,574 

Miscellaneous  expenses, 30,623, 108 

Materials  used : 

Total  cost, : $805,856,969 

Animals  slaughtered: 

Beeves, $289,040,930 

Sheep, 44,359,804 

Hogs, 329,763,430 

Calves, 12,666,942 

All  other, 61,905 

All  other  materials, 1 29,963,958 

Products : 

Total  value, $913,914,624 

Beef- 
Sold  fresh, $247,135,029 

Canned, 7,697,815 

Salted  or  cured, 8,107,952 

Mutton — 

Sold  fresh, $36,880,455 

Veal- 
Sold  fresh, $12,856,369 

Pork- 
Sold  fresh, $91,779,323 

Salted, 116,626,710 

Hams,  smoked  bacon,  etc., 132,210,611 

Sausage,  fresh  or  cured, 25,056,331 

All  other  meat  sold  fresh, 9,579,718 

Refined  lard, 74,116,991 

Neutral  lard, 8,423,973 

Oleomargarine  oil, 10,201,911 

Other  oils, 2,595,951 

Fertilizers, 4,397,626 

Hides, 44,137,802 

Wool, 5,229,521 

All  other  products, 76,880,536 

*  Decrease. 


Percent  of 

1900. 

Increase. 

9^1 

.8 

$189,198,264 

25.6 

10,227 

18.0 

$10,123,247 

32.1 

68,534 

8.2 

*33>457,oi3 

20.9 

24,060,412 

27-3 

$683,583,577 

17.9 

$247,365,812 

16.8 

37,137,542 

19.4 

278,736,961 

18.3 

7,356,560 

72.2  . 

559,839 

112,426,863 

15-4 

$785,562,433 

16.3 

$211,068,934 

17.1 

9,167,531 

17.1* 

9,661,834 

1 6.  I* 

$32,963,219 

1 1.9 

$7,812,714 

64.6 

$84,019,387 

9.2 

88,674,016 

31-5 

148,666,859 

ii.i* 

21,472,413 

16.7 

7,813,078 

22.6 

52,620,348 

40.8 

8,588,350 

I.I* 

11,482,542 

II. 2* 

3,440,358 

24.5* 

3,300,132 

33-3 

33,925,911 

30.1 

3,335,824 

56.8 

47,548,983 

61.7 

62  MEATS. 

GENERAL  OBSERVATIONS. 

It  is  evident,  from  the  foregoing  description  of  the  methods  of  preparing  and 
sterilizing  meat,  that  it  is  a  process  which  commends  itself  both  on  account 
of  the  economy  in  the  use  of  meat  which  it  secures  and  because  of  the  nutritive 
value  of  the  products  obtained. 

The  real  value  of  the  products  must  necessarily  depend  upon  the  selection 
of  the  raw  materials  and  the  sanitary  conditions  which  attend  their  manipula- 
tion. Experience  has  shown  that  it  is  not  safe  to  leave  these  matters  to  the 
packers  themselves.  While,  doubtless,  the  greater  number  of  packers  will 
exercise  all  possible  care  in  the  selection  of  the  materials  and  in  their  prepara- 
tion, human  nature  is  of  such  a  character  that  when  opportunity  for  deception, 
fraud,  and  illegitimate  gains  are  presented  there  are  always  some  who  take  ad- 
vantage of  them.  Hence,  it  may  be  safely  said  that  no  tinned  or  canned  or  ster- 
ilized meat  of  any  description  should  be  allowed  to  enter  into  consumption  except 
when  prepared  under  the  inspection  of  qualified  municipal,  state,  or  national 
officers.  The  health  of  the  animal  furnishing  the  meat  should  be  ascertained 
by  inspection  both  before  and  after  slaughter.  This  inspection  should  be  of 
the  most  rigid  kind,  and  all  diseased  animals  should  be  excluded  from  entering 
into  standard  products.  If  it  be  claimed  that  there  are  certain  diseases  which  are 
local  only  in  character  and  which  do  not  affect  the  wholesomeness  of  the  whole 
carcass,  special  provisions  can  be  made  for  this  kind  of  meat.  If  admitted  into 
consumption  at  all,  it  should  be  under  a  permanent  label  or  tag  by  which  the 
intended  consumer  would  be  informed  of  the  character  of  the  contents  of  the 
package. 

There  is  a  reasonable  doubt  respecting  the  suitability  for  human  food  of 
carcasses  of  animals  afflicted  in  a  moderate  degree  with  tuberculosis,  pleuro- 
pneumonia, lumpy  jaw,  or  other  contagious  or  epidemic  diseases.  In  all  such 
cases  the  rights  of  the  consumers  demand  that  the  benefit  of  the  doubt  should 
be  given  to  them  and  not  to  the  owner,  manufacturer,  and  dealer  in  any  of  the 
products  they  consume.  Such  meat  would  then  enter  the  market  under  a  sepa- 
rate grade  and  command  a  lower  price,  and  when  consumed  no  one  would  be 
deceived  respecting  its  character. 

It  must  be  admitted,  even  if  such  meat  be  regarded  as  wholesome,  that 
it  is  of  inferior  character,  and  cannot  in  any  justice  demand  the  right  to  pass 
under  the  name  of  higher  grades  of  the  article.  The  sanitary  conditions 
under  which  such  meats  are  prepared  are  of  the  highest  importance.  The 
slaughter  house  should  be  clean,  and  provided  with  good  ventilation  and 
natural  light.  The  workmen  should  be  free  of  disease,  neatly  dressed,  and  re- 
quired to  observe  all  necessary  sanitary  precautions.  The  debris  and  fragments 
of  the  packing  house  should  be  carefully  removed  and  so  disposed  of  as  to  pre- 
vent any  suspicion  that  any  part  of  them  enters  any  of  the  products  of  the 


LARD.  63 

factory.  Municipal,  state,  or  national  inspection  should  be  frequent,  thorough, 
and  entirely  removed  from  any  possible  influence  of  the  packing  business  itself. 
Competent  veterinary  experts  should  pass  upon  the  state  of  health  of  each  car- 
cass, and  any  one  found  diseased  in  any  way  should  be  subjected  to  a  further 
careful  inspection  to  see  whether  it  should  be  admitted,  under  proper  label 
and  notification,  as  human  food  or  consigned  to  the  fertilizer  heap.  It  is  only 
by  such  inspection  as  this  that  the  consumer  can  secure  adequate  protection. 
After  the  meat  is  once  in  the  can  inspection  will  only  reveal  whether  or  not 
preservatives  and  coloring  matter  have  been  used,  or  whether  the  contents  of  the 
can  are  spoiled  or  in  a  state  unfit  for  consumption.  No  examination  of  the 
contents  of  the  can  will  reveal  in  a  satisfactory  manner  the  state  of  health  of  the 
carcass  from  which  the  meat  has  been  secured  or  the  sanitary  conditions  under 
which  it  has  been  prepared.  It  is  hoped  the  new  methods  of  inspection  es- 
tablished by  the  Secretary  of  Agriculture  will  secure  the  desired  purity  of  meat 
products. 

LARD. 

The  fat  of  swine,  properly  separated  from  the  other  tissues,  is  known  as  lard. 
The  process  of  separation  is  termed  "  rendering."  Various  methods  of  render- 
ing are  practiced,  all  depending,  however,  upon  the  use  of  heat,  which  liquefies 
the  fat  and  gradually  frees  it  from  its  connective  tissues. 

Parts  of  Fat  Used  for  Lard  Making. — In  the  making  of  lard  the  highest 
grades  are  produced  from  the  fat  lining  the  back  of  the  animal  and  that  con- 
nected with  the  intestines.  The  sheets  of  fat  which  are  found  lining  the  back 
of  the  animal  furnish  a  variety  known  as  leaf  lard.  All  parts  of  the  fat  of  the 
animal  not  used  in  the  meats  themselves  may  be  used  in  the  manufacture  of  lard. 
In  the  preparation  of  the  carcass,  the  parts  cut  off  in  trimming  the  pieces  and  con- 
taining fat  are  sent  to  the  rendering  tank.  The  leaf  lard  is  also  removed  by 
tearing  it  off  from  the  back  of  the  animal,  and  the  intestinal  fat  is  separated 
from  the  viscera  in  like  manner.  There  is  probably  no  question  of  whole- 
someness  between  the  lards  made  from  different  parts  of  the  carcass.  The 
lard  differs  in  its  chemical  composition  and  its  physical  consistence  as  deter- 
mined by  its  location  in  the  body.  Inasmuch  as  it  is  important  that  lard 
should  have  a  certain  degree  of  consistence  even  in  summer  time  and  not  be- 
come too  soft  or  liquid  in  character,  the  lard  which  has  a  high  melting  point  is 
preferred,  especially  during  the  summer.  The  lards  made  from  the  feet  and 
some  other  parts  of  the  hog  have  lower  melting  points.  The  different  kinds  of 
fat  from  all  parts  of  the  animal  might  be  mixed  together  and  a  lard  made  there- 
from representing  the  average  consistence  of  the  fat  of  the  whole  body.  A 
small  quantity  of  stearin  is  often  added  to  raise  the  melting  point,  but  the 
addition  of  this  substance  without  notice  must  be  regarded  as  an  adultera- 
tion. 


64 


MEATS. 


Names  of  Different  Kinds  of  Lard. — The  names  applied  to  the  different 
kinds  of  lard  may  be  referred  principally  to  the  parts  of  fat  used,  such  as  leaf 
lard,  intestinal  lard,  etc.,  or  to  the  method  of  preparing  it.  The  old-fashioned 
method  of  preparing  lard  for  family  use  consisted  in  placing  the  fat  in  an  open 
kettle  and  heating  usually  over  the  open  fire.  The  rendering  takes  place  as  the 
mass  increases  in  temperature,  so  that  the  residual  tissues  become  browned  by 
the  high  temperature  reached.  Lard  made  in  this  way  is  of  most  excellent 
quality  and,  of  course,  being  made  under  family  supervision,  its  character  is 
well  understood  and  the  parts  of  the  body  used  are  well  known.  In  the  large 
packing  establishments  the  lard  is  usually  rendered  by  the  application  of  heat 
in  the  form  of  steam  under  pressure,  of  a  suitable  temperature  to  make  the 
character  of  the  lard  uniform.  Large  yields  can  be  secured  in  this  way  with  less 
charring  of  the  residual  tissues,  and  consequently  the  lard  itself  is  a  finer  and 
whiter  product.     Lard  of  this  kind  is  sometimes  known  as  steam  rendered  lard. 

Uses  of  Lard. — The  fat  of  swine  prepared  as  above  mentioned,  and  known 
as  lard,  finds  a  very  extended  use  in  every  kitchen.  It  is  mixed  with  various 
forms  of  bread  making  materials,  cake,  etc.,  and  is  often  known  in  this  sense  as 
"  shortening."  It  is  also  employed  for  lubricating  the  pans  and  other  culinary 
utensils  used  for  baking  purposes.  It  is  sometimes  employed  for  the  purpose  of 
cooking  by  the  process  of  frying  or  of  introducing  the  substance  to  be  cooked 
directly  into  the  hot  lard,  as  in  the  frying  of  oysters,  the  making  of  doughnuts, 
and  similar  operations.  Lard  has  come  to  be  looked  upon  as  a  necessity  in 
every  kitchen,  even  of  the  humblest  citizen. 

Many  objections  are  made  to  the  use  of  lard  on  hygienic  grounds,  and  prob- 
ably on  account  of  its  cheapness  and  general  utiHty  it  is  more  freely  used  in 
American  cooking  than  it  should  be.  In  other  words,  American  cooking  is 
under  the  reproach  of  being  too  greasy.  There  is  no  reason  to  question  the 
digestive  and  nutritive  value  of  lard  when  used  in  proper  quantities  and  in 
proper  conditions.  It  is  a  typical  fat  food  composed  of  materials  which  are  al- 
most wholly  oxidized  in  the  body  and  which  upon  combustion  produce  a  higher 
number  of  units  of  heat  than  that  of  any  other  class  of  food  substances. 


COMPOSITION  OF  DIFFERENT  VARIETIES  OF  AMERICAN  LARD. 


(WO 

Hi 

0 

Ji 

S  >7  >< 

w  1  b 

Rise  of  Tem- 
perature with 
Sulfuric  Acid. 

lODIN 

Absorbed. 

• 

Leaf  lard, 

•9057 

.9028 

.9052 

272.64 
281.01 
279.06 

c.° 
41.6 
44.9 
384 

C.° 

43-0 
42.8 
41.8 

40.40 
40.40 
39-53 

C.  ° 
39-7 
37-1 
33-7 

Percent 
59.60 

53-04 
63.84 

Percent 
.165 

Pure  leaf  lard, 

Prime  steam  lard,  . . 

.025 
.040 

ADULTERATION   OF   LARD.  65 

Adulteration  of  Lard. — The  principal  adulteration  to  which  lard  is  sub- 
jected is  admixture  with  other  and  cheaper  fats.  Among  the  fats  which  are  used 
for  this  purpose  may  be  mentioned  beef  fat  and  cottonseed  oil.  Beef  fat  has  a 
higher  melting  point  than  lard  and  cottonseed  oil  a  much  lower  meUing  point, 
being  liquid  at  ordinary  temperatures.  A  mixture  of  beef  fat  and  cottonseed  oil 
may,  therefore,  be  made,  having  approximately  the  same  meUing  point  as  lard 
itself.  The  addition  of  this  mixture  to  lard  would  not  alter  its  melting  point  to 
any  sensible  extent.  Instead  of  using  the  whole  cottonseed  oil  for  the  purpose 
mentioned  it  may  be  previously  chilled  and  its  product  of  a  higher  melting  point, 
or  as  it  is  sometimes  called,  the  stearin  of  cottonseed  oil,  may  be  used  for  ad- 
mixture with  lard.  Large  quantities  of  these  mixed  fats  were  formerly  made  in 
this  country  under  the  name  of  "compound  lard"  in  which  the  above  adulter- 
ants were  the  chief  constituents.  The  laws  of  the  various  states  are  happily 
of  a  character  which  forbids  the  sale  of  a  mixture  of  a  compound  of  lard  and 
other  fats  under  the  name  of  lard,  although  there  is  no  objection  to  such  ad- 
mixture from  a  hygienic  and  dietetic  point  of  view.  There  are  many  hygien- 
ists  who  are  of  the  opinion  that  the  more  extended  use  of  vegetable  oils  instead 
of  lard  would  be  of  value  to  the  health  of  the  public.  If  this  be  true,  the  ad- 
mixture of  a  vegetable  oil  with  lard  would  improve  it  from  a  hygienic  stand- 
point. The  principal,  perhaps  the  sole,  objection  to  such  admixtures  is  their 
fraudulent  character.  Vegetable  oils,  especially  cottonseed  oil,  being  very 
much  cheaper  than  lard,  their  use  in  lard  without  notification  cheapens  the 
product  and  defrauds  the  customer.  Lard  may  also  be  adulterated  with  its 
own  stearin.  In  the  manufacture  of  lard  oil  a  residue  is  left  of  a  much  higher 
melting  point  and  this  residue  may  be  mixed  with  a  vegetable  oil,  such  as 
cottonseed,  in  the  production  of  a  compound  of  approximately  the  same  melt- 
ing point  as  lard  itself.  In  a  case  of  this  kind  both  constituents  are  fraudulent, 
in  as  much  as  neither  the  cottonseed  oil  nor  the  lard  stearin  may  be  regarded 
in  any  sense  as  lard. 

Detection  of  Adulterations. — The  presence  of  cottonseed  oil  in  any  form 
in  lard  is  at  once  determined  by  the  application  of  a  simple  color  test  known  as 
the  Halphen  test.  This  is  not  a  reliable  test  in  those  cases  where  the  animal 
has  been  fed  cottonseed. 

Halphen  Reaction  for  Cottonseed  Oil. — Carbon  disulfid,  containing  about 
one  percent  of  sulfur  in  solution,  is  mixed  with  an  equal  volume  of  amyl  alcohol. 
Mix  equal  volumes  of  this  reagent  and  the  oil  under  examination  and  heat  in  a 
bath  of  boiling  brine  for  fifteen  minutes.  In  the  presence  of  as  little  as  one  per- 
cent of  cottonseed  oil  an  orange  or  red  color  is  produced,  which  is  characteristic. 

Lard  and  lard  oil  from  animals  fed  on  cottonseed  meal  will  give  a  faint  re- 
action, as  will  also  the  fatty  acids  thereof. 

This  test  is  more  sensitive  than  the  Bechi  test  (nitrate  of  silver)  and  less 
liable  to  give  unsatisfactory  results  in  the  hands  of  an  inexperienced  person. 
6 


66  MEATS. 

It  is  not  affected  by  rancidity.  The  depth  of  color  is  proportional,  to  a  certain 
extent,  to  the  amount  of  oil  present,  and  by  making  comparative  tests  with  cot- 
tonseed oil  some  idea  as  to  the  amount  present  can  be  obtained,  but  it  must 
be  remembered  that  different  oils  react  with  different  intensities,  and  oils 
which  have  been  heated  from  200°  to  210°  C.  react  with  greatly  diminished 
intensity.  Heating  ten  minutes  at  250°  renders  cottonseed  oil  incapable  of 
^y^iving  the  reaction. 

Cottonseed  oil  also  has  the  property  of  reducing  silver  in  silver  nitrate 
to  a  metallic  state.  When  mixed  with  a  solution  of  silver  nitrate  under 
proper  conditions  a  blackening  or  precipitation  of  black  metallic  silver  is 
observed.     This  is  known  as  the  Bechi  test  which  is  conducted  as  follows: 

Bechi  or  Silver  Nitrate  Test  for  Cottonseed  Oil. — Reagent:  Dissolve  2 
grams  of  silver  nitrate  in  200  cubic  centimeters  of  95  percent  alcohol  and  40 
cubic  centimeters  of  ether,  adding  one  drop  of  nitric  acid. 

Mix  10  c.c.  of  oil  or  melted  fat,  5  c.c.  of  reagent,  and  10  c.c.  of  amyl  alcohol 
in  a  test  tube.  Divide,  heat  one-half  in  a  boiling  water  bath  for  ten  minutes, 
and  then  compare  with  portion  not  heated.  Any  blackening  due  to  reduced 
silver  shows  presence  of  cottonseed  oil. 

Other  oils  which  have  become  rancid,  and  lards  which  have  been  steamed 
or  heated  at  high  temperature,  contain  decomposition  products  which  have 
a  reducing  action  on  silver  nitrate.  There  were  found  in  testing  a  large  num- 
ber of  salad  oils  some  which  contained  no  cottonseed  oil,  according  to  the 
Halphen  test,  but  gave  a  brown  coloration  with  Bechi  reagent,  and  in  some 
cases  reduced  silver.  These  same  oils  on  being  purified  gave  no  reaction. 
Hence  the  oils  or  fats  should  be  purified  before  testing. 

To  purify  the  oils  and  fats,  heat  from  20  to  30  grams  on  water  bath  for  a 
few  minutes  with  the  addition  of  25  c.c.  of  95  percent  alcohol,  shake  thoroughly, 
decant  as  much  of  the  alcohol  as  possible,  and  wash  with  two  percent  nitric 
acid,  and  finally  with  water.  The  oil  or  lard  thus  purified  will  give  no  reduc- 
tion at  all  if  it  contains  no  cottonseed  oil.  Heating  the  oils  or  fats  to  100°  C. 
or  simple  washing  with  two  percent  nitric  acid  is  not  suflScient,  except  in  a  few 
cases. 

With  oils  the  use  of  the  Halphen  and  Bechi  tests  will  be  found  to  be  useful 
as  a  means  of  approximately  determining  the  amounts  of  adulteration  pres- 
ent. If  Halphen  gives  a  reaction  and  Bechi  does  not,  the  adulteration  with 
cottonseed  oil  is  probably  less  than  10  percent. 

The  admixture  of  beef  fat  with  lard  is  best  detected  by  means  of  the  micro- 
scope. The  fat  is  dissolved  in  ether  and  allowed  to  slowly  crystallize.  If 
it  is  composed  of  pure  lard  the  crystal  assumes  a  form  which  is  represented 
in  Fig.  8. 

If,  on  the  other  hand,  beef  fat  be  mixed  with  lard,  the  crystals  will  assume 
a  radiated  fan-shaped  appearance  shown  in  Fig.  9.     Even  one   who  is  an 


DETECTION   OF  ADULTit^RATIONS. 


67 


Fig.  8.— Lard  Crystals.    X  1^0.— (Bureau  of  Chemistry.) 


/ 


Fig.  9 —Beef  Fat  Crystals.    X  \^.— {Bureau  of  Chemistry.) 


68  MEATS. 

expert  with  the  microscope  may  not  be  able  without  some  difficulty  to  detect 
these  adulterations  by  the  simple  tests  above  mentioned. 

Commercial  Classification  of  Lards. — In  addition  to  the  kinds  of  lard 
mentioned  above  other  varieties  are  known  in  commerce. 

Neutral  Lard. — This,  which  is  one  of  the  best  varieties  of  lard,  is  made  from 
the  fat  derived  from  the  leaf  lard  of  the  slaughtered  animal  in  a  perfectly  fresh 
state,  that  is,  taken  immediately  after  slaughter  and  before  the  carcass  is  cold. 
The  leaf  lard,  when  it  is  removed  from  the  animal,  is  at  once  placed  in  cold  stor- 
age or  put  into  cold  water,  in  order  to  rapidly  remove  the  animal  heat.  As  soon 
as  it  is  thoroughly  chilled  it  is  reduced  to  a  pulp  in  a  grinder  and  sent  at  once 
to  the  rendering  kettle.  The  fat  is  rendered  at  a  very  low  temperature, 
from  105  to  120  degrees  F.  (40-50  degrees  C).  It  is  evident  that  only  a  part 
of  the  lard  is  separated  at  this  temperature,  and  this  part  is  regarded  as  being 
of  the  best  quality,  almost  tasteless,  free  of  acids  and  other  impurities.  The 
residue  from  the  making  of  neutral  lard  is  sent  to  other  kettles,  where  it  is 
subjected  to  a  higher  temperature  and  the  remainder  of  the  lard  extracted, 
which  is  sold  under  the  name  of  another  grade.  Neutral  lard,  obtained  as 
above,  while  still  liquid,  is  washed  with  water  containing  a  trace  of  sodium 
carbonate,  common  salt,  or  a  dilute  acid.  The  product  thus  formed  is  almost 
neutral  in  its  reaction  to  htmus  paper- containing  not  to  exceed  .25  percent  of 
free  acid,  but  it  has  more  water  and  mineral  matter  than  is  found  in  the  pure 
rendered  untreated  lard.  The  neutral  lard  made  in  this  way  is  not  used  so 
commonly  for  culinary  purposes  but  chiefly  in  the  manufacture  of  oleomar- 
garine. 

Leaf  Lard. — The  residue  of  lard  obtained  by  rendering  the  unseparated 
part  of  lard  from  the  above  process  at  a  higher  temperature  is  also  of  a  high 
quality  and  is  sometimes  improperly  designated  leaf  lard,  a  term  which  should 
be  reserved  for  the  whole  product  instead  of  a  part  obtained  by  rendering  the 
residual  leaf  fat. 

Choice  Kettle-rendered  Lard. — The  amount  of  neutral  lard  which  is 
demanded  in  the  manufacture  of  oleomargarine  does  not  by  any  means  exhaust 
the  supply  of  leaf  lard.  For  making  choice  kettle-rendered  lard  the  leaf  lard 
together  with  the  fat  cut  from  the  back  of  the  animal  is  rendered  in  steam- 
jacketed  open  kettles  and  produces  a  lard  of  a  high  quality  known  as  kettle- 
rendered  or  choice  kettle-rendered  lard.  The  hide  is  removed  from  the  fat 
portion  of  the  back  used  for  this  purpose  before  the  rendering.  Both  the 
leaf  and  pieces  of  the  back  are  passed  through  a  fine  sausage  grinder  before 
they  enter  the  rendering  kettle.  According  to  the  requirements  of  the  Chicago 
Board  of  Trade,  choice  lard,  which  is  another  term  for  the  above  variety,  is 
to  be  made  from  leaf  and  trimmings  only,  either  steam-rendered  or  kettle- 
rendered,  and  the  manner  of  rendering  to  be  branded  on  each  package. 

Prime  Steam  Lard. — The  prime  steam  lard  of  commerce  is  made  as 


DISPOSITION   OF   THE   INTESTINES    OF   THE   HOG.  69 

follows:  The  whole  head  of  the  hog,  after  the  removal  of  the  jowl,  is  used 
for  rendering.  The  heads  are  placed  in  the  bottom  of  the  rendering  tank. 
The  mesenteric  fat  adhering  to  the  small  intestines  is  also  used  in  the  tank. 
Any  fat  that  may  be  attached  to  the  heart  or  other  organs  of  the  animal  may 
also  be  used.  In  those  factories  where  kettle-rendered  lard  is  not  made  the 
scrap  fat  from  the  back  of  the  animals  and  trimmings  are  also  used.  When 
there  is  an  excess  of  leaf  it  is  also  put  in  the  rendering  tank  and,  in  general, 
all  the  fat  portions  of  the  body  which  are  removed  in  the  trimming  process. 
It  is  thus  seen  that  prime  steam  lard  is  a  term  which  may  practically  represent 
the  average  fat  of  the  whole  animal. 

Prime  steam  lard  is  thus  defined  by  the  Chicago  Board  of  Trade:  "  Standard 
prime  steam  lard  shall  be  solely  the  product  of  the  trimmings  and  other  fat 
parts  of  hogs,  rendered  in  tanks  by  the  direct  application  of  steam,  and  without 
subsequent  change  in  grain  or  character  by  the  use  of  agitators  or  other  machin- 
ery except  as  such  change  may  unavoidably  come  from  transportation. 
It  shall  have  proper  color,  flavor,  and  soundness  for  keeping,  and  no  material 
which  has  been  salted  shall  be  included.  The  name  and  location  of  the  ren- 
derer  and  the  grade  of  the  lard  shall  be  plainly  branded  on  each  package  at 
the  time  of  packing. "  All  the  lard  which  is  made  is  subjected  to  the  approval 
of  inspectors  both  as  to  the  material  employed  and  the  method  of  procedure, 
together  with  the  character  of  the  final  product. 

Disposition  of  the  Intestines  of  the  Hog. — In  the  term  intestines  is 
included  all  of  the  abdominal  viscera  of  the  animal  but  not  the  thoracic  vis- 
cera, namely,  the  heart  and  lungs.  The  material  is  handled  in  the  following 
way:  When  the  animal  is  opened  the  viscera  are  separated,  including  the 
flesh  surrounding  the  anus  and  a  strip  containing  the  external  genito-urinary 
organs.  The  heart  is  thrown  to  one  side  and  the  fatty  portions  trimmed 
off  for  lard.  The  rest  of  the  heart  is  used  for  sausage  or  for  fertilizer.  The 
lungs  and  liver  are  either  used  in  the  manufacture  of  sausage  or  for  fertilizer. 
The  rectum  and  large  intestines  are  separated  from  the  intestinal  fat  and 
peritoneum  and,  along  with  the  adhering  flesh  and  genito-urinary  organs, 
sent  to  the  trimmer.  All  flesh  from  the  above-mentioned  organs  is  cut  away 
and  the  intestine  proper  is  used  for  sausage  casings.  The  trimmings,  includ- 
ing the  genito-urinary  organs,  are  washed  and  placed  in  the  rendering  tank 
where  lard  is  made.  The  small  intestine  is  also  separated  from  the  fatty 
membrane  surrounding  it  and  prepared  for  sausage  casings.  The  remain- 
ing material,  consisting  of  the  peritoneum,  diaphragm,  stomach,  and  adhering 
membranes,  together  with  the  intestinal  fat,  constitutes  the  "guts"  which 
are  subjected  to  washing  in  three  or  four  different  tanks.  In  the  first  tank 
the  stomach  and  peritoneum  are  split  open,  and  also  any  portion  of  the  intes- 
tines which  still  adhere  to  the  peritoneum.  The  portions  then  go  from  tank 
to  tank,  usually  four  in  number,  and  are  then  ready  for  the  rendering  tank. 


70  MEATS. 

The  omentum  fat  is  cut  from  the  kidneys,  and  the  kidneys  with  any  adhering 
fat  go  into  the  rendering  vat.  The  spleen,  pancreas,  vocal  cords,  trachea, 
and  oesophagus  also  go  into  the  tank. 

In  general  it  may  be  said  that  everything  connected  with  the  viscera  go 
into  the  rendering  tank  with  the  following  exceptions:  First,  that  portion 
of  the  intestines  which  is  saved  for  sausage  casings;  second,  the  liver  and 
lungs;    third,  that  part  of  the  heart  free  from  fat. 

In  the  killing  of  small  hogs,  where  the  intestines  are  not  of  sufficient  size 
to  be  suitable  for  sausage  casings,  they  also  go  into  the  rendering  tank.  It 
should  be  stated  here  that  the  grease  or  lard  obtained  by  the  rendering  of 
the  above  described  viscera,  according  to  the  statements  of  the  manufac- 
turers, is  used  solely  in  the  manufacture  of  lard  oil  and  soap,  and  does  not 
enter  into  the  lard  of  commerce. 

When  the  processes  of  manufacture  are  properly  controlled  by  official 
inspection  the  public  may  be  assured  that  this  disposition  of  the  fat  obtained 
by  the  rendering  of  the  intestinal  viscera  is  secured. 

Butchers*  Lard. — A  considerable  quantity  of  lard  is  made  for  commercial 
purposes  by  the  small  butcher  for  family  use,  etc.  This  lard  is  made  almost 
exclusively  by  rendering  in  the  open  kettle.  In  the  country  where  butchering 
is  conducted  for  family  use  the  ordinary  open  kettle  is  placed  over  an  open 
fire.  All  parts  of  the  fat  of  the  animal  which  can  be  easily  separated  and  the 
scraps  derived  from  trimming  the  animal  are  used  for  rendering.  The  offal 
and  refuse  of  the  animal  are  also  rendered  separately  and  the  product  used 
for  soap  grease.  The  lard  made  in  this  way  is  regarded  as  perfectly  whole- 
some, but  it  is  frequently  dark-colored  from  the  charring  due  to  rendering 
over  the  open  fire  and  by  reason  of  using  some  portions  of  the  animal,  such 
as  tendons,  from  which  glue  is  made.  Such  lard  may  contain  traces  or  even 
considerable  quantities  of  glue  which,  however,  cannot  be  regarded  as  an 
unwholesome  product.  The  partially  browned  residues  in  the  kettle  in  the 
country  are  known  as  "cracklings"  and  are  used  for  soap  grease. 

Inedible  Hog  Fat  Products. — In  the  shipping  of  hogs  a  great  many  are 
smothered  and  others  die  of  disease  or  are  in  a  condition,  at  the  time  of  slaugh- 
ter, which  renders  them  unfit  for  human  food,  either  by  the  presence  of  dis- 
ease or  otherwise.  The  fats  are  separated  from  dead  animals  of  this  class 
and  are  used  for  technical  purposes  such  as  burning  oils,  soap  grease,  etc. 
There  are  several  varieties  of  these  inedible  fats  of  which  the  following  are 
the  principal: 

White  Grease. — This  grease  is  made  chiefly  from  hogs  which  die  in  transit  by 
being  smothered  or  from  freezing.  Formerly  it  was  the  custom  to  make  white 
grease  also  from  the  animals  which  died  of  disease,  but  the  manufacture  of 
this  product  has  been  restricted  by  certain  state  laws  which  forbid  the  use 
of  animals  which  die  of  particular  diseases,  such  as  hog  cholera,  from  being 


TANKS   FOR   PRODUCING   LARD   UNDER  PRESSURE.  7 1 

used  for  any  purpose  whatever  and  their  carcasses  are  to  be  buried  so  as 
to  remove  all  danger  of  infection. 

Brown  Grease. — Brown  grease  is  a  product  of  a  lower  grade  than  white 
grease  and  is  made  usually  by  rendering  the  whole  animal.  It  is  one  of 
the  by-products  in  the  manufacture  of  tankage  from  condemned  animal 
carcasses,  the  tankage  being  used  as  fertilizer.  Both  white  and  brown  grease 
are  used  chiefly  in  the  manufacture  of  low  grade  lard  oil  and  in  the  making 
of  soap. 

Yellow  Grease. — Yellow  grease  is  a  product  intermediate  in  value  between 
white  and  brown  grease.  It  is  made  chiefly  from  the  carcasses  of  animals 
that  die  while  on  the  packers'  hands.  It  is  used  for  the  same  purpose  as 
white  and  brown  grease. 

Pig's-loot  Grease. — A  special  variety  of  grease  is  made  from  pigs'  feet  as 
a  by-product  in  the  glue  factory.  This  grease  is  used  also  in  making  lard 
oil  and  soap.  It  is  evident  that  these  varieties  of  grease  are  only  inedible 
varieties  of  lard,  and  through  proper  inspection  the  pubhc  is  protected  against 
the  use  of  these  varieties  of  grease  in  the  edible  product. 

Lard  Stearin. — Mention  has  already  been  made  of  the  fact  that  by  melt- 
ing a  fat  and  cooling  it  slowly  towards  its  solidifying  point,  certain  constit- 
uents of  the  fat  which  have  a  higher  melting  point  separate  first,  leaving 
those  constituents  with  a  lower  melting  point  still  in  a  liquid  condition.  Those 
portions  of  an  oil  or  fat  which  separate  first  under  such  conditions,  are  the 
constituents  of  the  product  which  is  known  as  stearin,  while  the  part  that  re- 
mains liquid  is  the  constituent  known  as  olein.  Lard  stearin  is  made  princi- 
pally for  the  manufacture  of  mixtures  and  is  a  by-product  of  the  highest  grade 
of  lard  oil.  Lard  stearin  is  made  as  follows:  The  lard  is  melted  and  kept 
in  a  crystallizing  room  at  from  50  to  60  degrees  F.,  until  it  is  filled  with  the  crys- 
tals of  the  separated  stearin.  The  product  is  then  wrapped  in  cloth  in  the 
form  of  cakes.  Each  package  contains  from  lo  to  20  pounds.  The  cakes 
are  then  placed  in  a  large  press  with  suitable  arrangements  to  facilitate  the 
escape  of  the  oil  and  maintain  the  low  temperature.  The  pressure  is  applied 
very  gradually  at  first,  and  as  the  process  advances,  with  increasing  power. 
The  high  grade  oil  obtained  in  this  way  is  known  as  prime  or  extra  lard  oil 
and  is  used  for  illuminating  and  lubricating  purposes.  The  resulting  solid 
product,  which  is  principally  stearin,  is  used  as  one  of  the  adulterants  of  lard, 
that  is,  in  making  a  mixture  which  is  sometimes  called  lard,  composed  of 
lard  stearin  and  cottonseed  oil. 

Tanks  Used  for  Producing  Lard  Under  Pressure. — There  are  various 
forms  of  tanks  used  for  producing  steam  rendered  lard.  In  the  open  kettle 
there  is  a  jacketed  arrangement  by  means  of  which  steam,  at  the  proper 
temperature,  is  made  to  act  upon  the  contents  of  the  inner  kettle.  In  the 
closed  kettle  the  steam  may  be  applied  in  the  form  of  a  jacketed  arrange- 


72 


MEATS. 


ment  or  introduced  directly  into  the  kettle.     The  residues  which  remain  after 
the  steaming  is  completed  and  after  the  lard  has  been  drawn  off  are  withdrawn 


Fig.  io. 


from  the  conical  lower  portion  of  the  kettle  which  can  be  opened  for  the 
removal  of  these  residues.  A  typical  kettle  for  rendering  lard  is  shown  in 
Fig.  IO.     The  fragments  of  meat  to  be  received  are  placed  in  the  opening  M 


PHYSICAL    PROPERTIES    OF   LARD.  73 

which  is  then  properly  closed  when  the  tank  is  full.  Steam  is  admitted  and 
the  condensation  which  is  produced  at  first  by  the  cold  contents  of  the  tank 
is  drawn  off  through  a  water  pipe.  After  the  tank  is  thoroughly  heated  and 
the  fat  begins  to  separate  the  lard  will  rise  above  the  water  and  the  solid 
fragments  and  at  the  end  of  the  process  will  fill  the*  upper  part  of  the  tank. 
By  means  of  the  cocks  at  D  it  can  be  determined  to  what  depth  the  tank 
is  filled  with  lard  and  the  lard  can  be  drawn  off  through  these  cocks  until 
water  begins  to  flow.  The  bottom  of  the  tank  at  G  is  then  opened  and  the 
residues  withdrawn,  dried  and  ground  for  tankage. 

Physical  Properties  of  Lard. — Specific  Gravity. — The  specific  gravity 
of  pure  lard  is  to  be  determined  at  some  definite  temperature,  inasmuch  as 
a  statement  of  its  specific  gravity  without  some  reference  to  the  temperature 
at  which  it  is  determined  is  likely  to  be  misleading.  It  is  not  convenient  to 
ascertain  the  specific  gravity  of  a  lard  at  a  temperature  below  its  melting 
point.  It  is  customary,  therefore,  either  to  take  the  specific  gravity  at  about 
40  degrees  C,  or  at  the  temperature  of  boiling  water. 

The  average  specific  gravity  of  pure  lard  at  40  degrees  C.  (104  degrees 
F.),  regarding  water  as  100,  is  89,  and  at  100  degrees  C.  it  is  86,  the 
weight  of  water  being  determined  at  the  point  of  greatest  density,  namely, 
4  degrees  C.  (39  degrees  F.).  Unfortunately  the  specific  gravity  of  pure  lard 
is  not  very  greatly  different  from  that  of  other  oils  or  other  fats  used  in  its 
adulteration.  For  this  reason  it  is  not  of  the  highest  value  for  determining 
whether  or  not  the  pure  article  has  been  subjected  to  adulteration. 

Melting  Point. — The  melting  point  of  a  pure  lard  is  a  physical  character- 
istic of  great  value,  since  it  is  chiefly  influenced  by  the  part  of  the  body  of  the 
animal  from  which  it  is  made.  The  fat  w^hich  is  rendered  from  the  foot 
of  the  hog  has  the  lowest  melting  point,  namely,  about  35  degrees  C.  (95°  F.). 
The  fat  adhering  to  the  intestines  has  the  highest  melting  point,  namely,  44 
degrees  C.  (iii  degrees  F.).  The  fat  derived  from  the  head  of  the  hog 
has  a  slightly  higher  melting  point  than 'that  from  the  feet.  The  kidney 
fat  has  a  melting  point  of  42.5  degrees  C.  (108.2  degrees  F.).  In  the  steam 
rendered  lards,  representing  the  average  of  lards  passed  upon  by  the  Chicago 
Board  of  Trade,  the  average  melting  point  is  found  to  be  about  37  degrees  C. 
(98.7  degrees  F.).  The  melting  point  of  superior  or  leaf  lard  has  an  average 
value  of  about  40  degrees  C.  (104  degrees  F.). 

Color  Reaction. — A  pure  high  grade  lard  when  mixed  on  a  white  porce- 
lain plate  with  the  proper  amount  of  sulfuric  or  nitric  acid  should  give  only  a 
very  slight  coloration.  The  production  of  any  considerable  quantity  of  color, 
either  brown  or  black,  indicates  the  presence  of  organic  impurities  in  the 
lard. 

Rise  of  Temperature  with  Sulfuric  Acid. — The  various  fats  give  different 
degrees  of  heat  when  mixed,  under  certain  conditions,  with  strong  sulfuric 


74 


MEATS. 


acid.  It  is  possible  to  determine  the  approximate  degree  of  the  adulter- 
ation of  lard  by  applying  this  test.  The  operation  is  a  simple  one  and  is 
conducted  in  the  apparatus  shown  in  Fig.  ii.  A  common  test  tube  about 
24  centimeters  in  length  and  5  centimeters  in  diameter  is  hung  as  indicated 
in  the  figure,  and  provided  with  a  stopper  carrying  a  thermometer  in  the 
center  with  a  bent  glass  rod  stirrer  passed  loosely  through  the  stopper  en 
the  side  and  a  funnel  for  the  introduction  of  the  acid  on  another  side  (if 
the  thermometer.     A  coil  which  is  on  the  stirring  rod  is  so  arranged  as  to 

permit  the  bulb  of  the  ther- 
mometer to  pass  through  its 
center. 

Manipulation. — Fifty  cubic 
centimeters  of  the  fat  or  oil 
to  be  examined  are  placed  in 
the  test  tube  and  warmed  or 
cooled,  as  the  case  may  be, 
until  the  temperature  is  the 
one  required  for  the  begin- 
ning of  the  experiment,  say 
35  degrees  C;  10  cubic  cen- 
timeters of  the  strongest  sul- 
furic acid  at  the  same  tem- 
perature are  placed  in  the 
funnel,  the  stopper  being 
firmly  fixed  in  its  place;  the 
test  tube  containing  the  oil 
is  placed  in  a  non-conducting 
receptacle;  the  wooden  cylin- 
der lined  with  cork,  used  in 
sending  glass  bottles  by  mail, 
is  found  to  be  convenient  for 
this  purpose.  The  glass  rod 
or  stirrer  which  fits  loosely  in 
the  stopper,  so  as  to  be  moved  rapidly  up  and  down,  is  held  by  the  right  hand 
of  the  operator;  with  his  left  hand  he  opens  the  glass  stop-cock  of  the  funnel 
and  allows  the  sulfuric  acid  to  flow  in  upon  the  oil.  The  glass  stirring  rod 
is  now  moved  rapidly  up  and  down,  for  about  20  seconds,  thus  securing  a 
thorough  mixture  of  the  oil  and  acid.  The  mercury  rises  rapidly  in  the 
thermometer  and  after  two  or  three  minutes  reaches  a  maximum,  and  then, 
after  two  or  three  minutes  more,  begins  to  descend.  The  reading  is  made 
at  the  maximum  point  reached  by  the  mercury.  With  pure  cottonseed  oil, 
linseed  oil  and  some  other  substances  the  rise  of  temperature  is  so  great  as 


Fig. I] 


AVERAGE    PROPERTIES    OF   STEAM   LARD.  75 

to  produce  ebullition  in  the  mass,  causing  it  to  foam  up  and  fill  the  tube. 
To  avoid  this,  smaller  quantities  of  acid  should  be  used  or  the  oil  in  question 
be  diluted  with  a  less  thermogenic  one,  so  that  the  maximum  temperature 
may  not  be  high  enough  to  produce  the  effect  cited. 

Chemical  Properties. — Volatile  Acids. — The  quantity  of  volatile  acid 
arising  on  the  decomposition  of  a  soap  made  by  the  saponification  of  lard 
is  very  minute  in  lard  of  high  quality.  The  total  amount  of  volatile  acid 
should  not  be  in  excess  of  that  necessary  to  saturate  .2  cubic  centimeter  of 
deci-normal  alkali  solution. 

Fixed  Acid. — The  quantity  of  fixed  acid,  consisting  principally  of  oleic 
and  stearic,  in  pure  lard  should  not  be  less  than  93  percent.  The  total 
quantity  of  free  acid  in  lard,  that  is,  acid  uncombined  with  the  glycerine, 
should  not  exceed  one-half  of  one  percent,  and  in  neutral  lard  should  be 
much  less  than  this. 

Quantity  of  lodin  Absorbed. — All  common  fats  and  oils  have  the  property 
of  absorbing,  under  given  conditions,  certain  quantities  of  iodin.  Lard 
of  the  highest  quality  should  not  absorb  more  than  60  percent  of  its  weight 
of  iodin.  The  lard  made  from  the  feet  and  certain  other  parts  of  the  animal, 
however,  may  have  a  larger  iodin  number,  rising  as  high  as  75  or  even  80. 

Properties  of  Lard. — The  average  properties  of  different  classes  of 
lard  in  relation  to  physical  and  optical  conditions  are  shown  in  the  follow- 
ing table: 

Refractive      Rise  ok  Temperature  Iodin 

Specific  Gravity.     Melting  Point.         Index.  with  Sulfuric  Acid.         Water.       Absorbed. 

35°  C.  °  C.  25°  C.  °  C.  Percent.       Percent. 

.9053  40.7  1.4620  41.5  .077  62.48 

The  above  table  is  the  average  composition  of  nineteen  samples  of  lard  fur- 
nished under  affidavits  of  purity  and  which  appear  from  their  chemical  and 
physical  properties  to  be  composed  purely  of  the  fat  of  swine  taken  from 
those  parts  of  the  animal  usually  devoted  to  lard  making.  The  average 
data  may  be  regarded  as  representing  the  properties  of  the  ordinary  pure 
commercial  lard  on  the  market. 

Average  Properties  of  Steam  Lard. — Below  is  given  the  average  com- 
position of  eleven  samples  of  steam  lard  furnished  under  affidavit  and,  appar- 
ently, as  judged  by  their  chemical  and  physical  properties,  composed  solely  of 
the  fat  of  swine.  Steam  lards  are  not  of  as  high  a  quality  as  the  lards  con- 
tained in  the  preceding  table.  They  have  usually  a  distinctively  strong 
odor,  quite  different  from  that  of  lards  which  are  rendered  in  open  kettles 
at  low  temperature  and  from  selected  portions  of  fat. 

Refractive      Rise  of  Temperature  Iodin 

Specific  Gravity.     Melting  Point.         Index.  with.  Sulfuric  Acid.         Water.       Absorbed. 

35°  C.  °  C.  25°  C.  °  C.  Percent.      Percent. 

.9055  37.0  1.4623  39.9  .109  62.86 


76  MEATS. 

Properties  of  Adulterated  Lards. — It  is  possible  to  mix  together 
the  different  materials  used  in  making  adulterated  lard  in  such  a  manner 
as  to  produce  a  compound  which  in  some  respects  resembles  the  natural 
product.  This  compound,  however,  necessarily  differs  from  the  natural 
product  in  its  physical  and  microscopic  properties  and  in  its  reaction  with 
various  chemicals  which  give  distinct  color  with  the  different  fats  and  oils 
used  as  adulterants.  The  mean  properties  of  thirteen  samples  of  mixed 
or  compound  lards  are  shown  in  the  following  table: 

Refractive      Rise  of  Temperature 
Specific  Gravity.     Melting  Point.         Index.  with  Sulfuric  Acid.         Water.  Iodin. 

35°  C.  °  C.  25°  C.  °  C.  Percent.       Percent. 

.9060  40.6  1-4634  46.5  .098  63.58 

These  lards,  in  addition  to  the  above  properties,  show  distinct  color  reac- 
tion with  sulfuric  and  nitric  acid  and  wdth  the  reagents  which  are  distinctive 
of  cottonseed  oil.  They  are  mostly  mixtures  of  lard  and  tallow  stearin 
with  cotton  oil  or  cotton  oil  stearin. 

In  addition  to  the  adulterations  already  mentioned,  as  mixing  with  cotton- 
seed oil,  may  be  added  the  use  of  cocoanut  oil.  It  is  not  probable  that  in  the 
United  States  any  adulteration  of  lard  with  coconut  oil  has  been  made  for 
commercial  purposes.  Such  an  adulteration,  however,  is  practiced  in  some 
foreign  countries.  Coconut  oil  contains  considerable  quantities  of  volatile 
acid,  and,  therefore,  when  used  as  an  adulterant  of  lard,  would  increase  the 
normal  quantity  of  volatile  acid  materially.  One  sample  examined  by  Allen, 
of  England,  was  found  to  contain  a  quantity  of  coconut  oil,  amounting  to 
33  percent. 

Summary. — In  the  preceding  pages  has  been  given  a  description  of  the 
character  of  lard,  the  sources  from  which  it  is  made,  the  method  of  its  prep- 
aration, its  chemical  and  physical  properties  and  the  common  adulterations 
to  which  it  is  subjected.  There  is  no  question  of  the  wholesomeness  of 
the  usual  fats  and  oils,  or  parts  thereof,  which  are  used  in  the  sophistica- 
tion of  lards.  The  adulteration  is  intended  solely  for  fraudulent  purposes, 
that  is,  to  sell  under  the  name  of  a  higher  priced  article  one  of  a  lower  price. 

There  are  many  persons  who  prefer  to  use  vegetable  oils  and  fats  as  sub- 
stitutes for  lard  in  all  cases.  It  is  only  fair  to  the  consumer  that  the  character 
of  a  fat  and  oil,  however,  for  edible  purposes  be  plainly  made  known  to  the 
purchaser.  He  is  then  to  judge  of  the  propriety  or  impropriety  of  using  the 
articles  in  question.  It  seems  quite  certain  that  the  use  of  vegetable  oils 
and  fats  will  be  greatly  increased  in  this  country.  All  hygienists  grant  that 
they  are  at  least  equally  as  wholesome  as  the  animal  fat  and  oil.  They  are 
certainly  less  open  to  suspicion  ^s  having  been  derived  from  diseased  sources. 
As  a  rule,  they  are  carefully  expressed  and  properly  refined,  free  from  ran- 
cidity and  from  any  mechanical  or  chemical  constituents  which  render  them 


PREPARATION  OF  SOUP  STOCK.  77 

unpalatable  or  unwholesome.  They  are  generally  much  cheaper,  perhaps 
the  only  exception  being  that  of  olive  oil.  These  vegetable  oils,  as  a  rule 
are  excellent  for  salad  dressing,  for  frying  and  general  cooking  purposes 
and  for  the  ordinary  uses  to  which  lard  and  other  animal  fats  are  devoted. 
A  proper  labeling  of  all  such  packages  would  increase  the  quantity  consumed, 
restoring  confidence  to  the  public  in  the  character  of  the  goods  purchased, 
and  prove  of  mutual  benefit  to  the  grower,  the  manufacturer  and  the  con- 
sumer. It  must  be  remembered,  however,  that  there  are  many  people  who 
prefer  the  animal  fats,  and  so  there  will  probably  always  be  a  large  field  for 
their  use.  Such  consumers  are  entitled  to  secure  the  pure  article,  properly 
prepared  from  healthy  animals  and  free  from  rancidity  and  organic 
impurities.  Lard  ind  other  animal  fats  offered  in  this  way  will  have  a  greater 
vogue,  command  a  greater  degree  of  confidence  and  secure  a  larger  trade 
than  if  sold  under  conditions  engendering  suspicion  and  distrust. 


SOUPS. 

Classification  of  Soups. — The  soups  which  are  commonly  consumed  are 
divided  into  two  great  classes — those  of  animal  and  those  of  vegetable  origin. 
Any  liquid  or  semi-liquid  preparation  of  a  meat  or  vegetable  or  the  two  com- 
bined which  may  or  may  not  carry  particles  of  solid  substances  is  classed 
with  these  preparations.  Soups  are  generally  used  at  the  beginning  of  a 
meal,  usually  at  dinner-time,  and,  as  a  rule,  do  not  have  any  very  high  nutri- 
tive value.  That  they  have  a  useful  function  cannot  be  denied,  since  the  in- 
troduction of  a  small  quantity  of  a  condimental  and  slightly  nutritive  warm 
liquid  into  the  stomach  at  the  beginning  of  dinner  tends  to  stimulate  the  secre- 
tive glands  of  the  stomach  walls  to  greater  activity  and  thus  to  promote 
digestion.  Soup  should  be  regarded  pre-eminently  as  a  condimental  and  not 
as  a  nutritive  substance. 

Preparation  of  Stock. — In  the  making  of  stock  the  base  of  the  material, 
as  a  rule,  is  that  part  of  the  meat  and  bone  soluble  in  hot  water.  The  best 
way  of  preparing  this  stock  is  as  follows: 

The  meat  and  bones  selected  should  be  fresh,  free  from  all  impurities 
and  be  derived, solely  from  healthy  animals  as  soon  as  they  have  been  slaugh- 
tered. Inasmuch  as  the  shape  of  the  material  used  is  of  little  consequence 
the  parts  of  the  carcass  that  are  cut  away  in  the  preparation  of  the  usual  cuts 
of  the  marketable  meats  are  utilized  for  stock  making.  The  flesh  should  be 
cut  into  fragments  of  proper  size  and  the  bones  broken  up  into  small  pieces. 
This  material  with  the  appropriate  amount  of  water  and  salt  is  placed  in  a 
vessel  capable  of  being  closed  in  such  a  way  that  no  aqueous  vapor  will  es- 
cape, and  a  slight  degree  of  pressure,  equal  to  the  half  of  an  atmosphere,  can  be 
sustained.     Simple  forms  of  digesters  are  made  for  this  purpose  which  are 


78  MEATS. 

perfectly  safe  at  low  pressure  and  supplied  with  a  safety  valve  so  as  to  allow 
steam  to  escape  if  the  pressure  runs  too  high.  Several  hours  of  digestion  are 
necessary  for  the  preparation  of  stock,  and  if  an  ordinary  vessel  is  used  care 
must  be  exercised  that  the  liquid  does  not  evaporate  so  as  to  make  the  mass 
dry.  Stirring  from  time  to  time  assists  the  solution  of  the  soluble  substances. 
After  the  extraction  is  complete  the  liquid  contents  are  poured  off  and  the  solid 
material  pressed  gently  to  separate  the  liquid  held  in  solution.  The  mass 
is  then  put  in  a  cool  place  and  allowed  to  stand  until  thoroughly  cooled  and 
all  the  fat  particles  are  collected  at  the  top.  The  fat  is  then  removed  and  the 
resulting  liquid  strained  to  remove  any  solid  particles.  The  clear  solution 
thus  obtained  is  set  aside  and  used  as  stock  in  the  preparation  of  the  various 
forms  of  soups.  When  properly  flavored  and  used  by  itself  it  produces  the 
soup  known  as  consomme. 

The  soup  stock  made  in  this  way  usually  contains  not  less  than  95  per- 
cent of  water  and  not  more  than  5  percent  of  nutritive  matter.  Many 
of  the  clear  soups  prepared  in  this  way  contain  very  much  less  nutritive  matter, 
sometimes  as  low  as  one  percent.  It  is  evident,  therefore,  that  the  soup 
stock  is  valuable  as  a  condiment  and  flavoring  and  not  as  a  food. 

The  number  of  soups  which  can  be  made  from  soup  stock  is  practically 
unlimited.  They  are  formed  by  the  admixture,  chiefly  of  vegetables  cut 
into  small  pieces,  of  starchy  materials,  mashed  peas  or  beans,  particles  of 
potato,  fragments  of  parched  bread,  and  in  fact  almost  any  nutritive  and 
palatable  substance  which  the  cook  may  wish  to  employ. 

A  soup  made  from  a  stock  of  the  above  description  with  pea  flour  was 
found  to  have  the  following  composition: 

Water, 88.26  percent 

Protein, 3.38  " 

Fat, 93 

Ash, 1. 13         " 

Starch  and  other  carbohydrates,    6.30         " 

A  soup  made  with  potatoes  from  stock  of  the  above  description  was  found 
to  have  the  following  composition: 

Water, 90.96  percent 

Protein, , 1.37  " 

Fat, 1.53 

Ash, 99         " 

Starch  and  other  carbohydrates, 5.13  " 

The  French  make  soups  which  are  very  well  known  and  highly  valued 
by  cutting  vegetables,  such  as  carrots,  beets,  radishes  and  other  vegetable 
substances,  into  small  pieces  and  adding  them  to  the  soup  stock. 

Oyster  Soup. — A  soup  made  of  milk,  cream,  flour,  condiments,  oysters 
and  the  liquid  of  oysters  is  very  largely  eaten  in  the  United  States.    The  dif- 


UNIVERSITY 

OF 


BEEF   EXTRACT.  79 

ference  between  oyster  soup  and  oyster  stew  is  chiefly  in  the  amount  of 
oysters  employed. 

Green  Turtle  Soup. — A  soup  stock  prepared  as  above  described  and  fla- 
vored with  pieces  of  green  turtle  is  a  very  common  dish. 

Mock  Turtle  Soup. — A  soup  made  in  imitation  of  a  turtle  soup  in  which 
veal  takes  the  place  of  turtle  for  flavoring  is  known  as  mock  turtle  soup. 

Clam  Soup  or  Clam  Chowder. — This  is  a  soup  made  of  clams  in  the  same 
way  that  oyster  soup  is  made.  When  the  clams  are  cut  into  small  pieces 
and  are  in  great  abundance  and  when  potatoes  are  used  in  large  quantities 
in  the  mixture  it  is  known  as  clam  chowder. 

Beef  Extract. — It  is  evident  that  a  beef  extract  is  only  a  soup  or  a  soup 
stock  specially  prepared  from  beef.  Beef  extract  first  became  known  by 
the  researches  of  the  celebrated  chemist  Liebig,  and  has  passed  from  a  mere 
local  preparation  to  an  article  which  is  important  in  commerce.  Factories 
have  been  established  in  localities  far  removed  from  the  principal  markets  of 
the  world,  but  where  cattle  are  extremely  plentiful,  as  in  South  America,  and 
the  preparation  of  beef  extract  is  carried  on  on  a  large  scale,  the  meat  of 
the  animal  being  thrown  away  after  the  preparation  of  the  extract.  The 
method  of  preparing  beef  extract  is  practically  that  described  for  making  a 
soup  stock  under  pressure.  Instead  of  using  only  the  trimmings  and  refuse 
of  the  animal,  however,  usually  the  whole  of  the  flesh  is  employed.  The 
bones  are  sometimes  used  in  the  making  of  a  beef  extract.  The  sound,  fresh 
meat  is  cut  into  small  pieces  and  extracted  under  pressure  as  already  described. 
After  cooking  and  filtering  the  product  it  is  brought,  in  vacuo,  to  a  proper 
consistence.  Meat  extract  is,  therefore,  simply  a  concentrated  soup  stock. 
It  requires  about  thirty-four  pounds  of  meat  to  yield  one  pound  of  concentrated 
extract,  and  this  extract  may  be  diluted  for  consumption  so  as  to  make  from 
six  to  seven  gallons  of  beef  tea.  The  composition  of  the  ordinary  beef  extract 
of  commerce  shows  that  it  contains  from  15  to  20  percent  of  moisture,  from 
17  to  23  percent  of  ash  and  from  50  to  60  percent  of  meat  bases,  that  is, 
the  soluble  nitrogenous  contents  of  meat.  The  bones  and  tendons  are  not 
used  in  making  beef  extract  on  account  of  the  introduction  of  considerable 
quantities  of  gelatine  into  the  material.  Liebig  does  not  recommend  the 
presence  of  gelatine  in  beef  extract  because,  being  cheaper  in  quality,  it  is 
an  adulteration  of  the  genuine  article,  which  should  contain  only  the  pure 
bases  and  not  the  gelatinous  principle  of  the  meat  in  the  tendons  and  bones. 

Character  of  Nitrogenous  Bodies  in  Beef  Extract. — When  beef  extract 
is  prepared  according  to  the  Liebig  method  those  nitrogenous  bodies  com- 
monly known  as  meat  bases  are  found  in  the  concentrated  extract.  In  a 
beef  extract  which  contains  a  total  of  9.28  percent  of  nitrogen  the  quantity 
of  nitrogen  in  the  form  of  nitrogenous  compounds  w^hich  were  found  therein 
is  as  follows:   Nitrogen  in  the  form  of  soluble  albumin, — trace;   in  the  form 


8o  MEATS. 

of  albumoses, — 1.17,  in  the  form  of  peptone, — trace;  in  the  form  of  meat 
bases, — 6.81;  in  the  form  of  ammonia  compounds, — .47;  in  the  form  of  un- 
enumerated  compounds, — .83.  The  chief  meat  bases  which  form  the  principal 
part  of  the  substance  are  creatin,  creatinin,  xanthin,  carnin  and  carnic  acid. 
There  are  many  different  forms  of  beef  extract  upon  the  market,  some- 
times called  by  fanciful  names  and  sometimes  by  the  name  of  the  manu- 
facturer. Among  the  fanciful  names  are  some  which  indicate  origin  or  kind. 
The  extracts  which  bear  the  names  of  the  manufacturers  are  very  numerous, 
but  all  of  these  extracts  are  essentially  of  the  same  character.  One  of  these 
is  a  meat  extract  in  which  some  of  the  meat  fiber  is  contained.  The  quantity 
of  meat  fiber  which  is  used  varies,  but  is  not  very  great.  A  comparison  of 
the  dry  substance  in  a  preparation  of  the  class  mentioned  above  with  the 
dry  substance  in  meat  shows  the  following  relation: 


Protein.       Meat  Bases.        Ash  and  Mineral  Matter. 
Percent.  Percent.  Percent. 

Extract, 49.7  25.6  24.7 

Meat, 86.7  7.8  5.3 

The  above  data  show  that  the  extract  is  essentially  different  in  its  composi- 
tion from  dried  meat  and  has  added  to  it  a  large  quantity  of  meat  fiber  or  the 
meat  rendered  soluble  by  some  kind  of  treatment. 

Nutritive  Properties. — It  cannot  be  denied  that  meat  extract,  as  has  been 
said  in  the  case  of  soup  stock,  contains  only  a  small  part  of  nutritive  matter. 
This  nutritive  substance  is  in  a  state  of  solution  and  probably  is  more  readily 
absorbed  than  a  similar  amount  of  other  nutritives  in  the  form  of  ordinary 
meat.  Its  chief  value  as  a  nutrient,  therefore,  is  not  in  the  amount  of  nu- 
trient material  which  it  contains,  but  in  the  ease  and  speed  with  which  it  may 
become  absorbed  into  the  circulation.  In  case  of  illness  this  is  often  a  very 
important  point.  It  is  not  a  question  so  much  of  the  utilization  of  a  large 
amount  of  nutrients  as  the  absorption  and  assimilation  in  small  quantities 
which  will  sustain  life  until  the  disordered  conditions  disappear.  For  these 
reasons  the  meat  extracts  have  a  value.  There  is,  however,  little  doubt  of 
the  fact  that  in  the  popular  mind  a  great  deal  more  credit  is  given  to  meat 
extracts  than  should  properly  belong  to  them.  They  must  be  regarded 
principally  as  condimental  and  incident  to  nutrition  rather  than  as  nutri- 
tive substances.  The  claims  which  are  made  by  the  manufacturers  are 
sometimes  misleading,  as,  for  instance,  that  one  pound  of  extract  contains 
the  nutritive  properties  of  many  pounds  of  meat.  Such  a  statement,  cf 
course,  is  absurd  upon  its  face  and  should  nbt  be  allowed  to  go  unchallenged. 
Even  when  meat  extracts  are  reinforced  by  the  addition  of  soluble  or  com- 
minuted fiber,  as  is  often  the  case,  the  quantity  of  nourishment  is  very  small 
as  compared  with  a  similar  weight  of  meat  itself. 


BEEF   JUICE.  8l 

It  is  not  intended  by  the  above  remarks  to  cast  any  discredit  upon  the  value 
of  beef  extract,  as  its  value  has  been  attested  in  numerous  cases.  It  is  only 
designed  to  call  attention  to  the  fact  that  as  food  these  exti-acts  have  com- 
paratively little  value.  They  may  be  useful  as  stimulants  or  as  condimental 
substances  or  as  a  means  of  speedily  introducing  a  soluble  nutrient  in  the 
case  of  disease  where  it  is  extremely  important  that  even  small  amounts  of 
nutritious  material  should  enter  the  body. 

Beef  Juice. — A  distinction  is  made  between  a  beef  extract  and  a  beef 
juice.  The  latter  term  applies  solely  to  the  liquid  naturally  remaining  in 
the  fresh  meat  after  its  proper  preparation  for  consumption,  that  is,  after 
the  withdrawal  of  the  blood  and  the  proper  cooling  and  storing  of  the  flesh. 
The  fresh  meat  is  then  subjected  to  strong  pressure  and  the  juices  which 
are  extracted  are  concentrated  in  vacuo  to  the  proper  consistence.  The 
meat  of  old  bulls  is  often  used.  A  true  beef  juice  must  be  extracted  from 
the  cold  meat  and  not  w^ith  the  aid  of  heat,  hot  water  or  other  solvents.  It  is 
difficult  to  preserve  an  extract  of  this  kind  without  sterilization,  and  the  heat 
required  for  sterilization  is  likely  to  coagulate  some  of  the  albuminous  material 
which  is  expressed.  It  is  a  great  temptation,  therefore,  in  some  cases  to  pre- 
serve the  beef  juice  by  a  chemical  preservative  other  than  common  salt. 
Boric  acid  and  sulfite  of  soda  may  be  used  for  this  purpose,  but  these  substances 
are  objectionable  on  the  score  of  possible  injury  to  health.  Glycerine  is  also 
used.  Inasmuch  as  these  juices  are  usually  given  to  invalids  or  those  whose 
digestive  functions  are  impaired  it  is  most  important  that  injurious  sub- 
stances should  be  omitted.  In  case  of  pressure  it  is  advisable,  in  some  cases, 
to  chop  the  meat  very  fine,  and  in  this  comminuted  condition  extract  the 
juice  with  cold  water.  This  does  not  produce  any  change  in  the  character 
of  the  juice  and  the  water  is  subsequently  removed  by  evaporation  at  a  low 
temperature  in  vacuo.     Beef  juices  are  usually  prepared  from  heated  meats. 

Composition  oj  Beef  Juice. — The  composition  of  beef  juice  from  different 
parts  of  meat  which  was  previously  heated  externally  is  shown  in  the  follow- 
ing table. 

COMPOSITION  OF  BEEF  JUICE  AND  MEAT  EXTRACT. 

Beef  Juice.  Meat  Extract. 

Water, 90.65  2 1 .66 

Ash, 1.36  20.46 

NaCl  (salt), 15  5.47 

P2O5  (phosphoric  acid), 56  4.55 

Fat, 19  .50 

Acid  (as  lactic), 15  8.42 

Nitrogen  (total), 1.15  7.66 

insoluble  and  coaguable, 68  .48 

as  proteoses, 04  2.02 

as  peptones, 14  1.90 

meat  bases, 30  3.05 

creatin, .75 

xanthin  bases, .04 

ammonia, .21 


82  MEATS. 

The  above  analyses  show  the  general  character  of  meat  juice  extracted 
first  by  externally  heating  the  meat  and  then  pressing.  They  show  that 
there  is  less  nitrogenous  material  present  in  meat  juice  than  there  is  in  meat 
extracts.  It  is  evident  that  meat  juices  cannot  be  heated  for  sterilization 
without  coagulation  of  the  albumins.  When  it  is  advisable  to  use  a  beef  juice 
in  a  case  of  illness  it  is  far  better  to  prepare  it  at  the  time  when  it  is  used 
than  to  prepare  it  on  a  commercial  scale  and  preserve  it  by  any  of  the 
chemical  means  in  vogue.  Meat  juice  can  be  very  well  prepared  for  domestic 
use  by  chopping  the  meat  very  fine,  placing  it  in  a  vessel,  heating  to  140° 
F.,  and  pressing  it  by  any  simple  means,  as,  for  instance,  with  the  hand  or 
by  using  an  ordinary  lemon  squeezer.  The  juice  obtained  in  this  way  can 
be  flavored  with  salt  and  spices  to  suit  the  taste  of  the  patient,  and  used  imme- 
diately. In  some  cases,  in  order  to  get  a  greater  yield,  pure  cold  water  may 
be  mixed  with  the  chopped  meat  and  a  somewhat  dilute  juice  obtained  but 
giving  a  greater  yield  of  nutritive  material  for  the  same  weight  of  meat. 

Various  names,  fanciful  and  otherwise,  are  given  to  the  so-called  beef  juices. 
These  names  are  either  fanciful  or,  as  in  the  case  of  beef  extracts,  that  of  the 
manufacturer.  Some  of  the  fanciful  names  are,  like  those  already  mentioned, 
suggestive  of  origin.  Some  of  these  have  large  quantities  of  coagulable 
protein,  like  albumin,  while  others  have  such  small  quantities  as  to  indicate 
that  they  are  not  wholly  beef  juice.  In  the  case  of  some  of  these  prepara- 
tions there  iS  some  indication  that  they  are  prepared  chiefly  from  blood 
and  thus  are  not  true  meat  juices.  Naturally  there  must  be  particles  of 
blood  in  a  meat  juice  and  the  mere  occurrence  of  blood  cells  would  not  be 
an  indication  that  blood  itself  had  been  used  in  its  preparation.  By  rea- 
son of  these  facts  the  use  of  so-called  meat  juices  is  restricted.  They  con- 
tain relatively  very  little  nutritive  material,  they  are  sometimes  preserved 
with  harmful  chemicals  and  they  may  be  made  from  blood,  and  in  general 
there  is  such  a  degree  of  secrecy  attending  their  preparation  as  to  warrant  the 
physician  and  patient  to  confine  themselves  to  the  domestic  article  prepared 
at  the  time  of  using.  Another  objection  which  is  not  of  a  hygienic  character 
is  found  in  the  great  expense  of  securing  a  very  little  nourishment  by  this 
means.  The  quantity  of  juice  which  meat  will  yield  is  very  small  and,  there- 
fore, the  relative  expense  for  any  given  quantity  of  nourishment  is  far  greater 
than  it  is  even  in  the  case  of  beef  extract.  While  in  the  case  of  rich  patients 
an  objection  like  this  is  of  little  value,  in  the  great  majority  of  cases  it  should 
be  given  due  consideration. 

Soluble  Meats. — Various  attempts  have  been  made  to  put  soluble  meats 
upon  the  market  for  use,  especially  for  invalids  and  in  cases  of  disordered 
digestion.  The  principle  which  underlies  the  preparation  of  these  meats 
is  to  subject  them  to  a  certain  degree  of  artificial  digestion,  by  means  of  which 
the  protein  matter  becomes  converted  into  soluble  forms,  either  albumose, 


PREPARATION   OF   BLOOD.  83 

proteose  or  peptone.  The  process  which  is  employed  is  a  simple  one,  namely, 
the  comminution  of  the  meat  into  as  fine  particles  as  possible  and  its  admix- 
ture with  hydrochloric  acid  and  pepsin.  It  is  then  subjected  to  artificial 
digestion  until  a  considerable  portion  of  the  meat  is  soluble.  Another  method 
of  preparation  is  to  omit  the  pepsin  and  after  the  addition  of  hydrochloric 
acid  to  place  the  meat  in  a  digestor  where  it  is  subjected  to  a  temperature 
of  steam  under  pressure  for  a  considerable  length  of  time.  A  goodly  pro- 
portion of  the  meat  becomes  soluble  under  this  process.  After  the  prepara- 
tion is  completed  the  residual  hydrochloric  acid  is  neutralized  by  carbonate 
of  soda,  forming  common  salt,  which  gives  the  proper  flavor  to  the  com- 
pound. 

The  composition  of  soluble  meat  prepared  in  this  way  is  given  in  the  fol- 
lowing table  (Foods  and  Principles  of  Dietetics,  by  Robert  Hutchinson): 

Water, 67.2 1  j)ercent 

Fat, 5.93        " 

Albumin, 1 1 .00        " 

Peptone,   6.5 1        " 

Meat  extract, 7.55        " 

Ash  and  salt, » 1.74        " 

A  meat  solution  of  this  kind  is  not  really  a  solution,  since  not  only  is  that 
part  which  passes  into  solution  contained  in  it,  but  also  the  residual  meat 
fibers  which  are  not  dissolved  but  so  softened  by  the  process  that  they  lose 
their  distinct  form  and  can  be  rubbed  up  to  a  thick  pasty  mass.  The  prod- 
uct, therefore,  consists  not  only  of  the  part  of  the  meat  rendered  thoroughly 
soluble  in  water  by  the  process,  but  also  of  a  residual  part,  softened  and  reduced 
to  a  paste.  The  mass  has  practically  the  same  nutritive  value  as  an  equiva- 
lent amount  of  meat  with  the  claimed  advantage  that  a  large  portion  of 
it  is  already  soluble.  This  partial  predigestion  may  be  of  value  in  cases  of 
disease  or  disordered  digestion  of  any  kind,  but  there  is  no  reason  for  believ- 
ing that  the  healthy  stomach  requires  any  sort  of  artificial  predigestion  for 
the  proper  conduct  of  its'  functions.  On  the  other  hand,  there  is  every  reason 
for  supposing  that  any  kind  of  predigestion  which  is  at  all  effective  will  in 
the  end  prove  injurious  to  healthy  digestive  organs  by  depriving  them  of  a 
part  of  their  normal  functions  and  thus  tending  to  bring  them  to  a  condition 
of  feebleness  which  may  result  in  the  omission,  in  part,  of  the  normal  func- 
tions of  the  vital  organs. 

Preparations  of  Blood. — There  is  no  doubt  of  the  valuable  nutritive  prop- 
erties of  blood  and  its  preparations  are  sometimes  used  as  foods.  There 
is  a  deep-seated  prejudice  against  the  use  of  blood  as  human  food,  doubtless 
based  on  older  and  more  effective  grounds  than  even  the  laws  of  health  pro- 
mulgated by  Moses.  Man  is  an  animal  of  some  refinement  of  character 
and  the  sight  or  use  of  blood  is  repugnant  to  his  finer  instincts.  Sometimes 
blood  is  dried  and  powdered  and  the  blood  powder  mixed  with  other  food. 


84  MEATS. 

Another  method  is  to  coagulate  the  blood,  then  remove  the  coagulated  portion 
and  use  the  residue  for  food  purposes.  This  preparation,  of  course,  contains 
no  coagulable  portions  of  blood,  that  is,  the  protein  thereof  known  as  fibrin. 
There  is  no  reason  for  believing  that  preparations  of  blood  will  ever  occupy 
any  prominent  position  in  the  food  supply,  either  of  persons  in  health  or 
of  invalids. 

Beef  Tea. — A  very  common  food  preparation  from  beef  is  that  known  as  beef 
tea.  In  all  essential  particulars  beef  tea  is  nothing  more  than  a  rich  unfiltered 
soup  stock.  Inasmuch,  however,  as  it  is  constantly  prescribed  in  many  kinds 
of  illness  and  is  prepared  under  certain  conditions  it  should  be  mentioned  speci- 
ally here  in  addition  to  the  preparations  already  described.  As  in  the  case 
of  meat  juice,  beef  tea  should  always  be  prepared  in  the  home,  and  im- 
mediately before  using.  It  is  a  preparation  which  can  not  be  properly  made 
and  kept  without  the  addition  of  some  preservative  which  renders  it  totally 
unfit  for  human  consumption.  The  very  choicest  portion  of  the  beef  should  be 
selected  in  the  preparation  of  beef  tea  and  it  should  be  reduced  to  a  fine  state  of 
comminution.  The  removal  of  the  fat  and  tendons  should  be  as  complete  as 
possible,  as  particularly  the  latter  tend  to  add  to  the  extract  more  of  the 
gelatine-like  principles  than  is  desirable.  The  fragments  should  be  mixed  with 
a  sufficient  quantity  of  cold  water  to  make  the  desired  amount  of  beef  tea, 
usually  one  pound  of  water  to  a  pound  of  comminuted  beef  is  a  good  proportion. 
The  mixture  should  be  kept  cold  for  a  considerable  length  of  time  with  fre- 
quent stirrings  in  order  to  extract  as  much  as  possible  of  the  nitrogenous 
matter  which  becomes  coagulated  by  heating.  Salt  may  be  used  not  only  to 
promote  the  solubiKty  but  also  to  give  the  proper  taste.  After  the  lapse  of  an 
hour  or  more  the  vessel  may  be  covered  and  gradually  warmed.  During  this 
warming  the  mass  should  be  frequently  stirred  so  to  as  promote  the  solution. 
When  finally  the  extraction  is  complete,  before  the  tea  is  administered  it  should 
be  cooked,  that  is,  heated  to  the  boihng-point,  by  which  process  the  soluble 
protein  is  coagulated  but  not  hardened,  and  the  material  is  rendered  more 
palatable.  The  beef  tea  should  be  administered  without  separating  the  co- 
agulated fragments  of  albuminous  material,  which  is  in  a  state  easily  digestible, 
and  adds  much  to  the  nutritive  value  of  the  mixture.  Finally  the  residue  of 
beef  may  be  put  into  a  bag  and  subjected  to  pressure  to  remove  as  much  of  the 
juice  contained  therein  as  possible.  The  difference  between  beef  tea  and  soup 
stock,  as  will  be  seen,  is  largely  in  the  filtering.  The  beef  tea  should  retain 
the  coagulated  flocks,  while  in  the  soup  stock  they  are  removed.  One  pound  of 
good  lean  beef  and  one  pint  of  water  yield  about  one-half  pound  of  good  beef 
tea.  As  in  the  case  of  soup  stock,  beef  tea  is  not  a  very  nutritive  substance.  It 
is,  however,  stimulating,  and  the  nourishment  which  it  contains  is  quickly  ab- 
sorbed. The  soft,  coagulated  flocks  of  albumin  are  readily  digested,  and  often  a 
patient  may  be  nourished  for  days  on  a  preparation  of  this  kind  when  he  is  in 


DRIED   AND    POWDERED   MEATS.  85 

a  condition  which  renders  it  impracticable  to  use  either  solid  or  other  liquid 
foods. 

Beef  tea  is  also  made  on  a  large  commercial  scale  and  with  some  degree  of 
approximation  to  the  home  prepared  article.  For  various  reasons,  however, 
which  have  already  been  advanced,  a  well  made  domestic  beef  tea  which  can 
be  used  as  soon  as  prepared  is  to  be  preferred  in  all  cases  to  the  manufactured 
article.  A  beef  tea  properly  made  has  approximately  the  following  com 
position: 

Water,   88.00  percent 

Meat  bases, 3.50        " 

Protein — soluble  and  flocculated,   8.00        " 

Ash  and  salt, i-5o        " 

Dried  and  Powdered  Meats. — The  preparation  of  dried  meat  has  ab-eady 
been  described.  There  has  lately  been  placed  upon  the  market  a  number 
of  preparations  dried  and  finely  ground,  under  various  names,  fanciful  and 
those  of  the  manufacturer.  Inasmuch  as  ordinar}^  meats  are  largely  composed 
of  w^ater,  it  is  evident  that  if  the  water  can  be  removed  without  impairing 
the  quality  of  the  meat,  great  expense  in  transportation  would  be  saved  and 
the  use  of  preservatives  would  be  unnecessary.  Various  attempts,  therefore, 
have  been  made  to  place  dried  meats  upon  the  market.  The  meat  powders  are 
not  only  offered  in  their  natural  state  of  desiccation  but  also  are  prepared  with 
some  degree  of  artificial  digestion.  One  of  the  most  common  of  these  meat 
powders  is  known  as  somatose,  which  has  been  made  in  large  quantities,  and 
sold  throughout  all  parts  of  the  world.  It  consists  largely  of  albumoses  rather 
than  of  peptones,  but  this  is  true  of  a  great  many  of  the  so-called  peptone 
preparations.  The  composition  of  somatose  is  represented  in  the  following 
table  (Allen's  Commercial  Organic  Analyses,  Vol.  IV,  page  384) : 

Water, 1425  percent 

Albumin  rendered  soluble  by  alkali, 2 1 .83        " 

Albumin, 3.40  " 

Albumoses, 33-96  " 

Peptone, 3.06  " 

Meat  bases, 2.62  " 

Ash  and  salt, 5.30  " 

The  above  data  show  that  the  meat  still  contains  nearly  15  percent  of 
moisture  and  that  an  alkali  has  been  used  to  render  the  protein  more  soluble. 
This  alkali  has  increased  the  quantity  of  mineral  matter  over  that  which  would 
naturally  be  present.  Whatever  may  be  the  relative  value  of  the  prepared 
protein  matter  as  compared  with  that  in  the  original  meat,  it  is  seen  that  a  large 
quantity  of  it,  practically  as  much  as  was  in  the  original  meat,  has  been  pre- 
served in  the  finished  product.  Whether  or  not  it  is  advisable  to  use  a  prepara- 
tion of  this  kind  is  a  question  to  be  left  with  the  physician.  It  may  be  said  un- 
hesitatingly that  in  all  cases  of  health  somatose  could  not  possibly  present  any 


86  MEATS. 

advantage  over  fresh  meat.     On  the  contrary,  for  theoretical  and  practical  rea- 
sons, it  is  certain  that  it  is  less  valuable. 

Composition  of  the  Ash  of  Meat  Juice  and  Meat  Broth. — The  principal 
mineral  component  of  the  natural  juice  of  meat  broth  or  meat  extract  is  phos- 
phate of  potassium,  though  there  are  also  small  quantities  of  magnesium  and 
smaller  quantities  of  calcium  present.  In  addition  to  this  there  is  a  certain 
quantity  of  common  salt  present,  which  is  determined,  however,  largely  by  the 
method  of  preparation.  The  following  analysis  shows  the  composition  of  the 
ash  of  a  meat  juice  to  which  little  or  no  common  salt  has  been  added : 

Potassium  (K), 34.40  percent 

Sodium  (Na), 9.70        " 

Calcium  (Ca), 36 

Magnesium   (Mg),   2.55         " 

Phosphoric  acid  (PgOg), 27.00        " 

Other  constituents  are  not  determined  in  this  analysis.  The  phosphate  of 
potassium  may  therefore  be  regarded  as  the  principal  natural  ash  constituent  of 
meat  extract  and  meat  juice.     (Zeitschrift  fiir  Biologic,  Vol.  XII,  1876.) 

Adulteration  of  Meat  Extract. — The  principal  adulterations  of  meat  ex- 
tract have  already  been  mentioned.  The  substances  used  in  preserving  it  are 
of  the  greatest  hygienic  consequence.  These  are  chiefly  salt  and  glycerol 
or  alcohol.  The  use  of  all  of  these  substances  is  reprehensible.  Fortunately 
they  are  seldom  used.  Another  adulteration  which  has  been  practiced  is 
mixing  the  meat  extract  with  extracts  of  yeast.  The  extract  of  yeast  has 
valuable  dietetic  properties  and  contains  the  active  principles  of  fermentation. 
It  also  resembles,  in  many  respects,  physically  and  chemically,  the  extract  of 
meat,  and  can,  therefore,  be  mixed  with  meat  extract,  and,  being  a  cheaper 
article,  forms  a  mixture  which  can  be  sold  at  a  greater  profit.  The  presence 
of  yeast  extract  in  meat  extract  can  easily  be  determined  by  treating  the  mix- 
ture with  a  strong  solution  of  sulfate  of  zinc  and  filtering.  In  meat  extract 
the  filtrate  obtained  is  always  quite  clear,  but  when  a  yeast  extract  is  present 
the  filtrate  is  turbid. 

Active  Principles  Contained  in  Meat  Extract. — Attention  has  already 
been  called  to  some  of  the  more  important  active  principles,  namely,  meat  bases 
which  form  a  valuable  portion  of  meat  extract.  There  are  various  forms  of 
nitrogenous  bodies,  however,  besides  meat  bases,  which  become  soluble  natur- 
ally in  meat  or  by  the  treatment  of  meat  with  digestive  ferments.  Lean  meat, 
as  is  well  known,  consists  almost  exclusively  of  protein  matter  and  water. 
This  protein  matter  is  principally  insoluble.  Under  the  action  of  digestive 
ferments  the  protein  of  meat  becomes  broken  up  into  more  solubte  bodies, 
known  as  albumoses,  proteoses  and  peptones, — the  latter  being  the  final  product 
of  solution.  These  bodies  are  still  true  protein  bodies  containing  the  element 
sulfur  as  one  of  their  essential  constituents.     The  meat  bases,  on  the  con- 


RELATION    BETWEEN    PRICE    AND    VALUE    OF    A    NUTRITIVE    EXTRACT.      87 

trary,  contain  the  other  elements  that  are  in  protein  but  do  not  have  the  sulfur 
element.  They  belong  to  that  class  of  bodies  which  is  known  as  simple 
amido  compounds.  All  of  these  bodies  are  mixed  together  in  meat  juice  or 
beef  extract,  and  it  is  an  important  task  of  the  chemist  to  separate  them, 
both  that  they  may  be  identified  and  that  their  relative  abundance  may  be 
closely  determined.  There  is  also  another  soluble  or  semisoluble  protein  sub- 
stance in  these  extracts  derived  from  the  tendinous  tissues  and  bones,  namely, 
the  gelatine  or  glue.  This  is  quite  a  common  product,  being  the  soluble 
protein  procured  by  the  digestion  of  the  tendons  and  bones.  It  is  important, 
therefore,  that  the  chemist  should  distinguish  between  the  gelatine  and  the 
amido  bodies.  There  is  also  a  true  and  a  false  protein  form  of  these  soluble 
bodies,  the  true  one  being  formed  by  natural  proteolytic  ferments  and  the  false 
one  being  formed  by  heat  or  digestion  under  pressure  of  steam.  The  chemist 
should  also  be  able  to  distinguish  between  the  true  extract  formed  directly 
from  the  meat  and  the  yeast  extract  used  as  an  adulteration. 

It  is  not  the  purpose  of  this  manual  to  enter  into  the  details  of  how  these 
different  bodies  may  be  distinguished  from  one  another,  as  that  is  purely  a 
chemical  study.  It  is  due,  however,  to  the  general  reader  that  some 
explanation  be  given  of  the  different  classes  of  bodies  which  are  contained  in 
these  extracts. 

Relation  between  the  Price  of  an  Extract  and  its  Nutritive  Value. ^ 
The  studies  made  in  the  Bureau  of  Chemistry  show  that  there  is  little  relation 
between  the  price  of  a  beef  extract  and  its  real  nutritive  value.  In  three  cases 
of  extract  which  are  all  well  known  brands  and  are  of  the  thick  or  pasty  variety, 
showing  that  a  dissolved  meat  had  been  added  to  them,  the  average  weight  of  a 
package  costing  45  cents  was  only  55  grams,  or  nearly  a  cent  a  gram.  In  an- 
other three  samples  of  extract,  also  well  known  brands,  of  the  same  pasty 
variety  and  costing  little  more  per  package,  it  was  found  that  the  weight  of  the 
more  expensive  variety  was  double  that  of  the  first,  costing  only  one-half  cent 
per  gram.  In  the  case  of  the  liquid  extracts  where  no  pasty  material  is  incor- 
porated there  is  still  greater  variation  in  the  relation  of  the  price  to  the  nutritive 
constituents.  An  extract  which  retails  for  one  dollar  per  bottle  contains  91.69 
percent  of  water  and  only  .42  percent  of  nitrogen.  Another  so-called  meat 
extract  which  retails  at  60  cents  per  bottle  must  have  been  wholly  an  artificial 
product,  since  it  contained  no  creatin  or  creatinin  at  all.  It  was  also  preserved 
by  the  addition  of  alcohol  and  contained  an  artificial  coloring  matter. 

The  ash  existing  in  these  extracts  is,  of  course,  usually  due  to  the  pres- 
ence of  large  quantities  of  common  salt.  Sodium  chlorid  is  added  to  this 
extract  without  any  definite  rule  at  all  and  sometimes  in  very  excessive 
quantities.  .  In  some  cases  thirty  percent  of  the  total  extract  is  composed  of 
common  salt.  In  other  words,  a  person  taking  a  solution  of  this  kind  would  be 
injecting  into  his  stomach  a  very  concentrated  brine.     When  common  salt  may 


88  MEATS. 

be  sold  at  the  rate  of  one  dollar  per  pound,  the  profit  on  the  transaction  is  one 
which  ought  to  make  the  business  exceedingly  attractive. 

The  total  phosphoric  acid  in  the  ash  also  shows  variations,  and  if  it  were 
not  so  easy  to  add  artificial  phosphoric  acid  the  actual  amount  present  might  be 
taken  as  a  base  by  which  quality  could  be  judged.  In  the  natural  extract  the 
total  phosphoric  acid  should  be  in  the  proportion  to  organic  phosphoric  acid  as 
lo  to  I,  which  is  the  natural  condition  in  which  it  is  found  in  meat  extract.  In 
many  cases  the  amount  of  inorganic  phosphorus  is  so  great  as  to  render  it 
certain  that  a  phosphate,  probably  the  phosphate  of  soda,  has  been  added. 
In  another  case  the  quantity  of  organic  phosphoric  acid  was  very  much  greater 
than  could  have  possibly  been  the  case  in  a  natural  product,  indicating  the 
addition  of  lecithin  or  glycerophosphoric  acid.  The  amount  of  fat  in  beef  ex- 
tract, when  properly  prepared,  should  be  very  small  and  should  certainly  not 
exceed  one  percent,  since  by  the  proper  method  of  preparation  the  fat  is 
largely  separated.  In  the  pasty  material,  however,  where  the  meat  is  reduced  to 
a  pulp  and  retained  in  the  package  the  amount  of  fat  will  be  very  much  greater. 

The  Nitrogenous  Bases. — The  average  nitrogen  content  of  the  pasty  or 
solid  extracts  varies  from  6  to  9  percent.  The  nitrogen  in  the  meat  juice  is 
subject  to  much  greater  fluctuation,  depending  largely  on  the  content  of  solids. 
Although  a  high  nitrogen  content  is  not  a  guarantee  of  the  character  or  mode 
of  manufacture  of  an  extract,  it  is  naturally  expected  and  is  desirable. 

The  addition  of  gelatine  to  extracts  is  now  largely  practiced  and  has  been  for 
some  years.  By  adding  gelatine  the  manufacturer  raises  or  maintains  a  certain 
nitrogen  content,  but  supplies  the  nitrogen  in  a  form  lacking  in  all  quickly 
stimulating  qualities,  and  the  natural  flavor  of  the  meat  extract  nitrogen  is 
lowered.  The  buyer  is  consequently  deprived  of  the  characteristic  essentials  of 
a  beef  extract  although  the  nitrogen  content  is  relatively  high.  In  many  cases 
only  a  small  proportion  of  the  original  gelatine  exists  in  the  extract  as  such. 
The  gelatine  is  converted  by  a  gradual  process  of  hydration  into  gelatoses  and 
gelatine  peptones.  While  the  separation  of  gelatine  from  protein  matter  is  a 
process  in  anything  but  a  satisfactory  condition,  it  is  a  far  simpler  process  than 
the  detection  and  separation  of  gelatoses  and  gelatine  peptones  from  albuminoses 
and  peptones.     The  question  has  not  been  thoroughly  studied  up  to  date. 

The  question  of  adulteration  of  meat  extracts  with  gelatine  is  not  the  only 
form  of  adulteration  we  have  to  face.  The  mixing  of  varying  amounts  of 
yeast  extract  with  meat  extracts  is  being  practiced  at  the  present  time  in  some 
countries.  As  we  have  not  investigated  this  question,  we  cannot  state  whether  it 
is  practiced  in  this  country  at  the  present  time  or  not. 

Kinds  of  Preparations. — Meat  preparations  of  the  above  types  in  general 
may  be  divided  into  three  classes,  liquid  extracts,  pasty  extracts  and  pow- 
dered extracts.  In  addition  to  the  above,  within  the  last  few  years  beef  ex- 
tract pellets,  some  of  them  being  enclosed  in  gelatine  capsules,  have  appeared 


KINDS   OF   PREPARATIONS.  89 

upon  the  market.  The  old-time  product  of  Liebig's  extract  belongs  to  the 
second  class,  in  which  we  also  find  many  of  our  best  known  brands.  The 
liquid  extracts  are  varied  and  numerous  and  their  number  is  rapidly  increas- 
ing. The  amount  of  meat  extractives  in  some  of  these  liquid  products  is  re- 
markably small,  the  quantity  of  solids  in  two  or  three  cases  being  under  10 
percent.  Alcohol  is  sometimes  met  with  in  these  liquid  preparations.  The 
meat  powders  are  far  less  numerous  than  the  extracts  of  the  first  two  classes. 
They  consist  largely,  if  not  entirely,  of  albuminoses  and  peptones  in  addition  to 
some  insoluble  proteid  matter. 

Moreover,  it  is  necessary  to  distinguish  between  a  meat  extract  containing 
large  amounts  of  stimulating  amido-acids  and  relatively  small  percentages  of 
albuminoses,  peptones  and  insoluble  proteid  matter  on  the  one  hand,  and,  on  the 
other  hand,  an  extract,  or,  more  properly,  a  meat  product,  which  consists 
largely  of  albuminoses,  peptones  and  insoluble  matter  and  relatively  small 
amounts  of  amido-acids.  The  food  value  of  this  last  group  of  products  is  un- 
doubtedly greater  than  that  of  the  former  group,  but  being  sold  as  meat  ex- 
tracts, their  value  should  be  based  on  the  amount  of  extractives  they  contain 
and  not  on  their  food  value. 

The  value  of  the  amido-bodies,  such  as  the  meat  bases,  as  food,  is  of  uncer- 
tain character,  but  we  must  admit,  as  in  the  case  of  alcohol,  they  can  at  least 
be  burned  and  furnish  energy  to  the  body.  Like  alcohol,  the  value  of  meat  ex- 
tractives lies  principally  in  their  stimulating  qualities.  The  active  principles 
of  tea  and  coffee  are  on  a  similar  basis.  As  these  simpler  amido-bodies  are 
the  final  links  in  the  long  chain  of  hydrolytic  products  of  the  proteid  molecule 
prior  to  the  complete  resolution  of  that  molecule  into  carbon  dioxid,  water, 
etc.,  it  is  readily  seen  that  an  ounce  of  meat  extractives  (the  various  amido- 
bodies)  represents  a  far  larger  amount  of  beef  than  an  ounce  of  albuminoses 
does.  The  various  protein  bodies  and  amido-acids  are  closely  interwoven  and  it 
is  impossible  to  produce  amido-acids  without  producing  albuminoses  and  pep- 
tones. Consequently,  every  commercial  meat  extract  must  consist  partly  of 
albuminoses,  peptones,  etc.  The  best  of  our  extracts  on  the  market  to-day 
contain  about  50  percent  of  their  total  nitrogen  in  the  form  of  meat  base 
nitrogen.  When  an  extract  contains  less  than  5  percent  of  its  nitrogen  in  the 
form  of  meat  base  nitrogen  the  term  "extract"  seems  to  be  no  longer  applica- 
ble. It  is  evident  that  the  product  represents  much  less  meat  than  an  extract 
with  50  percent  of  its  nitrogen  in  the  form  of  meat  base  nitrogen,  provided 
the  total  nitrogen  in  both  cases  is  approximately  equal. 

The  proteid  matter  coagulated  by  heating  to  boiling,  as  well  as  the  proteid 
matter  insoluble  in  cold  water,  are  both  undesirable  factors  in  an  extract  of 
meat.  As  a  rule,  the  lower  the  proportion  of  these  constituents,  the  higher 
the  character  of  the  meat  extract.  The  same  thing  holds  true  in  regard  to  the 
presence  of  albuminoses  and  peptones. 


90 


MEATS. 


The  quantity  of  total  nitrogen  in  the  form  of  meat  base  nitrogen  in  the  best 
extracts  reaches  50  percent.  .  In  one  of  the  poorest  it  is  3.82  percent.  The 
food  value  of  the  latter  product  might  be  greater  than  that  of  the  former,  but  its 
cost  of  ihanufacture  and  its  stimulating  value  are  much  less. 

Creatin  figures  are  very  interesting  and  of  much  value  in  determining  the 
source  and  value  of  an  extract.  Creatin  is  the  principal  amido-body  found  in 
meat,  consequently  we  expect  to  find  it  or  creatiiiin,  its  hydrated  form,  in  still 
larger  quantities  in  meat  extracts.  In  several  cases  which  came  under  our 
notice  where  the  extract  acted  suspiciously,  the  creatin  values  were  nil,  and  in 
such  cases  grave  doubts  exist  as  to  the  source  of  the  extract.  Our  best  extracts 
give  high  creatin  as  well  as  high  meat  base  figures. 

The  xanthin  bases  and  ammonia  nitrogen  figures  present  a  variety  of 
problems.  While  the  xanthin  bases  are  desirable  constituents,  ammonia  in 
any  amount  is  not.  It  is  questionable  whether  the  ammonia  figures  obtained 
by  the  magnesium  oxid  method  do  not  give  too  high  results  (W.  D.  Bigelow). 

Gelatine. — Gelatine  is  a  substance  obtained  from  the  nitrogenous  portions 
of  bones,  hide,  horns,  hoofs,  connective  tissue,  tendons  and  other  nitrogenous 
matter  of  the  animal.  One  of  the  principal  constituents  of  these  bodies  is  a 
substance  known  as  collagen.  When  this  is  heated  either  under  pressure  or 
without  pressure  it  is  changed  to  gelatine.  Glue  is  unrefined  gelatine  or 
impure  gelatine  to  which  usually  some  substance  has  been  added  to  increase 
its  holding  power.  A  type  of  gelatine  known  as  isinglass  is  made  from  the 
bladders  of  sturgeons. 

The  general  process  of  manufacturing  gelatine  is  as  follows  (Whipple, 
Technology  Quarterly,  Vol.  XV,  No.  2,  June,  1902): 

"  The  hide  scraps  are  first  macerated  and  subjected  to  the  action  of  a  solution 
of  lime  or  caustic  soda  in  pits  for  two  or  three  weeks.  This  dissolves  most  of 
the  blood  and  saponifies  the  fats.  The  excess  of  lime  or  soda  is  then  largely 
removed  by  washing  and  the  solution  steamed  to  dissolve  the  gelatine,  but  an 
excess  of  heat  is  avoided.  Sulfurous  acid  is  used  to  bleach  the  gelatine.  When 
of  sufficient  strength,  the  gelatine  is  allowed  to  harden  in  molds  or  on  slabs,  and 
is  ultimately  dried  in  sheets  on  wire  nets.  Bone  gelatine  is  made  in  a  some- 
what similar  manner.  The  bones  are  crushed,  boiled,  treated  with  hydro- 
chloric acid,  and  the  gelatine  is  dissolved  as  before,  washed,  bleached  and  dried 
in  sheets.     The  process  requires  a  number  of  weeks." 

Gelatine  is  also  made  from  bones,  fresh  as  well  as  old,  and  from  the  resi- 
dues of  bones  used  in  the  manufacture  of  buttons.  The  thin  slices  of  the 
bones  are  treated  with  acid  until  all  the  phosphate  of  lime  is  extracted. 
They  are  then  treated  with  lime  and  the  gelatinous  residue  is  then  dissolved 
in  warm  water  and  purified  for  use. 

The  use  of  gelatine  as  a  food  has  of  late  years  become  very  common. 
The  ease  with  which  it  can  be  made  into  jellies,  the  consistence  which 


GELATINE.  9 1 

it  gives  to  ice-cream  and  its  general  utility  in  the  cuisine  have  made  it  deservedly 
popular.  Gelatine  is  the  product  of  some  of  the  nitrogenous  parts  of  the 
animal  and  should  be  made  only  from  the  edible  parts  thereof.  It  is  particu- 
larly abundant  in  the  tendinous  portions  of  the  animal  and  in  the  tissues  about 
the  head,  from  which  a  large  part  of  .edible  gelatine  is  made.  No  portion  of 
the  animal  which  is  filthy  or  unfit  for  food  should  ever  enter  into  the  composi- 
tion of  the  gelatine.  If  the  parts  from  which  the  gelatine  are  made  are  cured 
previous  to  manufacture  they  should  be  cured  in  a  perfectly  sanitary  way,  as 
carefully  as  any  other  part  of  the  meat.  There  can  be  no  objection  to  the  use 
of  gelatine  made  from  these  sanitary  materials  in  foods  of  all  kinds. 

There  is,  however,  a  possibility  that  some  of  the  gelatines  on  the  market 
may  be  made  from  materials  wholly  unfit  for  food.  The  food  law  forbids 
the  use  of  animal  substances  unfit  for  food  either  directly  or  indirectly!  As 
an  illustration  of  this  condition  of  affairs  I  may  call  attention  to  the  fact  that 
a  part  of  the  gelatines  sold  in  the  United  States  are  made  from  parts  of  animals 
slaughtered  in  South  America.  It  is  not  known  to  the  consumer  in  what 
conditions  these  parts  are  preserved  and  transported.  They  may  be  possibly 
packed  with  the  hide  and  sent  to  Belgium  or  other  countries  in  a  filthy, 
putrid  and  abhorrent  state  and  these  parts  be  cut  from  the  hides  before  they 
are  sent  to  the  tanneries  and  converted  into  gelatine  and  sold  as  edible  gela- 
tine. Such  a  possibility  should  not  exist,  and  there  is  no  danger  of  its  existence 
with  high  class  manufacturers.  A  part  of  the  horns  is  also  used  for  such 
purposes,  which  being  of  an  inedible  portion  and  unfit  for  food  is  not  admis- 
sible, under  the  law,  as  a  constituent  of  edible  gelatine.  All  such  materials 
should  be  excluded  in  the  manufacture  of  such  an  important  product.  Further 
than  this,  it  may  be  stated  that  the  line  of  demarcation  between  gelatine 
and  glue  is  not  always  as  well  drawn  as  it  should  be,  and  this  is  illustrated 
in  the  report  that  the  gelatine  and  glue  are  manufactured  in  the  same  factory, 
and  the  same  conditions  of  odor  and  insanitation  which  adhere  to  glue 
may  attach  themselves  to  the  gelatine.  Such  a  condition,  of  course,  would 
be  an  exceptional  case,  but  its  possibility  should  be  excluded.  Under  the 
food  law  only  those  forms  of  gelatine  first  described  above  can  be  legally 
made  and  sold  for  use  in  food. 

Adulteration  of  Gelatine. — The  adulterations  of  gelatine  are  such  as  those 
referred  to  above  in  the  form  of  raw  materials  employed  which  are  insanitary 
and  unfit  for  food.  In  addition  to  this,  bleaching  agents,  namely,  sulfurous 
acid  or  sulfites  and  mineral  acids,  are  often  employed  in  the  manufacture, 
portions  of  which  may  remain  in  the  finished  article.  All  of  these  substances 
must  be  regarded  as  adulterants  and  as  insanitary  and  unsuitable  for  gelatine, 
and  to  that  extent  unfit  for  human  consumption. 

Presence  of  Tetanus  in  Commercial  Gelatine. — The  Public  Health  and 
Marine  Hospital  Service  has  investigated  gelatine  to  determine  whether  or 


92 


MEATS. 


not  it  may  be  infected  with  pathogenic  germs.  The  conclusions  of  the  in- 
vestigation are  as  follows  (Bulletin  No.  9,  Hygienic  Laboratory): 

"  Seven  samples  of  gelatine  examined;  one  showed  tetanus  spores. 

*'  Two  samples  showed  an  oval  end-spore  rod,  whose  identity  was  not  proved, 
but,  in  stained  specimens,  it  would  be. hard  to  distinguish  from  tetanus,  if 
indeed  not  tetanus  with  diminished  virulence. 

"In  tetanus  investigations  it  is  important  to  use  freshly  made  bouillon,  as  the 
organism  is  apt  not  to  germinate  in  bouillon  over  ten  days  old.  The  thermal 
death  point  of  the  organism  isolated  was  found  to  be  between  twenty  and  thirty 
seconds  at  100  degrees  C. 

"It  is  important,  therefore,  that  gelatine  to  be  used  for  injections  should  be 
boiled  at  least  ten  minutes  on  account  of  the  variability  of  the  thermal  death 
point  in  different  species  of  tetanus.  Whether  this  amount  of  heating  im- 
pairs in  any  way  the  hemostatic  power  of  gelatine  has  not  been  settled,  but  in 
case  it  does  it  is  believed  that  the  danger  from  tetanus  more  than  overbalances 
its  therapeutic  value. 

"It  is  suggested  that  when,  as  in  hospitals,  there  is  likelihood  of  gelatine  in- 
jections being  used  for  hemostatic  purposes  the  gelatine  solution  be  sterihzed  by 
the  fractional  method  on  three  successive  days  and  kept  ready  for  use  in  sterile 
containers." 

From  the  data  given  above  it  is  seen  that  gelatine  may  become  infected 
and  the  material  from  which  it  is  made  for  edible  purposes  should  be 
healthful,  sanitary  and  fit  for  food.  It  is  not  likely  that  tetanus  germs 
would  prove  dangerous  when  taken  into  the  stomach,  but  freedom  from 
infection  should  be  secured  if  possible.  These  investigations  show  the 
wisdom  of  the  pure  food  law  in  forbidding  the  use  of  parts  of  animals  unfit  for 
food,  whether  manufactured  or  not,  in  the  production  of  food  products.  It  is 
evident  that  a  sufl&cient  quantity  of  fresh,  sanitary  material  or  material 
properly  preserved  can  be  obtained  in  this  country  or  in  other  countries  to 
supply  the  needs  for  edible  gelatine  without  resorting  to  the  use  of  inedible 
parts  of  hides,  horns,  hoofs  and  other  waste  and  unfit  portions  of  the  animal. 

Summary. — Above  have  been  presented  some  of  the  principal  meat 
foods,  the  analytical  data  which  show  their  composition,  the  processes  by 
means  of  which  they  are  prepared  and  the  principal  methods,  objectionable 
and  otherwise,  by  which  they  are  preserved. 

Meat  is  a  staple  article  of  diet  among  almost  all  nations  of  men.  The 
anatomical  structure  of  the  human  animal  indicates  that  his  environment 
has  adapted  him  to  eating  meats  of  all  kinds.  In  other  words,  man  is  an  om- 
nivorous animal.  He  has  been  developed  in  an  environment  -in  which  all 
kinds  of  meats  and  vegetables  have  ministered  to  his  sustenance,  and  thus  he 
is  an  omnivorous  animal  both  by  evolution  and  necessarily  by  heredity. 
That  man  can  live  and  flourish  without  meat  has  been  fully  established  by 


SUMMARY.  93 

experiments,  but  that  man  cannot  be  nourished  by  meat  alone  has  Hkewise 
been  fully  established,  so  that  if  the  human  race  were  necessarily  to  be  de- 
prived either  of  animal  or  vegetable  foods,  it  would  be  the  animal  food  which 
must  be  sacrificed. 

It  is  not  the  purpose  of  this  manual  to  discuss  the  relative  merits  of  vege- 
tarianism as  compared  with  the  common  diet  of  the  human  race.  It  may  not 
be  amiss,  however,  to  say  that  probably  in  the  United  States  especially,  a 
larger  quantity  of  meat  is  eaten  than  is  either  necessary  or  wholesome.  The 
people  of  our  country  are  better  able  to  supply  themselves  with  expensive 
foods  than  those  of  other  countries,  and  of  the  common  foods  meats  are  far 
more  expensive  than  cereals.  The  eating  of  larger  quantities  of  cereals 
and  smaller  quantities  of  meat  would  probably  be  conducive  both  to 
economy  and  health.  It  appears  to  be  certain  that  the  meat  eating  of 
the  future  may  not  be  regarded  so  much  as  a  necessity  as  it  has  in  the 
past,  but  that  meats  will  be  used  more  as  condimental  substances  than 
as  staple  foods.  In  all  meat,  for  instance,  that  costs  25  cents  a  pound,  such 
as  steaks,  there  is  over  one-third  or  a  half  of  it  which  is  inedible,  so  that  the 
edible  portion  really  costs  double  that  amount.  On  the  contrary,  when  a  pound 
of  flour  or  maize  is  purchased,  the  price  of  which  is  perhaps  only  one-eighth 
that  of  meat,  the  whole  of  it  is  edible.  Thus,  from  the  mere  point  of  economy 
as  well  as  of  nutrition  the  superiority  of  cereals  and  other  vegetable  products 
is  at  once  evident.  On  the  one  hand,  a  cereal  is  almost  a  complete  food 
containing  all  the  elements  necessary  to  nutrition,  and  it  costs  only  a  few  cents 
a  pound.  On  the  other  hand,  a  steak  or  roast  is  only  a  partial  food  and  it 
costs  much  more  than  cereals. 

It  is  hoped  that  one  purpose  of  this  manual  may  be  secured,  namely,  by 
showing  the  consumer  the  actual  composition  of  the  different  kinds  of  food 
and  their  method  of  preparation  he  may  be  led  in  the  selection  of  his  food 
to  follow  the  dictates  of  science  and  economy  to  a  certain  extent  rather 
than  merely  the  impulse  of  taste.  The  eating  of  such  large  quantities  of  meat 
is  merely  a  habit  which  often  is  developed  in  children  through  the  carelessness 
and  ignorance  of  parents,  much  to  the  detriment  of  the  child  as  well  as  to  his 
future  health  and  activity.  It  is  believed  that  if  the  true  principles  of  the 
use  of  meat  were  properly  inculcated  a  large  saving  in  the  energy  of  the  wage 
earner  as  well  as  of  those  in  more  affluent  circumstances  w^ould  be  secured. 

Sound  principles  of  economy  establish  a  better  condition  of  health  and 
lead  to  greater  activity  and  fruitful  labor. 

Terrestrial  Animal  Oils. 

Terrestrial  animal  oils  are  obtained  directly  from  parts  of  the  animals 

which  yield,   at  ordinary  temperature,   a  substance  which  remains  liquid. 

The  fats  which  are  in  the  feet  of  the  animals  are  usually  more  liquid  than 

in  any  other  part  of  the  body,  and  hence  the  natural  animal  oils  are  derived 


94  MEATS. 

largely  from  the  feet.  Among  the  most  important  are  sheep's  foot  oil,  horse 
foot  oil,  and  neat's  foot  oil,  which  is  obtained  from  the  feet  of  cattle.  These 
oils  are  all  highly  valued  for  technical  purposes,  especially  for  lubricating, 
and  for  this  purpose  bring  a  very  high  price.  They  are  not  used  or  should  not 
be  used  for  edible  purposes,  though  they  perhaps  may  sometimes  be  used 
in  cooking.  Neat's  foot  oil,  especially,  on  account  of  its  high  price,  is 
often  subjected  to  adulteration,  and  is  mixed  for  this  purpose  with  cheap 
vegetable  oils,  such  as  cottonseed.  Fish  oil  is  also  often  used  in  the 
adulteration  of  neat's  foot  oil,  though  the  addition  of  any  of  these  oils  to  neat's 
foot  oil  raises  the  iodin  number  to  a  very  high  degree,  and  hence  this  addition 
is  easily  detected  by  the  chemist. 

Lard  Oil. — Lard  oil  is  one  of  the  most  important  of  terrestrial  animal  oils. 
It  is  made  from  lard  by  melting  it  and  allowing  it  to  slowly  cool.  The  stearin  in 
the  product  crystallizes  first,  and  when  it  reaches  a  condition  favoring  the  separ- 
ation of  the  stearin  the  mass  is  subjected  to  straining  or  pressure,  whereby 
the  olein  or  liquid  portion  of  the  oil  is  separated,  and  thus,  having  been  freed 
from  the  most  of  its  stearin,  remains  liquid  at  ordinary  temperature.  The  resi- 
due is  known  as  lard  stearin  and  is  largely  employed  in  the  preparation  of  lard 
to  give  it  a  higher  melting  point  and  in  the  manufacture  of  oleomargarine. 

Lard  oil  is  used  to  some  extent  for  edible  purposes  and  is  itself  sometimes 
employed  in  the  manufacture  of  oleomargarine  when  mixed  with  tallow  or 
tallow  stearin. 

Properties  of  Lard  Oil. — It  is  evident  that  the  chemical  and  physical  prop- 
erties of  lard  oil  are  determined  by  the  completeness  with  which  the  stearin 
is  separated.  Inasmuch,  however,  as  the  conditions  of  manufacture  are 
nearly  constant,  lard  oil  has  characteristics  of  a  physical  and  chemical  nature 
which  do  not  vary  greatly.  The  specific  gravity  of  lard  oil  at  15  degrees 
is  about  .916,  and  its  iodin  number  varies  from  68  to  75.  When  made  of 
the  best  material  it  has  a  neutral  taste,  not  an  unpleasant  odor,  and,  therefore, 
can  be  used  for  edible  purposes  without  introducing  any  characteristic  odor 
or  flavor  into  the  prepared  food.  In  point  of  fact,  however,  it  is  not  used 
to  any  extent  for  edible  purposes  except  in  the  manufactured  articles  above 
mentioned.  When  carefully  made  and  of  the  proper  quality  pure  lard  oil 
should  be  practically  free  from  free  acid. 

Adulterations. — On  account  of  the  high  value  of  lard  oil  for  lubricating 
and  other  purposes  it  has  been  subjected  to  extensive  adulterations.  The 
addition  of  cheaper  animal  oils  or  vegetable  oils  has  been  largely  practiced. 
Fish  oil,  blubber  oil,  and  other  marine  animal  oils  have  also  been  freely  used 
in  the  adulteration  of  lard  oil  whenever  the  difference  in  price  has  rendered 
it  profitable.  These  adulterations  are  of  such  a  character  that  they  can  be 
detected  only  by  the  skilled  microscopist  and  chemist.  The  other  animal 
oils,  both  of  marine  and  terrestrial  origin,  while  important  from  a  technical 
point  of  view,  are  of  no  significance  in  respect  of  edible  qualities. 


PART  II. 

POULTRY  AND  GAME  BIRDS, 


Application  of  Name. — The  term  poultry  for  descriptive  purposes  may 
be  applied  to  those  classes  of  feathered  domesticated  birds  used  for  human 
food.  It,  therefore,  includes  practically  all  of  the  domesticated  fowls.  The 
term  game  bird,  for  the  purpose  of  this  manual,  is  applied  to  feathered  animals 
which  are  wild  and  which  are  used  for  human  food.  This  also  may  apply 
to  almost  all  wild  birds,  since  at  times  they  practically  all  have  been  used  for 
food  purposes.  Here  only  those  in  common  use,  both  domesticated  and  wild, 
will  be  referred  to.  In  connection  with  poultry  the  eggs  of  the  birds  will  be 
considered. 

DOMESTICATED  FOWLS. 

The  principal  domesticated  fowls  which  are  used  for  human  food  are  chick- 
ens, turkeys,  geese,  ducks,  and  guinea  hens.  The  most  common  of  all  is  the 
chicken, — the  next  perhaps  are  turkeys  in  this  country  and  the  goose  in  Europe. 
The  others  are  more  infrequently  used  but  are  highly  prized. 

Chicken.  —  The  chicken  scientifically  is  known  as  Gallus  domesticus. 
For  food  purposes  the  chicken  is  eaten  at  various  ages.  The  very  young 
chicken  is  commonly  called  a  broiler  and  is  prepared  for  the  table  at  varying 
ages  from  six  to  twelve  weeks.  Young  chickens  are  also  very  commonly  called 
spring  chickens,  since  they  occur  in  greater  abundance  in  the  spring  than  at  any 
other  time.  Since  the  introduction  of  the  modern  method  of  incubation,  how- 
ever, the  spring  chicken  may  be  had  at  all  seasons  of  the  year.  The  "broiler" 
and  "spring  chicken"  may  be  regarded  as  synonymous  terms,  though  the 
larger  chicks  are  usually  called  spring  chickens  instead  of  broilers. 

Full  Grown  Chickens. — The  full  grown  chicken  is  better  suited  for  food 
when  still  young.  The  flesh  loses  flavor  and  gains  in  toughness  as  the  chicken 
grows  older.  There  is  no  legal  limit  fixing  the  division  of  chickens  into  dif- 
ferent classes  with  respect  to  age  and  the  only  criterion  is  the  price  and  taste 
of  the  consumer.  There  is,  perhaps,  no  objection  to  the  use  of  old  chickens  for 
food  purposes,  provided  they  are  not  sold  fraudulently  as  young  chicks.  The . 
size  and  toughness  of  the  pieces  one  often  secures  when  ordering  spring  chicken 
is  an  indication  that  the  age  limit  is  not  very  definitely  established.     Both  hens 

95 


96  POULTRY  AND    GAME   BIRDS. 

and  roosters  are  used  for  food  purposes,  but  especially  the  young  roosters  are 
devoted  to  food  purposes  while  the  young  hens  are  often  kept  for  the  produc- 
tion of  eggs. 

Preparation  oj  Chickens  for  Food  Purposes. — In  former  times,  when  the 
chickens  of  commerce  were  derived  chiefly  from  the  farm,  no  special  prepara- 
tion was  made  before  the  chicken  was  marketed.  The  eggs  were  hatched  in 
the  old-fashioned  way  by  the  hens  and  the  chicks  sold  to  hucksters  or  in  market, 
at  various  ages  and  without  any  special  preparation  or  control.  All  this  has 
been  changed  in  later  times  by  the  introduction  of  scientific  methods  of  breed- 
ing poultry.     It, has  been  demonstrated  that  the  breeding  and  care  of  poultry 


Fig.  12.— Chicken  House,  Rhode  Island  Experiment  Station. 

require  as  much  scientific  and  economic  attention  as  is  devoted  to  any  other 
successful  business. 

The  Incubator. — The  introduction  of  the  incubator  for  the  hatching  of  eggs 
with  the  other  necessary  arrangements  for  the  caring  for  young  chicks  has  per- 
haps done  more  than  any  other  one  thing  to  revolutionize  the  method  of  pre- 
paring poultry  for  the  market.  By  the  use  of  the  incubator  the  hatching  of 
chicks  is  regulated  with  the  utmost  degree  of  nicety.  A  larger  percentage  of 
eggs  produce  chicks  and  the  expense  of  the  incubating  process  is  greatly  dimin- 
ished. The  incubator  is  in  its  widest  significance  a  thermostat  in  which  the 
eggs  may  be  placed  and  maintained  constantly  at  the  temperature  of  the  hen's 
body,  namely,  about  102  degrees  F.  The  arrangement  of  the  chicken  house 
and  the  other  environments  of  the  young  chick  are  shown  in  Fig.  12. 


CARE   OF   YOUNG   CHICKS.  97 

Care  of  Young  Chicks. — The  principal  points  in  the  care  of  young  chicks  are 
fresh  air,  freedom  from  infection  by  epidemic  or  contagious  diseases,  exclusion 
of  insect  pests,  even  high  temperature,  and  abundance  of  food.  The  young 
chick  is  especially  sensitive  to  low  temperatures  and  must  be  protected  from 
cold,  especially  from  cold  rains.  For  this  reason  the  chicks,  after  hatching, 
must  be  kept,  if  it  is  not  summer  time,  in  a  room  where  the  temperature  can  be 
regulated  until  they  have  acquired  some  degree  of  strength  and  vitality.  The 
temperature  of  the  chicken  house  for  the  young  birds  should  not  be  lower  than 
85  or  90  degrees  F. 

A  temperature  of  about  102  degrees  F.  is  found  very  favorable  to  the  de- 
velopment of  the  chicks  in  the  eggs,  although  the  temperature  may  sometimes 
fall  to  loi  or  rise  to  103  degrees  F.  without  materially  affecting  the  results. 
Experiments  show  that  too  low  a  temperature  arrests  the  development  of  the 
chick.  On  the  contrary  there  seems  to  be  no  indication  that  an  increase  of 
heat,  up  to  103  degrees  F.,  has  any  tendency  to  kill  the  chick  in  the  last  stages 
of  development.  It  is  found  best  in  all  cases  to  set  the  eggs  in  the  incubator 
as  soon  after  they  are  laid  as  possible.  Where  the  age  of  the  egg  is  not  known 
it  should  be  carefully  candled,  that  is,  held  up  between  the  eye  and  a  Hght  in 
order  to  determine  its  condition.  In  old  eggs,  the  yolk,  on  candHng,  becomes 
more  or  less  diffused  with  the  white  and  such  eggs  are  to  be  rejected  for  incu- 
bator purposes  as  they  are  not  likely  to  produce  chickens.  The  fertility  of  the 
egg  must  also  be  assured  before  placing  in  the  incubator.  An  unfertilized  egg 
is  so  much  loss  in  the  incubator  since  it  might  have  been  used  for  food  purposes, 
since  the  egg,  for  marketable  purposes,  when  fresh  is  just  as  good  as  a  fertilized 
egg.  It  is  an  observed  fact  that  the  complete  fertihzation  of  the  egg,  that  is, 
the  proper  union  of  the  male  and  female  germ  cells,  is  not  always  complete  at 
the  time  the  egg  is  laid,  but  the  mingling  of  the  two  elements  takes  place  under 
proper  conditions  afterwards.  The  development  will  also  depend  upon  the 
vitality  of  the  germ  and  its  component  parts.  Just,  for  instance,  as  the  color  of 
the  feathers,  the  size  of  the  body  and  the  general  character  of  the  chick  may  be 
inherited  from  either  parent,  so  the  vital  qualities  are  much  more  strongly  shown 
in  some  eggs  than  in  others.  The  proper  germination  of  the  egg  may  also  be 
improved  by  many  of  the  conditions  of  environment.  In  the  case  of  eggs,  any 
slight  change  which  would  interfere  with  the  functions  of  the  yolk  or  albumin, 
both  of  which  are  extremely  sensitive  to  change,  would  interfere  with  the  growth. 
of  the  embryo  either  by  depriving  it  of  food  or  subjecting  it  to  other  conditions. 
in  which  its  vitality  would  be  diminished  or  destroyed.  The  fertilized  egg  may 
be  separated  from  the  non-fertilized  also  by  candHng.  At  the  Rhode  Island 
station  it  is  found  that  a  very  good  light  for  candling  is  the  ordinary  calcium 
carbide  bicycle  lamp,  placed  in  a  proper  candling  box.  This  is  a  strong  white 
light  quite  equal  in  power  to  the  electric  incandescent  light  and  is  not  so  trying 
to  the  eyes. 
8 


98  POULTRY   AND   GAME   BIRDS. 

When  eggs  which  have  been  submitted  to  incubation  permit  light  to 
shine  through  and  show  the  yolk  suspended  in  the  upper  half  of  the  center  as 
a  clearly  defined  mass,  which  quickly  reassumes  its  position  in  turning  the  egg 
with  its  long  axis  nearly  horizontal,  they  are  probably  infertile  or  sterile. 
When,  on  the  contrary,  the  yolk  assumes  indefinite  outlines,  approaching  near 
the  upper  portion  of  the  shell  at  the  large  end  or  appears  with  a  thick  spur  upon 
its  upper  side,  it  may  be  regarded  as  having  started  to  incubate.  In  the  later 
stages  the  embryo  can  be  plainly  seen,  because  it  becomes  opaque  and  cuts  off 
more  of  the  light.  In  the  incubation  of  eggs  the  candling  is  resorted  to  during 
the  first  few  days  of  the  experiment  in  order  that  the  unfertilized  eggs  may  be 
separated.  The  best  time  for  the  candHng,  if  it  is  practiced  only  once,  is  on  the 
sixth  or  seventh  day  of  incubation.  By  that  time  all  the  eggs  which  are  fertilized 
will  be  so  changed  as  to  be  easily  recognized  by  the  candling  process.  Ex- 
perience has  shown  that  eggs  which  are  more  than  two  weeks  old  are  not  profit- 
able for  use  in  incubators  since  the  percentage  that  doee  not  hatch  is  so  large. 
The  incubating  part  of  the  plant  is  sometimes  placed  in  the  cellar  over  which 
the  brooding  house  is  built. 

The  brooding  of  young  chicks  is  of  the  utmost  significance.  In  Europe  the 
changes  in  temperature  are  much  less  violent  than  in  this  country.  The  prin- 
cipal brooding  houses  in  the  United  States  are  in  the  North  where  the  tempera- 
ture often  falls  in  winter  to  below  zero  while  in  the  summer  it  may  rise  to  blood 
heat,  a  difference  of  over  100  degrees  F.  For  this  reason  the  incubating  houses 
in  the  United  States  are  often  placed  in  cellars  where  the  uniform  conditions 
of  temperature  are  more  easily  secured.  There  is  no  objection  to  this  location 
provided  proper  care  be  taken  to  secure  ventilation  and  the  proper  content  of 
moisture  in  the  atmosphere.  In  Great  Britain  the  incubating  houses  are  usu- 
ally placed  above  ground  instead  of  in  cellars.  The  mean  range  of  temperature 
in  an  incubating  room  in  Great  Britain,  from  March  12,  1903,  to  March  30, 1904, 
was  10  degrees.  The  highest  temperature  registered  was  70  degrees  on  the 
24th  of  June  and  the  lowest  42  degrees  in  January.  The  humidity  of  the  air 
was  also  quite  constant,  the  lowest  degree  of  humidity  being  59  and  the  highest 
94.  These  data  show  a  very  even  temperature  in  the  room  itself.  Of  course 
the  temperature  in  the  incubator  is  necessarily  greater,  being  that  already 
referred  to,  namely  102  degrees. 

Early  Market. — One  principal  object  in  the  raising  of  chicks  is  to  force  them 
to  an  early  maturity  in  so  far  as  size  and  palatability  are  concerned.  The 
sooner  the  young  broilers  can  be  made  ready  for  the  market  the  more  economy 
there  is  in  their  production.  To  this  end  they  ought  to  receive  a  more  abundant 
and  specially  prepared  kind  of  food  than  if  they  were  intended  for  ordinary 
farm  purposes.  In  other  words,  the  forcing  process  should  be  pushed  as  far 
as  possible  without  interfering  with  the  health  and  normal  functions  of  the 
bird.     Foods  which  are  nutritious  and  stimulating  and  promote  vigorous 


FRESHLY   KILLED   CHICKENS.  99 

growth  should  be  employed.  Birds  prepared  in  this  way  for  the  market  are 
extremely  tender  and  palatable  and  bring  the  highest  prices  where  their  merits 
are  recognized. 

Artificial  Feeding. — Where  chickens  of  greater  age  are  prepared  for  the  mar- 
ket they  are  subjected,  during  the  last  two  or  three  weeks  previous  to  sale,  to  a 
forcing  process  in  order  to  produce  more  fat  and  make  their  flesh  more  palatable. 
To  this  end  the  chickens  are  fed  from  time  to  time  mechanically  by  passing  a 
tube  into  the  craw  and  forcing  the  food  therein.  Fowls  prepared  in  this 
way  bring  high  prices  in  the  market  and  the  largest  profits  to  the  growers. 
It  is  a  method,  however,  which  is  not  used  in  the  raising  of  the  ordinary  poultry 
found  on  the  market. 

Preparing  Chickens  for  the  Market. — Chickens  are  sold  in  four  different  con- 
ditions in  the  markets  of  this  country.  First,  they  are  offered  alive.  A  great 
many  purchasers  prefer  to  get  their  poultry  in  this  way  because  they  can  then  be 
certain  that  it  has  not  been  long  killed  and  kept  in  cold  storage  or  preserved  by 
means  of  chemicals.  It  is  a  very  common  custom  for  consumers  to  have  their 
own  chicken  coops  and  buy  a  number  of  birds  at  a  time  and  fatten  them 
particularly  for  their  own  use.  Under  the  present  system  of  law  this  method  is 
highly  to  be  commended  as  a  certain  way  of  knowing  the  age  of  the  poultry 
consumed.  With  proper  municipal  and  state  regulations  of  the  markets  it 
would  not  be  necessary  for  the  consumer  to  go  to  this  trouble  since  when  rigid 
inspection  and  certification  are  established,  the  age  of  the  chicken  offered  on 
the  market  can  be  easily  ascertained.  Until  such  time  comes,  however,  on 
the  part  of  the  consumer,  the  desirability  of  securing  chickens  alive  cannot  be 
denied. 

Freshly  Killed  Chickens. — Chickens  which  have  been  killed  within  twenty- 
four  or  forty-eight  hours  and  properly  kept  may  be  regarded  as  freshly  killed. 
There  is  a  very  wide-spread  opinion,  and  probably  founded  on  reliable  ex- 
periments, that  fowls  are  better  if  they  are  kept  some  time  after  slaughter,  pro- 
vided they  are  kept  in  a  proper  way.  In  the  winter  time  it  is  customary,  es- 
pecially in  Europe,  to  hang  the  fowl  for  a  week  or  ten  days  exposed  to  the  or- 
dinary temperature,  before  consumption.  This,  of  course,  is  4  practice  which 
could  not  be  indulged  in  in  warm  weather.  Fowls,  however,  can  be  hung  in  cold 
storage  even  in  the  summer  time  and  with  the  same  advantage  which  accrues 
by  hanging  them  in  ordinary  temperature  in  the  winter  time.  Just  how  long 
fowls  should  be  kept  after  slaughter  in  this  way  in  order  to  secure  a  maximimi 
degree  of  palatability  has  not  been  scientifically  determined.  There  is  evidently 
a  limit  beyond  which  the  keeping  of  slaughtered  fowls  should  not  be  indulged 
in.  If  a  low  and  even  temperature  could  be  secured  it  may  be  certain  that  the 
hanging  of  the  fowl  for  a  week  or  ten  days  is  not  too  long.  The  temperature, 
however,  should  not  be  much  above  the  freezing  point. 

Freshly  killed  chickens  are  offered  in  two  forms,  namely,  drawn  and  un- 


lOO  POULTRY   AND    GAME   BIRDS. 

drawn.  The  proper  method  of  keeping  a  slaughtered  chicken  has  been  the 
subject  of  very  hvely  discussions.  There  are  many  who  are  advocates  of  the 
exposure  of  the  chicken  in  the  undrawn  state  asserting  that  in  this  condition 
it  is  less  exposed  to  infection  and  keeps  better  during  the  necessary  time  elapsing 
between  slaughter  and  consumption.  This  argument  is  advanced  chiefly  by 
dealers.  On  the  other  hand  the  consumer,  as  a  rule,  is  in  favor  of  having  the 
chicken  drawn  before  it  is  exposed  for  sale,  that  is,  as  soon  as  it  is  slaughtered. 
There  is  perhaps  much  to  be  said  on  both  sides  of  this  question.  If,  however, 
chickens  are  to  be  secured  by  the  consumer  within  forty-eight  hours  after 
slaughter  there  can  be  no  very  great  danger  of  infection  by  having  them 
undrawn.  The  subject  is  one  of  sufficient  importance  to  warrant  an  extended 
scientific  investigation  and  upon  this  investigation  the  municipal  and  state 
regulations  for  the  sale  of  poultry  can  be  based.  It  is  not  wise  in  such  cases  to 
be  swayed  solely  by  prejudice  or  sentiment  but  rather  by  the  facts  which  can 
be  ascertained  by  unbiased  scientific  investigation.  Because  a  chicken  weighs 
more  undrawn  is  probably  one  of  the  reasons  why  dealers  prefer  them  in  this 
state.  It  may  be  said,  too,  that  the  walls  of  the  intestines  are  so  impenetrable 
that  there  is  no  danger  of  bacterial  contamination.  But  the  keeping  of 
chickens  with  the  intestinal  contents  undisturbed  does  not  appeal  to  the  im- 
agination of  the  consumer  any  more  than  would  the  freezing  of  the  carcass  of 
a  beef  or  hog  with  the  viscera  remaining  in  it.  The  most  recent  investigations, 
however,  have  shown  that  properly  packed,  undrawn  poultry  can  be  kept  from 
six  to  nine  months  without  danger  of  intestinal  contamination.  If  poultry 
are  drawn  before  storage  it  is  highly  important  to  avoid  all  contamination  of 
the  cut  surfaces.  Experiments  have  shown  the  advisability  of  packing  drawn 
poultry  in  tin  cartons,  carefully  closed.  Fowls  thus  treated  preserve  to  a 
remarkable  degree  their  freshness  and  palatability.  In  any  case  the  consumer 
should  be  allowed  the  choice  in  the  matter  which,  at  the  present  time,  is  not 
the  case  in  many  parts  of  this  country  where  only  undrawn  poultry  is  exposed 
for  sale. 

Poultry  in  Cold  Storage. — Whenever  a  fowl  is  kept  for  a  longer  period  than 
the  week  or  ten  days  above  referred  to  for  the  purpose  of  improving  its  flavor 
and  palatability  it  is  necessary  that  it  be  placed  in  cold  storage.  This  method 
of  keeping  poultry  or  other  foods  is  wholly  unobjectionable  unless  carried  to 
excess.  Poultry  is  a  food  product  which  under  the  present  scientific  methods 
of  production  can  be  furnished  in  a  fresh  state  all  the  year.  The  necessity  for 
cold  storage,  therefore,  is  not  so  apparent  in  this  case  as  in  that  of  fruit  and 
other  perishable  foods.  It  appears  then  that  cold  storage  should  only  be  ex- 
tended to  that  limit  necessary  to  secure  its  delivery  to  the  consumer.  There  can 
scarcely  be  any  excuse  for  the  placing  of  poultry  in  cold  storage  at  certain 
seasons  of  the  year  when  they  are  slightly  less  in  price  by  reason  of  the  abundant 
production  than  at  other  seasons.     The  methods  of  producing  poultry  are  such 


POULTRY   IN   COLD   STORAG?:. "     ^^^     .       T,  ''''''''> '  ^J- . 

at  the  present  time  that  this  excess  in  supply  can  easily  be  avoided  on  the  part 
of  the  producer  and  thus  maintain  an  even  price  and  an  even  supply  the  year 
round.  The  producer  as  well  as  the  consumer  is  benefited  by  such  a  condition. 
The  necessity,  often,  for  cold  storage  in  the  limited  sense  above  referred  to  is 
acknowledged  by  all  and  a  reasonable  degree  of  time  in  cold  storage  cannot  be 
regarded  as  in  any  way  measurably  harmful  with  reference  to  the  character 
of  the  product.  It  is  probable  that  as  long  as  four  or  six  months  may  be  re- 
garded as  a  justifiable  limit  for  securing  a  proper  market  for  poultry  in  cold 
storage  though  the  exact  length  of  time  in  which  it  may  be  left  in  cold  storage  will 
be  determined  only  by  careful  scientific  investigation.  There  seems  to  be  no 
necessity  whatever  for  carrying  fowls  for  a  longer  period  and  especially,  as  has 
been  known,  for  a  year  or  even  two  years.  The  deterioration,  even  if  the  tem- 
perature is  far  below  the  freezing  point,  is  very  marked  during  these  long  periods 
of  time  and  actual  danger  may  accrue  to  the  consumer  in  the  possible  develop- 
ment of  poisonous  degradation  products  in  the  flesh.  Municipal,  state,  and 
national  regulations  should  be  of  a  character  to  inform  the  consumer  of  the 
exact  length  of  time  which  the  poultry  he  proposes  to  purchase  has  been  in  cold 
storage.  This  is  the  least  which  the  consumer  has  the  right  to  know  and  is  a 
right  which  the  producer  and  packer  should  concede  without  discussion.  The 
unwillingness  which  has  been  manifested  on  the  part  of  dealers  in  poultry  to 
make  public  the  length  of  time  which  it  has  been  in  cold  storage  is  of  itself  a 
suspicious  condition.  The  argument  is  constantly  heard  that  the  length  of  time 
poultry  has  been  in  cold  storage  does  not  impair  its  palatability  or  wholesome- 
ness.  If  this  be  true  then  a  statement  of  the  length  of  time  cannot  in  any  way 
injure  the  market.  But  to  this  reply  is  made  to  the  effect  that  if  the  consumer  is 
told  the  fowl  has  been  in  cold  storage  a  certain  length  of  time  he  will  not  purchase 
it.  To  this  the  evident  answer  is, — why  should  you  deceive  the  consumer  by 
selling  him  an  article  which  if  he  knew  its  character  he  would  not  buy  ?  It  is 
evident  that  such  deception  is  nothing  more  nor  less  than  obtaining  money  under 
false  pretenses.  The  remedy  for  the  evil  of  cold  storage  is  the  label  which  will 
indicate  the  length  of  time  which  has  elapsed  since  the  slaughter  of  the  fowl. 

There  is,  perhaps,  no  greater  blessing  which  has  been  conferred  upon  man- 
kind during  the  last  quarter  of  a  century  than  the  development  of  cold  storage 
methods  of  preserving  food.  The  continued  prosperity  and  benefits  of  this 
business  depend  upon  a  thorough  study  of  the  conditions  attendant  thereon 
and  the  elimination  of  any  evil  which  may  be  incident  thereto.  When  this  is 
accomplished  the  absolute  confidence  which  the  consumer  will  have  in  cold 
storage  will  be  such  that  the  magnitude  of  the  business  will  be  immensely  in- 
creased. Thus  the  interests  of  the  consumer  and  the  dealer  are  one  and  they 
should  work  together  to  promote  their  common  good. 

Composition  of  the  White  Meat  of  a  Chicken.— ^The  meat  of  a  chicken,  care- 
fully prepared  in  the  laboratory  of  the  Bureau  of  Chemistry,  was  analyzed  by 


,'J.Cf%  '[  ^'\  c'.^'y^       '     ,<      'POULTRY   AND    GAME   BIRDS. 


<  « 


separation  into  the  white  and  dark  portions.     The  composition  of  the  two 
meats  is  as  follows : 

Water  in  Fat-  Meat 

Water.  free  Substance.  Fat.  Protein.  Bases. 

Percent.  Percent.  Percent.  Percent.  Percent. 

White  meat, 61.38  7S-o8  18.25  17.06  .37 

Dark  meat, 59.48  78.44  24.16  15.94  1.03 

The  above  data  show  that  there  is  a  notable  difference  in  the  composition 
of  the  white  and  the  dark  meat.  The  white  meat  has  much  less  fat  and  a 
correspondingly  larger  quantity  of  protein.  The  quantity  of  water  in  the  two 
classes  of  meat  is  not  very  different  although  there  is  a  slightly  less  quantity 
in  the  dark  meat.  The  dark  meat  has  a  much  larger  proportion  of  meat  bases 
but  as  these  bases  are  often  considered  of  little  value  and  sometimes  degenerate 
into  poisonous  constituents  it  is  seen  from  this  point  of  view  that  the  white 
meat  is  to  be  preferred  to  the  dark  meat. 

Preserved  Chicken. — Practically  the  only  methods  of  preserving  chickens  are 
the  canning  processes  which  have  already  been  described  and  cold  storage. 
Chickens  may  be  canned  in  the  same  way  as  has  been  described  for  beef  and  in 
that  way  may  be  kept  for  a  certain  length  of  time  without  notable  deterioration. 
The  pickling  of  chicken  is  not  very  extensively  practiced  nor  is  it  cured  in  the  or- 
dinary sense  of  the  word,  that  is,  by  the  addition  of  salt,  sugar,  vinegar,  spices, 
and  wood  smoke.  Chicken  may  also  be  put  up  in  the  form  of  potted  chicken, 
which  has  already  been  described.  Practically  the  only  methods  which  are 
in  vogue  and  which  can  be  commended  for  preserving  chicken  are  sterilizing 
or  canning  and  cold  storage.  These  methods,  when  not  unduly  prolonged, 
are  open  to  no  reasonable  objection.  The  preserving  of  chickens  with  spices 
and  condiments  may  also,  perhaps,  be  considered  as  desirable  provided  no 
harmful  chemical  preservatives  are  employed.  The  temptation,  however, 
to  employ  such  preservatives  is  so  great  as  not  to  be  always  resisted. 

Adulteration  of  Potted  Chicken  and  Turkey. — Perhaps  there  is  no  other  form 

of  potted  meat, with  the  possible  exception  of  pate  de  foie  gras,  where  such  an 

opulent  field  for  sophistication  is  found  as  in  the  case  of  potted  chicken  and 

turkey.     The  average  composition  of  ten  samples  of  alleged  potted  chicken  and 

turkey,  found  upon  the  market,  is  shown  in  the  following  table: 

Water, 58.52  percent 

Water  in  fat-free  subgtance, 7 1 -24 

Fat, 17.98 

Protein, 19.12 

Meat  bases, 96 

Glycogen,... 26 

Total  ash, i 2.67 

Of  which  sodium  chlorid, i .05 

All  but  one  of  the  ten  samples  contained  starch  but  not  in  very  considerable 
quantities,  the  largest  amount  being  4.13  percent. 

None  of  the  samples  contained  saltpeter.  This  is  an  interesting  point  be- 
cause of  the  claim  of  the  packers  that  saltpeter  is  used  solely  for  preservation 


CAPONS.  103 

purposes.  When  a  meat  is  expected  to  be  of  a  white  color  no  saltpeter  is  found 
while,  on  the  contrary,  where  the  meat  is  of  a  red  character  it  is  frequently- 
found.  Tin  was  present  in  four  samples,  doubtless  due  to  some  contamination 
with  the  solder  or  by  corrosion  of  the  tin  can  itself.  Where  tin  is  present  due 
to  the  corrosion  of  the  can  itself  it  is  always  in  greater  abundance  in  the  old 
than  in  the  newly  canned  sample.  It  is  quite  certain  that  the  contents  of  these 
packages  were  not  made  up  of  chicken  and  turkey  exclusively.  The  character- 
istic odor  and  taste  of  smoked  meats  which  are  found  in  these  packages  would 
indicate  that  they  are  used  to  give  flavor  and  aroma  to  the  mixture.  The 
addition  of  flavoring  materials  of  this  kind,  or  ''force"  meats  as  they  are  some- 
times called,  is  not  objectionable  from  any  sanitary  or  dietetic  point  of  view. 
It  is,  however,  an  offense  against  an  ethical  principle  which  must  be  closely 
followed  in  a  case  of  this  kind  if  the  doors  of  fraud  and  adulteration  are  not  to 
be  left  wide  open.  This  principle  is  that  no  false  idea  by  inference,  omission 
or  otherwise,  should  be  conveyed  to  the  consumer  by  the  label.  Some  form 
of  expression  for  potted  meat  should  be  used  in  which  the  label  gives  the  prin- 
cipal or  dominant  meat  in  the  mixture,  accompanied  by  the  statement  that  it  is 
a  mixture  with  other  meats  also  named,  spiced  and  flavored.  Under  the  present 
condition  of  affairs  a  manufacturer  who  really  wishes  to  put  into  potted  form 
chicken  and  turkey  with  only  spices  and  condiments  has  to  undergo  an  unfair 
competition  with  another  manufacturer  who  uses  the  same  label  and  reduces 
the  quantity  of  expensive  meat  to  a  minimum  or  may  possibly  leave  it  out  al- 
together.    Under  the  new  food  law  this  unfair  competition  will  be  prevented. 

Adulteration  oj  Chicken. — The  flesh  of  chicken  is  not  subjected  to  any  very 
extensive  adulterations.  It  has  been  claimed  that  preservatives  are  applied 
externally  to  fresh  fowls  but  the  evidence  on  this  point  is  not  very  conclusive. 
There  is,  perhaps,  little  doubt  that  other  methods  have  been  practiced  but 
probably  without  any  very  great  vogue.  The  use  of  chemical  preservatives  in 
potted  chicken  is  also  reprehensible.  In  general  it  may  be  said  that  there  is  no 
very  extensive  adulteration  of  chicken  meat.  The  principal  objection  to  the 
commerce  in  preserved  chicken  meat  is  the  use  of  old  chickens,  the  unlimited 
cold  storage,  the  failure  to  draw  at  time  of  slaughter,  and  exposure  in  the  mar- 
ket in  an  unsanitary  condition  and  for  an  indefinite  time.  Cheaper  meats  are 
sometimes  substituted  for  the  genuine  article  in  potted  chicken.  Turkey  and 
pork  are  said  to  be  used  in  chicken  salad. 

Capons. — The  castration  of  the  male  bird  produces  the  capon,  the  flesh  of 
which  is  very  highly  valued  as  being  superior  to  that  of  the  male  or  female 
chicken.  Capons  are  much  more  extensively  used  in  Europe  than  in  the  United 
States  but  are  gradually  coming  into  favor  in  this  country.  It  is  difficult  ta 
describe  the  difference  between  the  taste  of  the  flesh  of  the  capon  and  the 
rooster  and  hen.  A  greater  degree  of  tenderness  and  a  more  delicate  taste 
characterize  the  flesh  of  the  capon.     In  France,  especially,  the  production  of 


I04  POULTRY   AND    GAME   BIRDS. 

capons  has  been  carried  to  its  highest  perfection.  Caponizing  should  be  prac- 
ticed at  an  early  date  in  the  life  of  the  young  bird.  In  fact,  as  soon  as  the 
distinction  in  sex  is  well  marked  in  the  young  chicken  the  removal  of  the 
testes  should  take  place.  The  young  fowl  is  laid  upon  its  left  side  and  the  skin 
is  exposed  by  pulling  back  the  feathers  and  trimming  them  off  at  the  proper 
place  until  the  space  between  the  first  and  second  ribs  of  the  right  side  is  laid 
bare.  An  incision  is  then  carefully  made  and  the  testes  removed  by  instru- 
ments particularly  adapted  for  that  purpose.  The  operation  should  be  done 
by  an  expert  although  theoretically  it  appears  easy  of  accomplishment.  In 
practice,  however,  it  requires  an  expert  to  avoid  any  injury  to  the  bird  and  to 
insure  a  speedy  recovery.  When  done  in  the  proper  way,  apparently  no  great 
inconvenience  attends  the  operation.  There  is  little  blood  shed  and  usually  no 
inflammation  when  the  proper  antiseptic  measures  are  provided. 

Caponizing  develops  a  bird  that  is  readily  fattened  and  easily  prepared  for 
the  market  and  highly  prized.  The  caponized  bird  often  develops  brooding 
instincts  and  when  eggs  are  hatched  by  the  heat  of  the  bird  the  capon  makes 
a  better  brooder  than  the  hen  because  of  the  greater  spread  of  the  wings  and 
the  larger  number  of  eggs  that  can  be  covered  in  the  operation.  The  larger 
breeds  of  birds  make  the  best  capons  such  as  the  brahmas  and  plymouth  rocks. 
The  capons  are  fattened  and  prepared  for  the  market  as  in  the  case  of  other 
birds.  When  skimmed  milk  is  made  a  large  portion  of  the  diet  the  flesh  is  con- 
sidered to  be  of  greater  value.  The  best  age  for  marketing  a  capon  is  at  about 
twelve  months.  At  that  time  they  have  attained  their  full  size  and  their  maxi- 
mum degree  of  excellence  as  a  food  bird.  The  feeding  should  be  done  upon 
the  principles  already  described,  namely,  to  keep  the  birds  growing  in  the 
usual  way  until  about  three  or  four  weeks  before  the  market  when  the  extra 
food  is  given  in  as  large  quantities  as  possible  for  quick  fattening.  In  Europe 
this  extra  food  is  usually  given  mechanically  under  the  forced  system  though 
in  this  country  the  mechanical  method  of  feeding  capons  has  not  generally 
been  introduced. 

Capons  bring  a  higher  price  upon  the  market  than  the  other  varieties  of 
chicken,  sometimes  the  difference  being  as  much  as  four  or  five  cents  a  pound. 
For  this  reason  the  growth  of  capons  becomes  more  profitable  to  the  farmer 
than  that  of  the  ordinary  chicken. 

Duck  (^Anas  hoschas). — The  domesticated  duck  is  used  very  largely  for  food 
in  all  parts  of  the  world.  Its  flavor  is  not  so  highly  prized  as  that  of  the  wild 
duck  but  it  is  an  excellent  article  of  diet.  The  production  of  ducks  is  con- 
ducted in  the  same  manner  as  the  production  of  poultry  in  general.  They 
are  still  chiefly  grown  upon  the  farm  without  any  special  care  but  the  best 
results  are  obtained  by  the  systematic  growth  of  ducks  under  scientific 
conditions  in  poultry  houses.  The  duck  is  not  so  extensively  used  for  food 
as  the  turkey  and  chicken  but  perhaps  in  this  country  much  more  extensively 


COMPOSITION   OF   THE   FLESH   OF   DUCKS. 


105 


than  the  goose.  The  price  of  the  wild  duck,  however,  is  still  sufficiently  low  to 
limit  to  a  certain  extent  the  production  of  the  domesticated  article. 

Varieties  of  Ducks. — There  are  many  varieties  of  ducks  cultivated  for  the 
market.  The  Pekin  is  perhaps  the  most  abundant  of  all.  It  is  creamy  white 
in  color,  has  a  long  and  graceful  body  and  has  been  particularly  bred  for  the 
market.  When  ready  for  the  market  the  average  weight  of  the  drake  is  about 
eight  pounds  and  the  duck  seven.  The  Aylesbury  is  also  a  favorite  variety. 
It  is  said  to  be  somewhat  whiter  than  the  Pekin  in  color.  It  is  specially 
valued  in  England  as  a  market  duck.  It  is  somewhat  larger  than  the  Pekin. 
Other  varieties  of  ducks  are  the  Rover,  the  Cayuga,  the  Gray  and  White  Call, 
the  East  Indian,  the  Crested  White,  the  colored  and  white  Muscovy,  and  the 
Indian  runner.  The  latter  is  a  very  small  duck,  being  only  about  one-half  the  size 
of  the  Pekin.  Usually  the  ducks  on  the  market  are  not  designated  by  any 
particular  variety  and,  in  fact,  most  consumers  are  not  sufficiently  acquainted 
with  the  different  varieties  of  duck  to  be  able  to  ask  for  any  particular  one. 
The  mallard,  canvas-back,  and  teal  are  common  varieties  of  the  wild  duck. 

Composition  of  the  Flesh  of  Ducks. — The  flesh  of  two  varieties  of  ducks, 
namely  the  Pekin  duck  and  the  Mallard  duck,  was  carefully  separated  in  the 
Bureau  of  Chemistry  and  subjected  to  analysis.  The  composition  of  the  meat 
of  these  two  ducks  is  shown  in  the  following  table : 

Water  in  Fat-  Meat 

Water.  free  Substance.  Fat.  Protein.  Bases. 

Pekin  duck, 47.46  78.20  39.31  13.37  -43 

Mallard  duck, 69.06  75-98  7. 11  1925  .65 

The  above  data  show  a  striking  difference  between  these  two  varieties  of 
ducks.  The  Pekin  duck  has  a  large  excess  of  fat  while  the  Mallard  duck, 
which  is  a  wild  duck  and  evidently  not  very  fat,  has  a  small  percentage  of  fat 
and  a  large  percentage  of  protein.  It  is  evident  that  the  flesh  of  wild  fowl 
would  not,  except  at  a  certain  season  of  the  year,  approach  that  of  domesticated 
fowls  in  the  percentage  of  fat  which  it  contains. 

Goose  {Anser  anser) . — The  goose  is  not  so  commonly  used  as  a  food  prod- 
uct in  this  country  as  in  Europe, — the  turkey  to  some  extent  has  taken  its 
place.  The  remarks  which  are  applicable  to  the  production  of  chickens  are 
also  applicable  to  the  production  of  geese.  They,  perhaps,  are  grown  more 
extensively  in  the  old-fashioned  way  in  this  country  than  chickens  or  turkeys 
at  the  present  time  since  they  are  used  chiefly  for  the  feathers  which  they 
produce  and  not  for  food.  Goose  is  also  considered  a  winter  dish  both  in 
this  country  and  in  Europe.  It  is  customary  in  Europe  that  the  goose  be 
hung  even  for  a  longer  period  before  consumption  than  the  chicken.  Its 
flesh  is  made  more  tender  and  more  palatable  by  this  preliminary  exposure. 
From  one  to  two  weeks  is  not  considered  too  long  a  time  in  the  winter  for 
hanging  in  the  old  country.  The  remarks  relative  to  cold  storage  of  turkey 
and  chicken  apply  also  to  the  goose.     The  goose  is,  perhaps,  the  most  easily 


Io6  POULTRY   AND   GAME   BIRDS. 

artificially  fattened  of  any  other  poultry  birds.  This  is  especially  true  in 
those  regions  where  fatty  goose  livers  are  so  highly  prized  in  the  manufacture 
of  pate  de  joie  gras.  By  long-continued  artificial  feeding  the  goose  is  made 
excessively  fat  and  the  liver  especially  is  changed  in  its  composition  by  this 
treatment  so  as  to  make  it  peculiarly  suitable  for  the  production  of  this  delicacy. 

Varieties  of  Geese. — The  varieties  of  geese  upon  the  market  comprise  the 
following  leading  breeds.  The  Toulouse  is  perhaps  the  most  extensively 
raised.  It  is  highly  prized  on  account  of  its  hardihood,  its  size  and 
the  general  appearance  of  its  body.  It  is  of  a  gray  to  white  color  and 
the  wings  are  a  deeper  gray  or  brown.  The  legs  are  usually  of  a  deep  orange. 
When  ready  for  the  market  the  average  weight  of  the  gander  is  20  pounds  and 
the  goose  18.  Of  the  other  common  varieties  there  are  the  Embden,  the  African, 
the  brown  and  white  Chinese,  the  white  or  Canada,  and  the  Egyptian.  The 
latter  is  a  small  goose  only  weighing  about  half  as  much  as  the  Toulouse  when 
ready  for  the  market.     The  wild  goose  is  highly  esteemed  as  a  game  bird. 

Feeding  of  Young  Geese  for  the  Market. — The  feeding  of  geese  for  the  market 
begins  as  soon  as  the  hatching  is  complete.  The  first  meal  of  the  young 
chicks  consists  of  oat  meal,  middlings,  finely  chopped  dandelions,  lettuce  or 
some  similar  green  stuff,  and  milk.  The  goslings  during  the  first  week  are  kept 
indoors  and  should  be  fed  four  or  five  times  a  day  on  the  mixture  above  named. 
After  this  they  may  go  into  a  yard  where  there  is  plenty  of  grass,  not  over- 
grown, and  they  will  thrive  on  this  very  well  for  a  time  without  hand  feeding. 
Not  more  than  two  feedings  a  day  are  necessary  between  the  ages  of  one  and 
six  weeks  where  plenty  of  grass  is  at  hand.  During  this  time  no  better  food 
than  ground  oats  and  skimmed  milk  can  be  used.  During  all  this  period  great 
care  is  taken  that  the  goslings  are  not  subjected  to  any  disease  or  to  cold.  They 
should  be  carefully  housed  in  sanitary  coops  where  the  temperature  does  not 
sink  too  low  and  where  they  are  protected  from  cold  rains.  After  the  goslings 
are  eight  weeks  old  they  are  usually  able  to  take  care  of  themselves  in  respect 
of  food  and  need,  perhaps,  only  one  feeding  a  day.  If  these  goslings  are 
hatched  in  the  early  spring,  they  may  be  ready  for  fattening  for  the  Christmas 
market.  The  geese  until  shortly  before  the  time  for  market  are  allowed  to  run 
free  in  a  field,  not  too  large,  where  there  are  ponds  or  troughs  of  water  in  abun- 
dance. In  this  way  the  frame  of  the  goose  will  be  sufficiently  developed  by  the 
time  the  fattening  period  comes  but  there  will  have  been  no  unusual  expense 
in  the  production  of  the  fowl  until  it  is  prepared  for  the  market.  The  large 
frame  is  necessary  in  order  that  the  goose  may  properly  fatten.  It  usually 
requires  about  three  weeks  of  artificial  feeding  to  bring  a  goose  into  proper  con- 
dition for  the  market.  If  the  geese  are  for  the  Christmas  market,  about  the  25th 
of  November  they  are  put  up  in  sheds  for  fattening,  for  though  they  have  been 
well  fed  during  the  summer  and  autumn  they  cannot  be  called  fat  geese  until 
they  have  gone  through  a  special  course  of  nutrition.     While  they  are  confined 


TURKEY.  107 

for  fattening  geese  require  plenty  of  fresh  air  but  very  little  light,  and  these  con- 
ditions are  procured  by  housing  them  in  large  airy  sheds  without  windows. 
Before  the  fattening  season  these  sheds  are  thoroughly  cleaned  and  white- 
washed and  the  floor  covered  with  cinders,  ashes,  and  charcoal.  This  mixture 
is  not  only  a  good  bedding  but  is  also  a  good  deodorizer,  which  is  quite  im- 
portant. Food  troughs  are  arranged  along  the  walls  inside  the  shed  and 
troughs  for  water  outside  in  such  a  way  that  the  birds  can  reach  the  water 
but  cannot  get  into  it.  Clean  charcoal  is  to  be  put  into  the  shed  every  day  as  it 
is  constantly  eaten  by  the  geese  and  is  valuable.  The  foods  used  are  oat  meal, 
boiled  potatoes,  linseed  meal  or  other  oil  cakes,  and  plenty  of  milk,  usually 
skimmed.  The  birds  should  have  all  of  this  that  they  can  eat,  for  in  the  process 
we  are  now  describing  the  artificial  forcing  of  food  into  the  craw  is  not  practiced. 
In  three  weeks  a  good  goose  will  increase  four  or  five  pounds  in  weight  and  this 
increase  brings  the  goose  up  from  an  ordinary  bird  in  good  condition  to  one 
which  is  properly  fed  for  the  market. 

The  killing  of  geese  is  practiced  in  practically  the  same  manner  as  that  which 
is  described  for  slaughtering  fowls.  A  goose  is  a  bird  of  large  vitality  and 
dies  hard  as  is  the  case  with  most  fowls.  The  feathers  should  be  taken  off 
the  body  clean,  as  they  are  valuable  for  commercial  purposes.  Any  pin  feathers 
should  be  cut  with  a  sharp  knife  so  as  to  make  the  bird  look  as  clean  as  possible 
when  brought  to  the  market.  The  carcass  of  the  goose  should  not  be  packed 
to  send  to  market  until  it  is  entirely  cold  and  in  this  country,  especially,  where 
the  distances  are  great,  it  is  advisable  to  send  it  packed  in  ice  or  in  a  cold  storage 
car.  The  average  weight  of  a  goose  about  nine  months  old  thus  prepared  for 
the  market  is  about  fourteen  pounds  and  the  flesh  is  certain  to  be  more  palatable 
at  this  age  when  fattened  in  the  manner  above  described. 

Domesticated  Pigeon  {Columba  livia). — In  the  last  few  years  the  pro- 
duction of  domesticated  pigeons  has  been  extensively  practiced  in  this  country, 
and  especially  the  production  of  young  pigeons  which  are  known  as  squabs. 
They  are  rapidly  taking  the  place  of  game  birds  at  the  hotels  and  restaurants 
of  the  country.  The  conditions  of  production,  preparation,  etc.,  are  the 
same  as  those  for  the  ordinary  domesticated  fowl.  There  are  many  varieties 
of  the  bird  grown;  some,  as  the  carrier,  for  special  purposes.  The  other  prin- 
cipal varieties  are  barbs,  fantails,  jacobins,  runts,  trumpeters,  tumblers,  and 
turbits. 

Turkey  (Meleagris  americana). — In  general  the  statement  which  has  been 
made  regarding  the  production  of  fowls  or  chickens  may  be  applied  also  to  the 
production  of  turkeys.  No  further  comment,  therefore,  is  to  be  made  under 
that  head.  The  old-fashioned  method  of  securing  turkeys  grown  under 
natural  conditions  has,  to  a  great  extent,  given  way  to  the  production  of 
turkeys  on  a  large  scale  and  under  scientific  conditions.  Turkeys,  as  a  rule, 
are  not  eaten  young,  but  practically  full-grown.     In  this  country  the  turkey 


Io8  POULTRY   AND   GAME   BIRDS. 

is  a  dish  which  is  particularly  affected  for  festive  occasions  such  as  Thanks- 
giving and  Christmas,  though  they  are  eaten  largely  throughout  the  whole 
year.  The  market,  however,  for  turkeys  is  particularly  a  November  and 
December  market  and  the  large  introduction  of  turkeys  in  the  market  is  so 
timed  as  to  furnish  them  in  proper  condition  for  consumption  during  those 
two  months. 

The  methods  of  preparing  turkeys  for  the  market,  keeping  them  in  cold 
storage,  of  hanging  them  previous  to  consumption  and  exposing  them  drawn 
or  undrawn  for  sale,  are  subject  to  the  same  remarks  as  have  been  made  in  the 
case  of  chickens.  Turkeys  are  said  to  be  more  difficult  to  care  for,  both  on  the 
farm  and  in  the  professional  poultry  factory,  than  chickens.  They  are  more 
subject  to  disease  and  more  difficult  to  bring  to  maturity  than  chickens. 

Composition  of  Meat  of  Turkey. — The  flesh  of  the  turkey  was  separated  into 
two  portions,  the  white  and  dark  meats,  and  these  were  found  to  have  the  fol- 
lowing composition: 

Water  in  Fat-  Meat 

Water.  free  Substance.  Fat.  Protein.  Bases. 

White  meat, 55-5°  74-7°  25.71  18.31  1.31 

Dark  meat, 54.13  75.76  27.76  16.75  1.15 

A  comparison  of  these  two  analyses  show  that  there  is  little  difference  in  the 
content  of  water  in  the  white  and  dark  meat.  The  dark  meat,  as  in  the  case 
of  chicken,  has  more  fat  and  a  correspondingly  less  amount  of  protein.  The 
quantity  of  protein  in  the  meat  of  turkey  is  about  the  same  as  that  of  chicken. 
The  white  meat  of  turkey  differs  from  the  white  meat  of  chicken  more  in  its 
content  of  meat  bases  than  in  any  other  way,  except  that  the  meat  of  turkey 
contains  more  fat,  especially  the  white  meat,  than  that  of  chicken. 

Composition  of  the  Meat  of  Chicken,  Turkey,  Duck,  and  Goose. — The 
composition  of  the  chicken,  turkey,  duck,  goose,  and  pigeon  as  given  by  Konig 
is  found  in  the  following  table: 

V                                                            Water.  Protein.  Fat.  Ash. 

Chicken  (lean), 76.22  19-72  1.42  1.37 

(fat), 70.06  18.49  9-34  .91 

Young  cock  (fat), 70-03  23.32  3.15  i.oi 

Turkey, 65.60  24.70  8.50  1.20 

Duck  (wild), 70.80  22.65  3. 1 1  1.09 

Goose  (fat), 38.02  15.91  49.59  .48 

The  above  data  show  that  with  the  exception  of  the  goose  the  percentage  of 
fat  given  in  the  flesh  of  the  animals  is  very  much  less  than  that  found  in  our  own 
work.  Even  in  the  fat  chicken  only  a  little  over  9  percent  of  fat  was  found. 
It  is  believed  that  the  composition  of  these  fowls  as  given  by  the  work  of  the 
Bureau  of  Chemistry  more  nearly  represents  the  average  composition  in  this 
country  than  the  data  taken  from  Konig. 

Importance  of  Animal  Food  in  the  Growth  of  Poultry. — Many  people 
suppose  that  poultry  can  live  upon  vegetables  alone  and  this  is  probably  true. 
Experience,  however,  shows  that  poultry  does  not  thrive  and  fatten  well  on  purely 


THE  FORCED  FATTENING  OF  POULTRY.  I09 

vegetable  food.  This  fact  was  brought  out  very  prommently  in  the  experi- 
ments at  the  Cornell  station  where  poultry  of  the  same  origin  and  character 
was  fed  two  kinds  of  diet,  one  being  partly  of  animal  food  and  the  other  purely 
vegetable  foods.  The  ration  of  the  animal  food  consisted  of  Indian  com  meal, 
wheat  flour,  ground  oats,  wheat  bran,  wheat  middlings,  pea  meal,  linseed  meal, 
meat,  and  fresh  bone.  The  vegetable  ration  consisted  of  pea  meal,  linseed 
meal,  wheat  bran,  ground  oats,  Indian  com  meal,  wheat  middlings,  gluten  meal, 
and  skimmed  milk.  Before  the  experiment  had  been  long  under  way  it  was 
noticed  that  the  birds  receiving  the  meat  food  were  developing  rapidly  and 
evenly  while  those  that  received  the  purely  vegetable  diet  were  becoming  thin 
and  uneven  in  size.  The  authors  of  the  bulletin  say  that  it  Was  sometimes  al- 
most pitiful  to  see  the  long-necked,  scrawny,  vegetable-fed  birds,  with  troughs 
full  of  abundant  good,  wholesome  food  before  them,  stand  on  the  alert  and 
scamper  in  hot  haste  after  the  unlucky  grasshopper  or  fly  which  ventured  into 
their  pen,  while  the  contented  looking  meat-fed  ducks  lay  lazily  in  the  sun 
and  paid  no  attention  to  the  buzzing  bee  or  crawling  beetle.  The  vegetable- 
fed  birds  literally  starved  to  death,  at  least  many  of  them,  so  that  only  twenty 
of  the  thirty-three  with  which  the  experiment  was  commenced  were  alive  at 
the  close  of  the  fifteen  weeks  of  feeding. 

The  Forced  Fattening  of  Poultry. — Allusion  has  akeady  been  made  to 
the  forced  fattening  of  poultry  secured  by  injecting  food  into  the  craw  in  larger 
quantities  than  would  naturally  be  taken  by  the  fowl  if  left  to  itself.  There 
is  much  to  be  said  both  for  and  against  this  method  of  fattening.  In  favor  of 
this  method  it  may  be  stated  that  the  birds  fattened  in  this  way  are  more  highly 
prized  by  the  connoisseur,  are  naturally  fatter  by  reason  of  the  enforced  idleness 
of  the  birds  during  the  fattening  process,  thus  diminishing  muscular  activity, 
and  more  tender  than  the  birds  left  at  freedom  and  forced  to  secure  their  own 
food.  From  the  point  of  view  of  the  seller,  also,  the  birds  are  heavier  and  the 
artificially  fattened  fowl  usually  brings  a  higher  price,  pound  for  pound,  on 
the  market.  Against  the  method  it  is  urged  that  it  is  barbarous,  imposing 
upon  the  birds  a  diet  far  beyond  normal  capacity  and  thus  tending  to  damage 
and  injure  the  organs  of  the  body  charged  with  the  assimilation  of  food  and 
the  excretion  of  the  waste  products. 

The  above  indictment  is  doubtless  true  is  almost  every  respect.  In  explana- 
tion it  may  be  said  that  the  period  of  forcing  food  is  always  a  short  one,  rarely 
extending  beyond  three  weeks,  and,  therefore,  any  injury  to  the  organs  which 
might  be  induced  is  not  of  sufficient  duration  to  establish  any  real  form  of  dis- 
ease. In  other  words,  the  birds  are  slaughtered  before  any  lesions  of  the  organs 
are  produced.  The  livers  of  the  animals,  especially  geese,  thus  artificially  fat- 
tened, take  on  an  extra  quantity  of  fat  during  this  period  but  it  cannot  be  said 
that  they  become  really  diseased.  The  fatty  livers,  as  is  well  known,  are  used 
particularly  in  the  manufacture  of  a  mixed  spiced  meat  known  as  pate  de  joie 
gras. 


no  POULTRY   AND   GAME   BIRDS. 

Upon  the  whole  it  is  believed  that  no  injury  is  done  the  bird  by  this  process 
of  feeding  which  could  in  any  way  be  regarded  as  detrimental  to  the  flesh  as  a 
food  product.  In  regard  to  the  apparent  barbarity  of  the  process  little  need 
be  said.  The  slaughter  of  animals  for  human  food  in  itself  is  a  barbarous 
practice  from  one  point  of  view  but  if  this  practice  is  justified,  as  it  doubtless  is, 
by  the  exigencies  of  human  nutrition,  the  slight  degree  of  force  which  is  em- 
ployed in  artificial  fattening  cannot  be  condemned.  Moreover  the  artificial  fat- 
tening of  the  fowl  is  of  necessity  a  somewhat  limited  operation  and  confined  to 
those  establishments  that  are  devoted  exclusively  to  the  production  of  high- 
grade  and  high-priced  poultry  for  the  market.  The  fattening  is  done  by  ex- 
perts and,  in  so  far  as  the  experience  of  feeding  men  in  the  same  way  is  con- 
cerned, is  not  attended  with  any  pain  or  discomfort  other  than  that  incident 
to  a  chronically  full  craw. 

Increase  in  Weight.— There^  is  a  larger  increase  in  the  weight  of  artificially 
fattened  poultry  over  those  fed  in  the  ordinary  way  and  allowed  to  run  free 
than  is  usually  supposed.  It  is  stated  by  some  authors  that  the  average 
increase  in  weight  of  artificially  fattened  birds  is  as  much  as  35  percent.  There 
is  no  secret  connected  with  the  method  of  artificial  fattening  as  is  sometimes 
supposed.  There  are  perhaps  proprietary  methods  for  preparing  foods  for 
fattening  purposes  but  there  is  no  secret  in  the  mechanism  of  the  process.  In 
fact  the  process  is  so  simple  that  it  might  be  easily  taught  in  a  general  way  so 
that  the  farm  hand  would  become  an  expert  in  its  use  and  the  farmer's  poultry 
instead  of  being  sent  to  market  in  a  half -emaciated  condition  might  be  offered  to 
the  public  in  the  best  possible  shape.  Poultry  running  at  large  use  up  a  large 
part  of  the  value  of  their  food  in  the  heat  and  energy  developed  in  the  ordinary 
search  for  food.  When  confined  and  fed  artificially  this  excess  of  heat  and 
energy  is  naturally  stored  as  fat. 

Experience  has  shown  that  the  artificial  feeding  must  be  a  limited  one  and  the 
bird  must  be  sent  to  market  as  soon  as  it  has  reached  its  maximum  of  perfection 
under  the  process.  Experience  has  also  shown  that  in  the  artificial  feeding  it  is 
best  to  have  each  bird  in  a  small  compartment  to  itself  with  the  cage  so  ar- 
ranged that  the  bird  can  put  its  head  through  a  slat  in  front  and  thus  receive 
the  food  from  the  machine  without  disturbing  any  of  its  neighbors.  That 
the  birds  are  perfectly  willing  to  take  the  food  in  this  way  is  evidenced  by  the 
fact  that  they  voluntarily  put  their  heads  through  the  apertures  to  receive  their 
food.  Each  individual  coop  must  be  kept  scrupulously  clean  and  disinfected 
and  the  air  in  the  room  kept  perfectly  fresh  and  sweet.  Lime  should  be  used 
freely  in  all  parts  of  the  coop  house  in  the  form  of  whitewash  or  sprinkled 
about  the  floor  or  upon  the  floors  of  the  coops.  Gypsum  or  ordinary  land 
plaster  is  also  highly  prized  as  another  form  of  lime  which  is  found  to  be  very 
valuable.     The  whitewash  must  be  freely  indulged  in  and  at  frequent  intervals. 

There  are  various  forms  of  fattening  food  used  in  this  country.     Indian 


SLAUGHTERING    FOWLS    FOR   THE   MARKET.  Ill 

corn  meal  forms  an  important  part.  The  presence  of  certain  animal  products 
must  not  be  neglected  in  the  food  as  it  has  been  shown  that  fowls  thrive  better 
when  given,  in  their  food,  a  certain  amount  of  animal  matter,  both  of  flesh  and 
finely  ground  bone.  The  fattening  food  must  be  in  the  form  of  a  finely  ground 
paste  of  the  proper  consistency  to  be  handled  well  in  the  machine.  It  is  a 
universal  practice  which  custom  has  shown  to  be  necessary  to  mix  with  the 
food  a  certain  quantity  of  finely  pulverized  charcoal,  usually  about  three  pounds 
of  the  charcoal  to  97  pounds  of  food.  Some  feeders  prefer  to  mix  the  paste 
about  twenty-four  hours  before  it  is  administered,  believing  that  the  slight 
fermentation  thus  produced  is  beneficial. 

The  Cramming  Machine. — Various  forms  of  machines  are  employed  for  in- 
troducing the  food  into  the  craw.  The  tube  carrying  the  food  is  introduced 
into  the  esophagus  of  the  bird  in  a  manner  to  avoid  any  pain  and  the  apparatus 
is  so  adjusted  that  with  a  single  movement  of  the  machine,  usually  operated  by 
the  foot,  the  proper  amount  of  food  is  injected.  The  birds  should  be  arranged 
according  to  size  so  that  all  of  a  certain  size  may  have  exactly  the  same 
quantity  of  food  administered.  The  operator  would  thus  be  saved  the 
difficulty  of  guessing  the  different  sizes.  The  arrangement  of  the  coops 
and  the  kind  of  the  cramming  machine  vary  greatly.  In  the  beginning 
of  artificial  feeding  the  birds  should  not  be  pushed  to  their  full  capacity. 
An  increasing  quantity  of  food  should  be  given  up  to  the  end  of  the  first 
week  or  ten  days  before  the  full  maximum  dose  is  administered.  In  general 
it  is  found  best  to  take  the  bird  out  of  the  coop  for  feeding,  holding  it  under  the 
arm  so  that  the  neck  can  be  made  perfectly  straight  and  gently  inserting  the 
flexible  tube  which  carries  the  food  and  thus  with  the  single  movement  of  a 
lever,  filling  the  craw.  The  use  of  the  machine,  however,  is  found  to  be  ad- 
vantageous from  a  point  of  economy  although  it  is  claimed  that  the  cramming  of 
birds  by  means  of  a  funnel  has  been  found  very  efficacious.  With  a  good 
machine  an  expert  operator  can  feed  about  2  50  birds  in  an  hour.  An  important 
point  in  the  fattening  is  that  the  food  should  be  given  regularly. 

Slaughtering  Fowls  for  the  Market. — It  is  important  that  a  uniform 
^and  proper  method  be  used  for  killing  fowls  intended  for  the  market.  There 
are  two  methods  in  common  vogue,  namely,  by  bleeding  and  by  dislocation 
of  the  neck.  The  method  of  killing  is  important  in  order  that  the  proper  method 
of  dressing  for  the  market  may  be  secured.  A  fowl  which  is  offered  for  sale 
ought  to  be  attractively  dressed  and  any  brutal  or  defacing  method  of  slaughter 
makes  it  impossible  afterwards  to  render  the  fowl  attractive  to  the  customer. 

In  killing  by  the  dislocation  of  the  neck  the  operator  takes  the  bird  by  the 
thigh  and  top  of  the  wing  in  the  left  hand  and  the  head  in  the  right  and  then 
draws  it  steadily  until  dislocation  takes  place.  The  skin  remains  unbroken 
and  no  bruised  effect  is  produced  but  all  the  blood  in  the  bodv  drains  into  the 
neck  and  remains  there.     This  method  is  one  especially  practiced  in  England 


112  POULTRY   AND    GAME   BIRDS. 

(Journal,  Board  of  Agriculture,  1 904-5 ,  page  306 ) .  Where  the  bird  is  very  large, 
as  is  the  c^se  with  turkeys,  it  may  require  the  full  strength  of  a  man  in  order  to 
produce  the  dislocation  in  the  manner  mentioned.  In  this  case  it  is  often  neces- 
sary to  first  hang  the  bird  up  by  the  leg  to  secure  the  best  results. 

In  killing  a  fowl  by  bleeding  it  is  strung  up  by  the  legs  with  its  head  hanging 
downward.  The  operator  then  gives  it  a  sharp  blow  with  a  stick  on  the  back 
of  the  head  and  when  he  has  stunned  it  by  this  means  he  inserts  a  sharp  knife 
into  the  roof  of  the  mouth,  penetrating  the  brain.  He  also  severs  the  large 
artery  of  the  throat  by  rotating  the  knife  and  the  bird  rapidly  bleeds  to  death. 
This  method  of  killing,  it  is  seen,  is  not  a  very  humane  one.  If,  for  instance, 
the  sensation  of  the  bird  is  not  destroyed  by  the  first  blow  the  other  process 
must  be  needlessly  painful.  This  process,  simplified  somewhat  by  omitting 
the  hanging,  is  the  one  commonly  followed  by  professionals  in  this  country. 
In  England  turkeys  which  are  prepared  for  the  market  are  plucked  but  not 
drawn.  One  of  the  newest  methods  of  plucking  is  known  as  the  Devonshire 
style  and  consists  in  stripping  the  feathers  clean  off  the  breast  and  thighs  but 
leaving  the  neck,  back  and  wings  covered.  The  fowjs  are  then  tied  around 
the  legs  with  a  strong  cord  in  such  a  manner  as  to  show  the  plumpness  of  the 
breast  prominently. 

The  methods  of  preparation  of  the  fowls  depend  largely  on  the  demands  of 
the  market  to  which  they  are  going.  Some  require  the  fowls  to  be  clean 
plucked  and  others  prefer  some  of  the  feathers  left  on. 

Eggs. — Eggs  are  a  common  article  of  diet  throughout  the  world.  The  eggs 
of  domesticated  fowls  are  those  which  are  principally  used  for  food,  though  the 
eggs  of  wild  fowls,  and  birds  and  reptiles  are  also  edible  but  on  account  of  the 
difficulty  of  getting  them  and  their  rarity  are  not  to  be  considered  as  a  com- 
mercial article.  The  chief  sources  of  supply  are  the  eggs  of  chickens,  ducks,  and 
geese.  Chicken  eggs  are  by  far  the  most  important,  duck  eggs  the  next  im- 
portant, and  goose  eggs  the  least  important.  The  eggs  of  fish  also  constitute 
an  article  of  food  of  considerable  value  and  are  extensively  used.  For  instance 
the  fresh  eggs  of  shad  are  used  in  large  quantities  during  the  whole  of  the  shad 
season  and  are  often  kept  in  cold  storage  for  use  at  other  times.  The  eggs  of 
sturgeon  are  used  extensively  in  the  fresh  state  and  when  pickled  as  caviar  are 
highly  esteemed  throughout  the  world.  These  two  kinds  of  eggs  are  probably 
the  most  important  of  fish  eggs  used  for  food  purposes.  Chicken  eggs  vary 
greatly  in  size  according  to  the  age  and  variety  of  the  fowl.  The  average 
weight  of  chicken  eggs  is  680  grams  per  dozen.  They  vary  also  in  color  from 
pure  white  to  a  brownish  yellow.  Duck  eggs  are  larger  and  also  variegated 
in  color.  The  average  weight  of  duck  eggs  is  847.2  grams  per  dozen.  Goose 
eggs  are  the  largest  of  the  three  varieties,  varying  also  in  color.  They  weigh  on 
an  average  2284.8  grams  per  dozen.  Eggs  also  vary  greatly  in  shape,  being 
generally  ovoid,  but  some  being  much  more  spherical  than  others  according 
to  the  species  of  the  fowl  and  variety.     The  number  of  eggs  which  a  chicken 


PRESERVATION    OF    EGGS.  113 

will  lay  varies  greatly.  Attempts  have  been  made,  with  great  success,  at  ex- 
periment stations,  to  develop  chickens  with  high  laying  powers.  A  hen  which 
will  produce  over  200  eggs  a  year  is  regarded  as  a  high-grade  fowl  for  egg- 
producing  purposes.  Eggs  are  produced  more  abundantly  during  the  early 
spring  and  summer  than  during  the  winter  months.  One  of  the  purposes  of 
scientific  egg  producing  is  the  development  of  fowls  that  will  produce  eggs  more 
evenly  throughout  the  whole  year,  thus  avoiding  the  very  great  depression  in  the 
price  of  eggs  in  the  spring  and  the  excessively  high  price  of  eggs  in  the  winter. 
Composition  of  Eggs. — A  large  number  of  eggs  have  been  analyzed  in  all 
quarters  of  the  world  and  found  to  vary  but  little  in  composition  in  different 
localities,  and  very  little  also  in  regard  to  the  variety  of  the  fowl.  The  egg 
consists  essentially  of  two  portions, — an  external  highly  albuminous  portion 
known  as  the  white  and  an  internal  colored  portion,  yellow  or  reddish  in  tint, 
known  as  the  yolk.  The  white  of  an  egg  is  composed  almost  entirely  of  albumin 
partially  dissolved  in  water.  The  yolk  of  the  egg  is  composed  of  albumin,  fat, 
and  a  phosphorus-bearing  material  of  high  nutritive  value  known  as  lecithin. 
The  yolk  of  an  egg  is  a  much  richer  food  product  than  the  white,  containing  in 
addition  to  the  nitrogeneous  element  the  fat  and  mineral  bodies  necessary  to 
nutrition.  Both  the  white  and  yolk  of  an  egg  are  composed  principally  of  water 
as  will  be  seen  by  the  following  analytical  data :    • 

Water.  Protein.                Fat.  Ash.  Calories. 

Percent.  Percent.  Percent.  Percent.  Per  pound. 

Hen, 73.7  13.4  10.5  i.o                 

I>uck,   70.5  13.3                  14.5  1.0                 985 

Goose, 69.5  13.8                  14.4  1.0                 985 

Turkey, 73.3  13.4  11.2  0.9                 850 

Fresh  eggs  have  a  specific  gravity  of  1.089.  Kept  a  week  at  75°  F.  this 
number  falls  to  1.067.  Strictly  fresh  eggs  will  sink  in  a  10  percent  salt 
solution  at  75°  F. 

Preservation  of  Eggs. — Freshly  laid  eggs  may  be  preserved  for  several  days 
without  any  notable  deterioration  by  keeping  in  a  cool  place.  The  temperature 
of  preservation  should  be  as  near  the  freezing  point  as  can  be  secured.  The 
vital  processes  are  continually  going  on  in  a  fresh  egg  and  hence  there  is  a 
development  of  a  certain  degree  of  heat  due  to  these  activities.  For  this 
reason  eggs  can  be  placed  in  an  atmosphere  below  the  freezing  point  of  water 
without  being  frozen.  An  additional  reason  for  this  is  found  in  the  fact  that 
the  water  which  is  present  in  eggs  holds  the  albumin  and  other  bodies  in  solution 
and  the  freezing  point  of  a  solution  is  always  lower  than  that  of  the  solvent  alone. 
For  domestic  purposes  where  refrigerating  establishments  are  not  available  the 
fresh  eggs  should  be  kept  in  a  cool  dark  place  where  the  temperature  is  not 
allowed  to  go  above  50  or  60  degrees.  At  a  higher  temperature  than  this 
fresh  eggs  lose  their  freshness  in  a  remarkably  short  time.  The  porous  nature 
of  the  shell  is  a  condition  which  favors  the  deterioration  of  the  egg  by  the  ad- 
mission of  air  and  microbes  into  tbe  substance  of  the  egg  itself. 
9 


114  POULTRY  AND   GAME   BIRDS. 

The  preservation  of  eggs  is,  therefore,  materially  assisted  by  coating  the  egg 
artificially  with  a  varnish  or  film  of  some  kind  which  renders  the  egg  impervious 
to  air  and  water.  One  of  the  cheapest,  simplest,  and  best  of  these  coatings,  as 
has  akeady  been  noted,  is  soluble  glass.  This  is  produced  by  dissolving  the 
chemical  substance  known  as  silicate  of  soda  in  water,  and  dipping  the  egg 
into  the  solution,  removing  and  allowing  to  dry.  The  silicate  of  soda  which  is 
thus  left  in  a  thin  film  over  the  surface  of  the  egg  penetrates  and  stops  the  pores 
and  renders  the  egg  shell  practically  impervious  both  to  air  and  water.  This 
material  has  the  property  of  becoming  totally  insoluble  in  water  when  it  has 
once  been  dried  so  that  even  if  the  egg  is  afterwards  subjected  to  rain  or  water 
in  any  form  the  film  is  not  removed.  Many  other  methods  of  coating  eggs 
have  been  employed  and  are  dependent  upon  the  same  principle  but  are  per- 
haps not  so  effectual  and  simple  as  the  inexpensive  method  above  described. 

Cold  Storage. — Eggs  either  with  or  without  the  coating  of  the  surface, 
usually  without,  may  be  kept  for  a  considerable  length  of  time  without  deterior- 
ation in  cold  storage.  In  this  case  it  is  advisable  to  reduce  the  temperature  to 
the  lowest  possible  point  to  retain  the  semi-fresh  condition  of  the  contents. 
Water  freezes  at  32  degrees,  but  for  the  reasons  above  mentioned  the  tempera- 
ture at  which  the  egg  is  stored  may  be  reduced  notably  below  32  degrees 
without  danger  of  solidifying.  The  eggs  kept  in  cold  storage  gradually  ac- 
quire a  taste  and  aroma  which  are  quite  different  from  the  fresh  article  and  the 
period  of  preservation  should  never  be  prolonged,  probably  a  month  or  six 
weeks  is  the  extreme  limit  for  keeping  eggs  which  can  still  be  regarded  as  having 
the  qualities  of  the  fresh  article.  In  practice,  eggs  are  kept  often  a  very  much 
longer  time  since  the  principal  object  of  cold  storage  is  to  lay  in  a  supply  in  the 
spring  and  summer  when  they  are  abundant  and  keep  them  over  until  the  next 
winter.  The  average  age  of  cold  storage  eggs  is  probably  more  than  six  months. 
At  this  time  the  eggs  have  acquired  a  distinctly  unpleasant  odor  and  flavor 
which  enables  even  one  who  is  not  an  expert  to  distinguish  between  them  and 
the  fresh  article.  Such  eggs  should  not  be  allowed  on  the  market  except  under 
their  proper  designation  so  that  the  purchaser  may  know  the  character  of 
the  product  he  is  getting.  There  is  a  determined  opposition  on  the  part  of  those 
deahng  in  cold  storage  eggs  against  such  marking,  an  opposition  which  can 
•only  be  explained  by  the  fact  that  the  amount  of  deterioration  is  fully  as  great 
as  specified.  If  cold  storage  eggs  have  not  been  kept  long  enough  to  develop 
any  of  the  objectionable  conditions  mentioned  above  and  are  inferior  only  in 
respect  of  taste  and  aroma  there  seems  to  be  no  just  reason  why  they  should  be 
forbidden  sale.  They  usually  bring  a  lower  price  than  fresh  eggs  produced  at 
the  time  of  sale  and  thus  are  brought  more  readily  within  the  means  of  those 
who  are  less  able  to  pay  the  higher  prices.  Cold  storage  eggs  are  extensively 
used  for  baking  purposes  and  in  this  condition  escape  the  detection  of  the  con- 
sumer.   This  appears,  however,  to  be  no  just  reason  for  their  use  without  notice. 


BROKEN  AND   DRIED   EGGS.  IIS 

Broken  Eggs. — An  extensive  industty  has  been  practiced  for  many  years  in 
the  product  known  as  broken  eggs.  In  the  preparation  of  broken  eggs  at 
times  of  great  abundance,  the  eggs  are  collected  and  broken  and  then  mixed 
together  in  containers  of  various  sizes,  often  as  large  as  barrels,  and  preserved 
by  the  admixture  of  borax.  From  two  to  four  pounds  of  borax  are  usually 
employed  per  loo  pounds  of  broken  eggs.  In  this  condition  the  eggs  are  kept 
from  the  time  of  great  abundance  until  the  time  of  higher  prices,  namely,  from  six 
to  eight  months,  and  then  sent  into  commerce.  The  use  of  broken  eggs  of 
this  kind  for  edible  purposes  is  totally  indefensible.  While  borax  prevents  the 
development  of  bacteria  it  does  not  entirely  inhibit  enz>Tnic  action  and  hence 
that  subtle  change  of  nitrogenous  matter  which  produces  poisonous  bodies 
may  go  on  in  the  presence  of  borax  while  apparently  the  egg  itself  remains  un- 
decomposed.  Other  preserving  agents  have  been  used  in  place  of  borax  for 
these  products,  but  all  are  open  to  similar  objections.  Broken  eggs  are  also 
preserved  by  placing  in  cans  and  freezing.  There  is  no  objection  to  this 
practice  if  the  eggs  are  fresh  and  are  broken  in  such  a  manner  as  to  prevent 
infection  by  contact  with  the  exterior  of  the  shells  or  otherwise.  Stale,  spotted, 
broken  or  otherwise  unmarketable  eggs  should  never  be  used.  Broken  eggs 
are  used  chiefly  by  bakers  in  large  cities. 

Dried  Eggs. — The  rapid  drying  of  fresh  eggs  is  perhaps  an  unobjectionable 
method  of  preservation.  The  drying  may  take  place  by  spreading  the  eggs 
in  a  thin  film  on  a  dry  surface,  which  is  the  usual  method,  or  by  forcing  the  egg 
product  through  small  orifices  under  a  high  pressure  into  a  drying  chamber  so 
adjusted  as  to  temperature  and  size  as  to  secure  the  desiccation  of  the  minute 
particles  of  egg  spray  before  they  fall  to  the  bottom.  This  method  is  perhaps  the 
best  which  has  yet  been  developed  in  the  desiccation  of  such  products.  The 
egg  powder  thus  formed  is  almost  devoid  of  moisture  and  when  properly  collected 
and  stored  out  of  contact  with  the  air,  may  be  kept  for  a  time  without  de- 
terioration. Dry  egg  products  such  as  have  been  described  made  from  fresh 
eggs,  may  be  considered  unobjectionable  for  a  reasonable  length  of  time. 
Unfortunately  dried  products  are  sometimes  made  from  decayed  eggs.  The 
same  precautions  are  to  be  observed  in  the  preparation  of  dried  eggs  as  are  out- 
lined above  for  the  broken  product. 

Egg  Substitutes. — Many  products  have  been  put  upon  the  market  of  a  yellow 
color  and  containing  protein  under  the  guise  of  eggs.  There  is  a  number  of  so- 
called  egg  powders  offered  for  making  cakes,  etc.,  which  contain  no  egg  at  all. 
They  are  composed  of  other  forms  of  protein  matter,  generally  casein  from 
milk,  and  colored  to  resemble  the  egg  in  tint.  Starchy  substances  are  also 
colored  and  sold  as  egg  powder.  These  substances  may  be  regarded  as 
adulterations  when  sold  under  the  name  or  in  the  guise  of  an  egg  product. 
There  are  no  other  adulterations  of  eggs  of  any  consequence  practiced  except 
the  simulation  of  egg  material  by  such  products  as  those  just  mentioned. 


Il6  POULTRY   AND    GAME   BIRDS. 

Poisonous  Principles  in  Eggs. — While  fresh  eggs  for  most  people  form  a  food 
product  entirely  devoid  of  danger,  nutritious  and  easily  digestible,  eggs  may 
easily  become  injurious  and  even  poisonous.  According  to  experiments  made 
by  Bouchard  (Scientific  American,  August  ii,  1896,  page  95),  even  fresh  eggs, 
unless  the  sanitary  conditions  in  which  the  fowls  live  are  well  cared  for,  may 
become  very  poisonous.  •  The  fowl  producing  eggs,  as  a  rule,  is  not  a  cleanly 
animal,  and  this  is  especially  true  of  the  duck.  Thus  injurious  organic  material 
rich  in  microbes  may  contaminate  the  egg  and  the  microbes  may  penetrate  the 
shell  thus  rendering  the  egg  unsuitable  for  consumption.  Eggs  contaminated 
in  this  way  have  given  evidence  of  toxic  phenonema  even  in  a  fresh  state.  Ex- 
periments have  shown  too  that  the  food  material  of  eggs  if  directly  injected  into 
the  blood  of  an  animal  produces  toxic  effects  whereas  if  injected  into  the  stom- 
ach no  unfavorable  effects  are  produced.  Egg  albumin,  that  is,  the  albumin  of 
the  white  of  the  egg,  when  fed  in  considerable  quantities  to  animals  partially 
escapes  digestion  and  thus  becomes  a  source  of  irritation  and  even  of  poisoning. 
There  are  many  people  who  are  remarkably  sensitive  to  the  influence  of  eggs 
and  those  who  possess  this  idiosyncrasy  are  injured  even  by  eggs  which  are 
perfectly  harmless  to  other  people.  A  large  number  of  species  of  injurious 
microbes  which  infect  eggs  have  been  identified.  These  even  are  found  in 
fresh  eggs  in  the  unsanitary  conditions  above  mentioned.  Eggs  kept  for  a 
long  while  in  cold  storage  or  decayed  in  any  way  are  extremely  injurious. 
Fortunately  decayed  eggs  are  self  protecting  since  they  can  only  be  eaten  by 
accident.  If,  however,  decayed  eggs  be  eaten  in  diluted  form  by  mixing  with 
other  foods  they  may  be  eaten  without  their  characteristic  odor  or  taste  being 
known  and  thus  great  injury  arises.  It  is  advised  in  all  cases  where  eggs  are 
to  be  kept  for  some  time  even  in  cold  storage  to  varnish  them  with  some  sub- 
stance impenetrable  to  air.  For  this  purpose,  as  has  already  been  mentioned, 
soluble  glass,  which  is  chemically  a  silicate  of  soda,  has  been  found  extremely 
effective.  Any  of  the  varnishes  which  make  the  shell  of  an  egg  air  tight  tends 
to  restrain  the  activities  of  bacterial  life  since  the  bacteria  cannot  live  without 
air.  The  officials  who  inspect  food  should  direct  special  care  to  the  storing 
of  eggs  in  order  that  no  damage  may  result  from  keeping  them  too  long  in  cold 
storage  or  otherwise.  It  must  not  be  understood  that  poisoning  by  eggs  is  of 
common  occurrence.  In  fact  it  is  very  rare.  The  fact  that  the  egg  itself, 
which  is  such  a  common  article  of  diet,  may  be  unsanitary  and  improperly 
kept  is  a  matter  of  great  concern  to  the  consumer. 

Parasites  in  Eggs. — The  egg  also  when  produced  in  unsanitary  conditions 
may  become  infected  with  parasites.  Many  of  these  are  apparently  harmless, 
but  some  are  injurious  and  even  dangerous.  The  mere  fact  that  parasites  may 
exist  in  eggs  is  of  itself  a  sufficient  reason  for  the  consumer  to  insist  that  the 
eggs  he  eats,  like  the  milk  he  drinks,  shall  be  free  from  all  infections  due  solely 
to  carelessness  in  production. 


PART  III. 

FISH  FOODS. 


FISH. 

Fish  furnish  a  very  important  and  useful  part  of  the'  animal  food  of 
man.  Both  the  fish  growing  in  fresh  water  and  in  salt  water  are  generally- 
edible.  Usually  the  smaller-sized  fish  are  considered  more  palatable,  but  this 
is  not  universally  the  case.  The  large-sized  fish  are  apt  to  be  coarse,  and 
have  a  less  desirable  flavor  than  those  of  smaller  size.  The  size  of  the  fish 
usually  depends  upon  the  magnitude  of  the  body  of  water  in  which  the  species 
grow,  the  largest  bemg  in  the  lakes  and  oceans,  the  medium-size  in  rivers, 
and  the  smallest  in  brooks.  Fish  are  known  chiefly  by  their  common  names, 
and  these  names  are  different  for  the  same  species  of  fish  in  different  parts 
of  the  country.  For  instance,  the  term  trout  covers  a  multitude  of  species, 
and,  likewise,  under  the  term  sardine  a  large  number  of  different  species  or 
varieties  of  fish  are  considered.  There  is  also  a  large  number  of  varieties 
known  as  salmon,  perch,  bass,  etc. 

In  the  following  table  are  given  the  common  and  the  scientific  names  of 
the  principal  food  fishes  used  in  the  United  States  (see  Report  of  U.  S.  Com- 
mission of  Fish  and  Fisheries,  1888,  pages  679-868) : 

AcipenseridcB: 

Acipenser  sturio  oxyrhynchus,  Sturgeon. 
CatostomidcB : 

Moxostoma  velatum,  Small-mouthed  red-horse. 
ClupeidcB : 

Clupea  harengus,  Herring. 
pilchardus,  Sardine. 
V emails,  Alewife. 
sapidissima,  Shad. 
SalmonidcE : 

Osmerus  mordax,  Smelt. 
Coregonus  clupeiformis,  Whitefish. 

sp.,  tullibee  or  artedi,  Ciscoe. 
Oncorhynchus  chouicha,  California  salmon. 
Salmo  salar,  Salmon. 

subsp.  sebago,  Land-locked  salmon. 
Salvelinus  namaycush,  Lake  trout. 
foniinalis,  Brook  trout. 

1T7 


Il8  riSH   FOODS. 

EsocidcB : 

Esox  lucius,  Pike. 

reticulatus,  Pickerel. 
nobilior,  Muskellunge. 
AnguillidcB: 

Anguilla  rostrata,  Eel. 
MugilidcB: 

Mugil  albula,  Mullet. 
ScomhridcB : 

Scomber  scombrus,  Mackerel. 

S comber omorus  maculatus,  Spanish  mackerel. 

Orcyniis  thynnus,  Tunny. 
Cirangidce : 

Trachynotus  carolinus,  Pompano. 
i^omatomidce: 

Pomatomus  saltairix,  Bluefish. 
StromateidcB  : 

Stromateiis  triacanthus,  Butter-fish. 
CentrarchidcB : 

Micropterus  salmoides,  Large-mouthed  black  bass. 
dolomieu,  Small-mouthed  black  bass. 
Pcrcidce : 

Perca  fluviatilis,  Yellow  perch. 

Stizostedion  viireum,  Wall-eyed  pike. 
canadense,  Gray  pike. 
Serranidce : 

Roccus  lineatus,  Striped  bass. 

americanus,  White  perch. 

Centropristis  atrarius,  Sea  bass. 

Epinephelus  morio,  Red  grouper. 
Sparidce : 

Lutjanus  blackfordi,  Red  snapper. 

Stenotomus  chrysops,  Porgy. 

Diplodiis  probatocephalus^,  Sheepshead. 
Scicenidce  : 

Scicena  ocellata,  Red  bass. 

Menticirriis  saxatilis,  Kingfish. 

Cynoscion  regale,  Weakfish. 
Labridce : 

Hiatula  onitis,  Blackfish. 
GadidcB : 

Phycis  chuss,  Hake. 

Brosmius  brosme,  Cusk. 

Melanogrammus  cBglefinus,  Haddock. 

Gadus  morrhua,  Cod, 

Micro gadus  tomcod,  Tomcod. 

Pollachius  virens,  Pollock. 
Pleuronectidce : 

Hippoglossus  hippoglossus,  Halibut. 

Platysomatichthys  hippoglossoides,  Turbot. 

Paralichthys  dentatus,  Flounder. 

Pseudopleuronectes  americanus,  Flounder. 


CONSTITUENTS   OF  FLESH   OF   FISH.  II9 

PetromyzontidcB : 

Petromyzon  marinus,  Lamprey  eel. 
RaiidcB : 

Raia  sp.,  Skate. 

Some  of  the  scientific  names  in  the  above  list  have  been  modified  by  recent 
research,  but  it  is  advisable  to  present  the  above  classification  for  purpose  of 
reference.  The  variations  from  these  names  will  be  given  in  the  part  of  the 
discussion  relating  to  the  food  value  of  fish,  in  which  the  classification  of  Jor- 
dan and  Evermann  is  followed. 

Edible  Portion  of  Fish. — As  in  the  case  of  other  animals  large  parts  of 
fish  as  taken  from  the  water  are  inedible.  In  the  preparation  of  fish  the 
head  is  usually  removed,  especially  if  the  fish  be  of  any  size,  and  the  entrails 
rejected.  If  the  fish  be  scaly,  the  scales  are  also  removed.  The  latter  vary 
very  greatly  in  different  specimens  according  to  species,  size,  etc.  Usually  the 
edible  portion  of  the  fish  is  larger  in  quantity  than  the  inedible,  though  this 
is  not  by  any  means  universally  the  case.  Taking  fish  of  all  kinds  together 
it  may  be  said  that  from  55  to  60  percent  of  the  total  weight  is  edible.  This, 
of  course,  excludes  the  bones  as  well  as  the  other  portions  already  referred  to. 

Principal  Constituents  of  the  Flesh  of  Fish. — In  the  flesh  of  cattle, 
swine,  and  other  edible  animab  already  mentioned  it  is  seen  that  the  protein 
is  the  principal  part  of  the  edible  portion.  In  many  kinds  of  meat,  however, 
the  fat  is  the  principal  portion,  as  in  bacon.  In  the  flesh  of  fish  the  albunti- 
noids  occupy  a  more  prominent  part  than  in  the  flesh  of  domesticated  animals 
or  game.  In  other  words  the  proportion  of  fat,  which  is  one  of  the  principal 
ingredients  of  the  flesh  of  other  animals,  is  less  than  in  the  other  kinds  of 
flesh.  The  protein  in  the  water-free  substance  often  constitutes  over  90 
percent  of  the  total  matter,  and  rarely  falls  below  80  percent.  The  next 
most  important  constituent  of  the  dry  flesh  of  fish  naturally  is  the  fat.  The 
average  content  of  fat  in  the  dry  flesh  of  fish  is  under  10, — it  rarely  goes  above 
20  and  sometimes  falls  as  low  as  2  or  3  percent.  The  mineral  content  of 
the  dry  flesh  of  fish  is  quite  constant.  It  rarely  falls  below  4  or  goes  above 
8  percent;  5  percent  may  be  regarded  as  a  fair  average  content  of  mineral 
matter.  The  mineral  matter  consists  chiefly  of  phosphate  of  potash  and  lime, 
together  with  some  common  salt.  In  the  analyses  made  by  Atwater,  adopted 
in  the  following  pages,  he  grouped  together  the  fish  analyzed  by  the  proportion 
or  quantity  of  the  edible  portion  or  flesh  which  they  contained.  Groupings 
were  also  made  on  account  of  the  dry  substance  in  the  flesh  and  the  proportion 
of  water  and  fat  which  they  contained.  These  tables  are  of  value  show- 
ing in  a  general  way  the  relative  food  importance  of  the  different  specimens 
of  fish.     This  classification  is  given  in  the  follov/ing  table: 


Classification  of  Fishes  by  Percentages  of  Flesh,  Chiefly  Muscular  Tissue 

IN  Entire  Body. 


Kinds  of  Fish. 


Containing;  60  percent  or  over 
of  flesh. 

Spanish  mackerel 

Salmon 

Red  snapper 

Containing  between  60  and  70 
percent  of  flesh. 

Smelt 

Pike  (pickerel) 

Cisco 

Butter-fish 

Spent  salmon      

Mackerel 

Pompano 

Lamprey  eel 

Herring 

Pickerel 

Spent  land-locked  salmon    .   . 

Turbot 

Brook  trout 

Muskellunge 

Alewife      


05    _• 

s  ^ 

M 

Is^ 

h 

w< 

Per. 

cent. 

I 

654 

4 

64.7 

I 

60.0 

58.1 

57-3 

57-3 

57-2 

50-4 

55-4 

54-5 

54-2 

54-0 

52.9 

52.7 

52.3 

3 

51-9 

I 

50.8 

2 

50-5 

Kinds  of  Fish. 


Containing  between  50  and  40 
percent  of  flesh. 

Shad      

Weakfish 

Cod 

Whitefish 

Small-mouthed  black  bass  .   .   . 

Striped  bass 

Laree-mouthed  black  bass  .  .   . 

Sea  Dass  

Winter  flounder 

Lake  trout,  "  Mackinaw  trout " 

Kingfish 

Pike  perch,  "  Wall-eyed  pike"  . 

Mullet 

Tomcod 

Porgy 

Containing  between  40  and 30 
percent  of  flesh. 

Black  fish 

White  perch 

Yellow  perch     

Pike  perch 

Red  bass 

Sheepshead    

Common  flounder 


§12 

o  H  ^ 


Per- 
cent. 

49-9 
48.1 

47-5 
46.5 
464 
45-1 
44.0 
43-9 
43.8 
43-7 
43-4 
42.8 
42.1 
40.1 
40.0 


39-9 
37-5 
37-3 
36.8 
36.5 
340 
33-2 


Classification  of  Fishes  by  Proportions  of  Fat  in  the  Flesh  of  Specimens 

Analyzed. 


Kinds  of  Fish. 


Containing  over  5  percent 
of  fats. 

California  salmon 

Turbot 

Salmon 

Lamprey  eel  ........ 

Lake  trout 

Butter-fish 

Herring 

Shad 

Spanish  mackerel 

Salt-water  eel 

Pompano 

Mackerel 

Whitefish 

Halibut 

Porgy 

Containing  between  5  and 
2  percent  of  fats. 

Alewife 

Mullet 

White  perch 

Sheepsnead   

Spent  salmon 

Cisco 

Spent  land-locked  salmon  . 

Striped' bass 

Muskellunge 

Small-mouthed  black  bass  . 

Weakfish ,   .   .   . 

Small-mouthed  red-horse   . 
Brook  trout 


fe  g  w 
dud 


Per- 
cent. 

63.6 
71.4 
63.6 
71. 1 
69.1 
70.0 
69.0 
70.6 
68.1 
71.6 
72.8 
73-4 
69.8 
75.4 
75-0 


74-4 
74-9 
75-7 
75.6 
76.7 
76.2 
78.5 
77-7 
76.3 
74.8 
79.0 
78.6 
77.7 


Per- 
cent. 

17.9 
14.4 
13-4 
13-3 
-11.4 

II.O 
II. o 

9-5 
9.4 

7.6 

7-1 
6.5 
5-2 
5.1 


4.9 
4.6 
4.1 

3-6 

3-5 

3-2 

2.8 

2.5 
2.4 
2.4 
2.4 
2.1 


Kinds  of  Fish. 


Containing  less  than  2,  the 
majority  less  than  i  per- 
cent of  fats. 

Sturgeon 

Smelt 

Skate 

Blackfish     

Bluefish    

Red  snapper 

Large-mouthed  black  bass  . 

Kingfish  

Pollock 

Yellow  perch 

Pike  perch,  gray  pike    .   .   . 

Hake 

Common  flounder 

Grouper 

Pike  (pickerel?) 

Sea  bass   

Pike  perch,  wall-eyed  pike  . 

Pickerel 

Red  bass  

Tomcod 

Cod 

Winter  flounder 

Haddock 

Cusk     


Per- 
cent. 

78.7 
79.2 
82.2 
79.1 
78.5 
78.5 
78.6 
79.2 
76.0 
79-3 
80.9 
83.1 
84.2 
79-4 
79.8 
79.3 
79-7 
79-7 
81.6 
81.6 
82.6 
84.4 
81.7 
82.0 


Per- 
cent. 

\l 

1.4 
1.4 
1-3 
i.o 


0.8 
08 
0.8 
0.7 
0.7 
0.6 
0.6 
0.5 
0.5 
0.5 
05 
04 
0.4 
0.4 
03 
0.2 


ALEWIVES. 


121 


Classification  of  Fishes  by  Proportions  of  Water-free  Substance  in  the 
Flesh  of  Specimens  Analyzed. 


Kinds  of  Fish. 


Containing  over  jo  percent  of 
water-free  substance. 

California  salmon 

Salmon 

Spanish  mackerel 

Herring 

Lake  trout 

Whitefish 

Containing  from  jo  to    25  per- 
cent of  water-free  substance. 

Butter-fish 

Shad 

Lamprey  eel 

Turbot 

Salt-water  eel 

Pompano 

Mackerel 

Alewife      

Small-mouthed  black  bass    .   .   . 

Mullet 

Porgy 

Containing  betzveen  25  and  20  per 
cent  of  water-free  substance. 

Halibut 

Sheepshead  

White  perch 

Pollock 

Cisco 

Muskellunge 

Spent  salmon 

Striped  bass 


h  3  w 


Per- 
cent. 

364 
36.4 
31-9 
31.0 
30-9 
30.2 


30.0 
29.4 
28.Q 
28.6 
28.4 
27.2 
26.6 
25.6 
25  2 

25-1 

25.0 


24.6 
24-5 
24-3 
24.0 

239 
237 
233 
22.3 


Kinds  of  Fish. 


Containing  between  25  and  20 
percent  of  water-free  sub- 
stance— Continued. 

Brook  trout 

Bluefish     

Red  snapper 

Spent  land-locked  salmon    .   .   . 

Small-mouthed  red-horse    ,   . 

Large-mouthed  black  bass  ... 

Sturgeon       ".    .   . 

Weakfish     

Blackfish      

Smelt     

Kingfish ; 

Yellow  perch 

Sea  bass 

Grouper 

Pickerel    .   .   .   '. 

Pike  perch,  "  wall-eyed  pike  "   . 

Pike  (pickerel  ?) 

Containing  between  20  and  15 per- 
cent of  water-free  substance. 

Pike  perch,  gray  pike 

Tomcod 

Red  bass 

Haddock 

Cusk 

Skate 

Cod 

Hake     

Common  flounder 

Winter  flounder 


is 


Per- 
cent. 
22.3 
21.5 
21.5 

21-5 

214 

214 

21.3 

21.0 

20.9 

20.8 

20.8  • 

20.8 

20.7 

20.6 

20.3 

20.3 

20.2 


19.2 
18.5 
18.4 
18.3 
18.0 

17.9 
17.4 
16.9 
15.8 
157 


In  the  scientific  names  of  the  food  fishes  described  in  the  following  pages 
and  in  the  description  of  their  habits,  methods  of  spawning,  geographic  dis- 
tribution, etc.,  the  classification  of  Jordan  and  Evermann*  has  been  followed. 

Alewives. — A  fish  belonging  to  a  genus  ver}^  close  to  that  to  which  the  her- 
ring belongs  is  known  as  alewife.  The  name  of  the  genus  is  Pomolohus.  It 
is  commonly  known  as  a  herring.  For  instance,  the  fresh-water  skipjack  or 
blue  herring, — the  tailor  herring  or  hickor}'  shad, — and  the  real  alewife  or 
branch  herring  are  all  common  species  of  this  genus.  One  specimen  of  this 
genus  is  the  fresh-water  skipjack  or  blue  herring  {Pomolohus  chrysochloris) 
found  in  the  larger  streams  in  the  Mississippi  valley  and  also  in  Lake  Erie  and 
Lake  Michigan.  It  is  strictly  a  fresh-water  fish,  but  has  also  been  found  in 
salt  water  on  the  Gulf  coast.  The  tailor  herring  is  found  along  the  Atlantic 
coast  from  Cape  Cod  to  Florida.  In  the  Potomac  river  it  is  known  as  tailor 
shad  or  ''  fresh-water  tailor, "  and  is  highly  esteemed  as  a  food  fish  in  Washing- 
ton and  vicinity.     Their  value  is  found  rather  in  their  coming  earlier  than  the 

*  "American  Food  and  Game  Fishes,"  by  Jordan  and  Evermann,  i  vol.,  large  8vo, 
pp.  i  to  1  -1-  I  to  572.  Twelve  colored  plates  and  several  hundred  full-page  plates 
from  photographs  from  life  and  text-figures.     Doubleday,  Page  &  Co.,  New  York. 


122  FISH    FOODS. 

shad  than  in  their  true  value,  for  as  soon  as  the  shad  come  in  great  abundance 
there  is  no  longer  any  market  for  the  alewife. 
Composition  of  Alewife. — 

Fresh.  Dry. 

Water, 74-41  percent 

Protein iQ-i?      "  7^.87  percent 

Fat, 4-92      "  19.08 

Ash, 1.47      "  5-78       " 

This  fish,  it  is  seen,  has  very  much  less  oil  in  it  than  the  true  herring, — in 
fact,  only  a  little  more  than  one-half  as  much.  It,  however,  has  a  correspond- 
ingly larger  percentage  of  protein. 

The  tailor  herring  and  hickory  shad  are  distributed  along  the  coast  from 
Cape  Cod  to  Florida.  The  branch  herring  (Pomolobus  pseudoharengus)  is 
found  along  the  Atlantic  coast  as  far  south  as  Charleston,  entering  fresh-water 
streams  to  spawn,  usually  two  or  three  weeks  ahead  of  the  shad.  It  occurs 
also  in  Lake  Ontario  and  in  several  of  the  small  lakes  in  northern  New  York 
in  which  it  is  land-locked.  The  summer  herring  (Pomolobus  cestivalis)  also 
occurs  along  the  Atlantic  coast. 

Anchovy. — The  anchovy  is  a  small  fish  which  is  eaten  more  as  a  relish 
in  the  pickled  state  than  in  the  fresh  state,  and  is  highly  prized  by  many  con- 
noisseurs. Anchovies  of  various  species  are  found  on  both  the  Atlantic  and 
Pacific  coasts, — on  the  Atlantic  coast  from  Cape  Cod  to  Brazil  and  on  the 
western  coast  from  southern  California  southward.  These  fish  reach  a  length 
of  from  2  to  7  inches.  The  very  small  ones  are  sometimes  known  as  "  white- 
bait." Those  that  are  pickled  and  used  for  food  are  usually  from  3  to  6  inches 
in  length,    tickled  sprat  is  called  anchovy  in  Norway  and  Sweden. 

Composition  of  Preserved  Anchovies. — 

Water, 57.8  percent 

Protein, „ 22.3        " 

Fat, 2.2 

Ash  (principally  salt), 23.7        " 

Black  Bass. — Two  species  of  black  bass  are  well  known  to  the  American 
fisherman  and  to  the  American  cuisine.  The  one  is  called  the  small-mouth 
black  bass  (Micropterus  dolomieu)  and  the  other  the  large-mouth  black  bass 
{Micropterus  salmoides).  These  fishes  are  found  in  the  fresh  waters  of  the 
United  States,  especially  in  the  northern  portion,  almost  everywhere.  Both 
species  have  been  propagated  both  by  the  National  and  State  Fish  Commis- 
sions. Especially  have  they  been  introduced  into  the  northeastern  waters 
where  they  originally  did  not  occur,  or  only  in  small  numbers. 

Bluefish. — The  bluefish  (family  Pomatomidae)  is  one  of  the  valuable  food 
fishes  of  our  Atlantic  coast.  It  is  a  voracious,  carnivorous  fish,  and  apparently 
loves  to  destroy  as  well  as  to  eat.  It  is  stated  that  the  bluefish  copies  after  the 
style  which  was  once  said  to  be  in  vogue  in  Rome,  viz.,  when  its  stomach  is 


CATFISH.  123 

filled  it  disgorges  it  for  the  purpose  of  eating  a  new  ration.  The  size  of  the 
bluefish  runs  from  3  to  5  pounds,  though  occasionally  ver}-  much  larger  exam- 
ples are  taken.  As  a  food  fish  it  is  said  to  rank  in  the  estimation  of  the  connois- 
seiu*  with  pompano  and  Spanish  mackerel.  The  bluefish  is  one  of  the  popular 
fishes  in  all  the  large  markets  of  the  Atlantic  coast.  The  flesh  has  a  fine  flavor, 
but,  like  the  pompano,  it  does  not  keep  well. 
Composition. — 

Fresh.  Dry. 

Water, 78.46  percent 

Protein, 19.02       "  90.13  percent 

Fat, 1.25       "  5.79       « 

Ash, 1.27       "  5.91       " 

A  comparison  of  the  flesh  of  this  fish  with  the  pompano  shows  that  it  is 
particularly  a  protein  food,  the  fat  being  even  less  abundant  than  the  mineral 
matter.  It,  therefore,  is  not  so  well  balanced  a  ration  as  the  flesh  of  the  pom- 
pano and  other  fish  in  which  the  fat  forms  a  considerable  portion  of  the  edible 
matter. 

Carp. — The  carp  is  a  fish  used  very  largely  for  food  purposes,  but  it  has 
not  the  fine  flavor  and  character  of  most  fishes.  The  carp  cultivated  in 
America  is  known  as  the  German  carp  (Cyprinus  carpio). 

The  carp  belongs  to  the  large  family  of  fishes  known  as  the  minnows  or 
Cyprinidae.  This  family  is  a  large  one,  having  about  200  genera  and  more 
than  1000  species,  all  of  which  are  inhabitants  of  fresh  water  in  North  America 
and  Eurasia.  None  of  this  family  is  highly  regarded  as  food  in  the  sense  of 
flavor  and  aroma,  except,  perhaps,  some  of  the  smaller  species.  The  nutritive 
value  of  the  carp,  however,  is  probably  as  great  as  that  of  any,  but  it  is  coarser 
and  less  attractive  to  the  taste.  Some  of  the  most  common  species  of  this 
family  are  the  dace,  fallfish,  river  chub,  creek  chub,  squaw-fish,  and  roach. 

Catfish. — Catfish,  of  which  there  are  many  species,  belong  to  the  family  of 
Siluridae,andare  among  the  most  common  fresh-water  fishes  found  in  the  United 
States.  They  occur  in  small  as  well  as  large  fresh-water  streams  and  lakes,  and 
it  is  one  of  the  species  which  the  American  boy  most  delights  in  catching  with 
hook  and  line.  The  catfish  is  most  conveniently  taken  after  night,  and  the 
smouldering  fire  and  small  boy  on  the  bank  of  a  stream  is  a  frequent  picture 
of  American  country  life.  There  are  more  than  100  genera  of  the  catfish 
family  and  about  1000  species.  Only  about  one-third  of  the  species  inhabit 
salt  water.  The  North  American  fresh-water  species  are  confined  particu- 
larly to  the  Atlantic  coast,  the  Mississippi  valley,  and  the  Gulf  states.  There 
are  no  native  species  of  the  catfish  in  the  fresh  waters  of  the  Pacific  coast. 
The  blue  catfish,  known  as  the  Mississippi  catfish,  is  the  most  prominent 
species  (Ictalurus  jurcatus).  It  is  found  particularly  in  the  Mississippi 
river  and  its  large  tributaries.  Sometimes  it  grows  to  an  immense  size,  indi- 
viduals having  been  found  reaching  150  pounds  in  weight.     If  the  stream 


124  riSH   FOODS. 

in  which  the  catfish  lives  runs  north  and  south  it  will  be  found  in  the  southern 
part  of  the  stream  in  the  winter  and  in  the  northern  part  in  summer.  This 
fish  is  highly  prized  for  edible  purposes.  In  the  small  streams  the  catfish  is 
correspondingly  small  and  weighs  from  less  than  one  pound  to  two  or  three 
pounds  only.  The  small  catfish,  especially  in  the  small  streams  tributary  to 
the  Ohio  and  Mississippi,  has  edible  properties  which  are  far  superior  to  the 
large  catfish  growing  in  the  rivers  themselves. 

The  catfish  of  the  small  streams  and  lakes  are  commonly  known  as  bull- 
heads, since  the  head  is  large  and  wide.  The  name  of  the  most  common  or 
best  known  species  is  Ameirus  nebulosus.  This  species  is  found  from 
Maine  westward  and  southward.  In  Pennsylvania  it  is  known  as  the 
Schuylkill  cat,  and  everywhere  generally  throughout  the  country  as  a  small 
catfish. 

Codfish. — One  of  the  most  famous  food  fish  of  the  American  waters  is  the 
codfish.  It  is  a  widely  distributed  fish.  There  are  said  to  be  about  25  genera 
and  140  species.  The  codfish  is  particularly  a  fish  of  the  northern  waters. 
Only  one  genus  is  found  in  fresh-water  lakes  and  streams. 

The  Common  Cod. — The  common  codfish  (family  Gadidae)  is  the  species 
Gadus  callarias.  It  is  rarely  found  south  of  the  Virginia  coast,  but  is  especially 
abundant  off  the  New  England  and  Newfoundland  coast.  The  great  center  of 
the  codfish  industry  is  in  the  vicinity  of  Newfoundland.  Gloucester,  Massa- 
chusetts, is  the  principal  town  devoted  to  the  codfish  industry  in  the  United 
States.  The  cod  is  an  omnivorous  fish  and  especially  fond  of  crustaceans, 
moUusks,  and  small  fish.  It  also  eats  vegetation,  and  it  is  stated  by  Jordan  and 
Evermann  that  all  sorts  of  things  have  been  found  in  cod  stomachs,  such  as  oil 
cans,  finger  rings,  rubber  dolls,  rocks,  pieces  of  clothing,  etc.  The  livers  of 
the  cod,  especially  those  of  Norwegian  origin,  are  extremely  valuable,  being  the 
source  of  cod  liver  oil,  which  is  considered  by  many  to  be  the  most  valuable 
medicinal  food  known.  Cod  liver  oil,  while  not  palatable,  is  highly  nutritious. 
The  cod  livers  contain,  according  to  some  authorities,  over  60  distinct  chemical 
substances,  many  of  which  are  highly  important  for  their  medicinal  qualities. 
The  cod  move  in  schools,  but  not  in  such  dense  bodies  as  the  mackerel,  herring, 
and  menhaden.  Their  movements  are  largely  controlled  by  the  temperature  of 
the  water  and  their  desire  for  food.  This  species  probably  does  not  reach  a 
greater  length  than  3  feet  and  a  weight  of  more  than  25  pounds.  The  average 
weight  of  the  large-size  cod  in  New  England  waters  is  about  15  pounds  and  on 
the  Grand  Banks  of  Newfoundland  20  pounds.  The  average  weight  of  the 
small-size  cod  in  these  waters  is  about  1 2  pounds.  It  is  one  of  the  most  prolific 
of  fishes.  The  ovaries  of  a  21 -pound  cod  were  found  to  contain  2,700,000  eggs 
and  of  a  7  5 -pound  cod  9,100,000  eggs.  The  eggs  are  very  small  and  require 
about  337,000  to  make  a  quart.  The  cod  is  one  of  the  most  valuable  of  all 
fishes  from  a  commercial  point  of  view  and  also  on  account  of  international  re- 


SALTED   AND    DRIED   COD.  12$ 

lations.  On  some  occasions  this  country  has  apparently  been  on  the  verge  of 
war  with  Great  Britain  respecting  questions  relating  to  the  fisheries  on  the 
banks  of  Newfoundland.  The  U.  S.  Bureau  of  Fisheries  has  probably  done 
more  to  propagate  the  cod  than  any  other  variety  of  fish.  More  than  five 
hundred  million  cod  fry  have  been  liberated  at  different  times  by  the  Bureau 
and  the  number  in  one  year  has  approximated  100,000,000.  The  color  of  the 
common  cod  is  green  or  brown,  but  is  subject  to  very  great  variations, — some- 
times it  is  yellow  or  red  and  a  variety  of  tints  are  assumed. 
Composition. — 

Fresh.  Dry. 

Water, 82.64  percent 

Protein, i5-77       "  95.13  percent 

Fat, 36       "  2.07       " 

Ash, 1.23       "  7.08       " 

These  data  show  that  the  flesh  of  cod  fish  is  perhaps  the  most  exclusively 
nitrogenous  of  any  of  the  more  abundant  food  fish.  The  quantity  of  fat 
contained  therein  is  less  than  -^  of  the  total  weight.  The  flesh  of  the  fresh  cod 
is  more  largely  composed  of  water  than  that  of  the  ordinary  fish,  containing 
approximately  83  percent  of  that  substance.  The  flesh  of  the  cod  itself  is  an 
unbalanced  ration,  and  needs  to  be  eaten  with  butter  and  potatoes  in  order  to 
make  a  complete  ration.  The  hake,  which  is  sometimes  substituted  for  the 
cod  without  the  knowledge  of  the  purchaser,  has  very  much  the  same  chemical 
constituents,  containing — 

Fresh.  Dry. 

Water, , 83.11  percent 

Protein, 15-24       "  91.00  percent 

Fat, 67       "  3.97       " 

Ash, 96        "  5-77       " 

It  is  seen  that  there  is  very  little  difference  in  the  chemical  composition  of 
these  tw^o  fishes.  This,  however,  does  not  justify  the  substitution  of  the  hake 
for  the  cod,  inasmuch  as  the  hake  is  inferior  in  palatability  to  the  cod. 

Salted  and  Dried  Cod. — In  the  United  States  the  cod  is  particularly  de- 
voted to  the  use  of  curing  and  salting,  and  in  this  cured  state  is  even  more 
highly  valued,  especially  for  the  making  of  codfish  balls,  than  it  is  in  its  fresh 
state.  The  old-fashioned  method  of  salting  and  smoking  produced  a  flesh 
of  very  high  flavor,  yielding  under  proper  treatment  in  the  kitchen  a  most 
delicious  base  for  the  fish  ball.  Under  the  modern  system  of  quick  curing^ 
the  salting  and  smoking  have  largely  disappeared  and  the  fish  are  cured  in 
brine,  and  with  the  help  of  borax  a  product  is  produced  which  is  less  pala- 
table than  the  old-fashioned  cured  fish. 

Composition  of  dry  Salted  and  Dried  Cod. — 

Protein, .45.65  percent 

Fat, 53       " 

Salt, 53.82 


126  FISH   FOODS. 

These  data  show  that  more  than  half  of  the  weight  in  the  water-free  state 
is  composed  of  salt.  The  codfish  is  also  put  up  as  boned  fish  in  which  nothing 
but  the  flesh  is  found,  as  desiccated  cod,  as  shredded  codfish  and  in  various 
other  forms. 

Average  Composition  of  Codfish  Balls. — 

Water, 65.43    percent 

Solids, 34.57 

Nitrogen, 1.05         "■ 

Phosphoric  acid, 25         " 

Sulfur, 10         " 

Fat, 7.84 

Ash, 405 

Protein, 6.58          " 

The  difference  between  the  composition  of  the  fish  balls  and  the  average 
composition  of  fish  is  clearly  brought  out  by  the  data  recorded.  In  the 
average  composition  of  fish  the  sum  of  the  fat,  ash,  and  protein  is  greater  than 
the  solids  obtained  by  difference  by  0.36  percent.  In  the  codfish  balls  the 
sum  of  the  ingredients  mentioned  is  less  than  the  solids  by  difference  by  16.10 
per  cent.     This  is  due  to  the  added  potato,  salt,  etc. 

Average  Composition  of  Shredded  Codfish. — 

Water, 46.52  percent 

Ash  (chiefly  salt), 22.81        " 

Fat, 33        " 

Protein, 30.85        " 

Eels. — The  common  eel  is  a  fish  which  is  extremely  long*  in  proportion  to 
its  size  and  has  the  general  appearance,  to  the  uninitiated,  of  a  snake.  The 
resemblance  of  the  eel  to  a  snake  in  shape  is  probably  one  of  the  reasons  why 
it  is  not  more  highly  valued  as  a  food.  The  eels,  perhaps,  are  not  to  be 
considered  as  true  fish.  The  common  eel  (Anguilla  chrysypa)  is  widely 
distributed  throughout  most  parts  of  the  United  States,  especially  the  eastern 
part.  It  extends  southward  as  far  as  the  West  Indies,  and  is  found  in  more 
or  less  abundance  on  the  Gulf  coast.  Although  a  salt-water  fish,  it  differs 
from  most  other  eels  in  its  penchant  for  ascending  fresh-water  streams.  It 
often  goes  to  the  very  headwaters,  especially  in  the  rivers  of  the  Atlantic 
coast  and  Mississippi  valley.  Eels  are  often  found  in  lakes  which  seem  to 
have  had  no  communication  with  the  sea,  which  shows  that  they  are  able 
to  surmount  barriers  which  seem  impossible  to  cross.  Jordan  and  Evermanp 
claim  that  the  eel  is  really  a  fresh-water  fish  and  that  its  real  home  is  in  the 
fresh-water  rivers  and  lakes,  and  that  it  runs  down  to  salt  water  only  at  spawn- 
ing time,  thus  showing  a  quality  or  characteristic  exactly  opposite  to  that  of 
the  salmon  and  shad,  which  are  true  salt-water  fish  and  come  into  fresh  waters 
for  spawning.  Eels,  like  the  carp,  are  more  or  less  scavengers,  feeding  upon 
all  manner  of  refuse,  especially  dead  fish.     They  are  very  destructive  of 


SUMMER   FLOUNDER.  I27 

other  fish,  especially  of  young  shad  and  herring.  WTien  nets  are  placed 
for  shad  and  herring  and  the  fish  are  caught  therein  the  eels  often 
invade  the  net,  and  when  it  is  drawn  it  is  filled  largely  with  the  skeletons  of 
the  fish,  the  flesh  of  which  has  been  removed  by  the  eels.  Eels  have  a  high 
value  as  food  fish,  both  on  account  of  their  nutritive  value  and  their  flavor. 
The  average  length  of  the  eel  is  from  2  to  3  feet,  though  much  larger  examples 
are  sometimes  found. 

Composition  of  the  Eel. — 

Fresh.  Dry. 

Water, 71.60  percent 

Protein, 18.28      "  65.25  percent 

Fat, 9. II       "  31-92      " 

Ash, i.oi      "  3*60      " 

These  data  show  that  the  eel  is  rather  richer  in  fat  than  the  majority  of 
fish,  although  there  are  some  that  exceed  it  in  this  constituent. 

Conger  Eel. — The  conger  eel  belongs  to  the  family  Leptocephalidae.  It 
inhabits  salt  water  only,  is  scaleless,  and  grows  to  much  larger  sizes  than  the 
common  eel,  sometimes  as  long  as  7  or  8  feet.  It  is  not  used  for  food  in  the 
United  States,  but  is  to  some  extent  in  Eiurope  and  the  West  Indies.  On  the 
east  coast  of  the  United  States  they  do  not  occur  very  f requen tly .  Only  a  few 
species  are  known,  and  these  are  of  small  extent  and  have  little  food  value. 

Summer  Flounder. — This  fish  (Paralichthys  dentatus)  is  quite  abundant 
on  the  Atlantic  coast,  frequenting  the  coast  from  Cape  Cod  to  the  Carolinas. 
It  reaches  a  length  of  from  2  to  3  feet  and  has  a  weight  of  about  15  pounds.  It 
is  caught  very  extensively  off  the  New  England  coast.  The  principal  fishing 
grounds  are  in  the  region  of  Block  Island,  Martha's  Vineyard,  and  the  eastern 
end  of  Long  Island.  There  is  another  species  known  as  the  southern  flounder 
{Paralichthys  lethostigmus) ,  which  flourishes  from  Charleston  southward,  and 
is  found  along  the  entire  Gulf  coast.  There  is  also  another  species  on  the 
Gulf  coast  called  the  Gulf  flounder  (Paralichthys  albiguttus).  There  is  also  a 
wide  flounder  or  common  flatfish  (Paralichthys  americanus)  which  is  found 
along  the  coast  of  Labrador,  southward  to  the  Carolinas.  It  is  especially 
abundant  along  the  coast  of  southern  New  England.  It  is  a  small  species, 
rarely  being  over  20  inches  in  length,  the  average  length  being  from  12  to  15 
inches,  and  weighs  from  2  to  3  poimds.  This  species  of  flounder  has  been  ex- 
tensively propagated  by  the  U.  S.  Bureau  of  Fisheries,  as  many  as  100,000,000 
fry  having  been  planted  in  one  season. 

Composition  of  Sumtner  Flounder. — ■ 

Fresh.  Dry. 

Water, 84.21  percent 

Protein, 13.82      "  ,  89.03  percent 

Fat, 60      "  4.46        " 

Ash, 1.28      "  8.15 

The  flesh  of  this  fish  is  particularly  high  in  water  and  low  in  fat. 


128  FISH    FOODS. 

Graylings. — The  graylings  belong  to  a  family  very  closely  resembling  the 
Salmonidae.  They  occur  chiefly  in  northern  or  Arctic  waters.  One  species 
found  in  Michigan  is  known  as  the  Michigan  grayling.  It  is  a  fish  that  is  not 
only  distinguished  on  account  of  its  food  value  but  also  on  account  of  its  grace- 
ful shape  and  pleasing  appearance.  Another  species  occurs  in  Montana,  and 
has  been  distributed  very  largely  by  the  Bureau  of  Fisheries.  It  is  not  a  fish 
which  is  of  any  great  economic  importance. 

The  Haddock. — This  is  a  fish  very  nearly  related  to  the  cod,  but  it  has  a 
smaller  mouth  and  differs  in  other  essentials,  particularly  in  its  chemical  con- 
stituents, from  the  cod.  The  haddock  has  a  food  value  which  is  probably  not 
inferior  to  that  of  the  cod.  It  is  one  of  our  most  abundant  fishes,  and  by  some 
consumers  the  flesh  is  preferred  to  that  of  the  cod.  The  usual  weight  of  the 
haddock  is  about  3  or  4  pounds.  It  is,  therefore,  a  much  smaller  fish  than  the 
cod.  The  species  is  Melanogrammus  cEglefinus.  On  the  Atlantic  coast  it 
does  not  occur  north  of  the  Straits  of  Belle  Isle.  The  haddock  is  particularly 
abundant  on  the  Massachusetts  coast  in  summer.  Like  the  cod,  the  haddock 
is  well  suited  for  salting,  smoking,  and  curing  in-  various  ways.  It,  however, 
has  not  been  used  to  such  an  extent  as  the  cod  for  those  purposes,  finding  a 
more  ready  market  in  the  fresh  state. 

Composition. — 

Water, 81.69  percent 

Protein, 16.83      " 

Fat, .25      " 

Ash, 1.23      " 

In  the  dry  substance. 

Protein, 93-89  percent 

Fat, 1.34      " 

Ash, 6.76      " 

The  flesh  of  the  haddock,  it  is  seen,  is  even  more  exclusively  nitrogenous 
than  that  of  the  cod  and  contains  slightly  less  fat.  The  two  species  are  often 
sold  under  the  same  name. 

The  Hake. — There  are  several  species  of  hakes,  family  Merluccidae.  The 
common  European  hake  is  the  species  Merluccius  merluccius.  The  hake 
which  is  found  mostly  in  American  waters  is  Merluccius  productus,  and  occurs 
very  abundantly  on  the  Pacific  coast  and  is  largely  eaten  as  food.  The  flesh, 
however,  is  rather  coarse  and  not  very  palatable.  Another  species  which  is 
found  on  our  Atlantic  coast  from  New  England  northward  is  Merluccius  bili- 
nearis. 

Halibut. — The  halibut  {Hippoglossus  hippoglossus)  is  a  fish  which  is 
highly  esteemed  and  occurs  in  great  quantities.  It  is  a  fish  which  frequents 
northern  waters,  and  especially  the  North  Atlantic  on  the  American  coast.  It 
has  not  been  taken  south  of  Montauk  Point,  but  extends  as  far  north  as  the 


HERRING.  129 

coast  of  Greenland,  and  is  also  found  about  Iceland  and  Spitzbergen  in  a  lati- 
tude of  80  degrees.  It  does  not  like  water  above  45  degrees  F.,  and  is  often 
found  in  water  at  the  freezing  point,  namely,  32  degrees.  The  halibut  is  also 
found  on  the  Pacific  coast,  especially  off  Oregon  and  Washington  and  in 
British  Columbia  and  Alaska.  It  is  one  of  the  largest  of  food  fish.  The  fish 
weighing  about  80  pounds  are  considered  the  best  for  food,  although  the  hali- 
but sometimes  reaches  a  weight  of  over  500  pounds.  The  male  is  always 
smaller  than  the  female  and  less  palatable.  The  annual  value  of  the  halibut 
fisheries  on  the  North  Atlantic  coast  is  probably  }  million  dollars.  It  is 
probably  slightly  more  than  this  on  the  Pacific  coast, — in  fact  the  Pacific  coast 
fisheries  have  grown  so  extensively  that  halibut  is  shipped  eastward  across  the 
continent.  Vast  freight  trains  known  as  the  "Halibut  Express"  have  been 
sent  across  the  continent  from  Vancouver  to  Boston,  making  the  trip  in  six  or 
seven  days. 

Composition. — 

Fresh.  Dry. 

Water, 75.42  percent 

Protein, 18.35       "  77.18  percent 

Fat, 5.17       "  19-32        " 

Ash, 1.06       "  4-39        " 

The  halibut  is  a  fish  containing  considerable  quantities  of  fat,  and  is  not  so 
pecuHarly  nitrogenous  in  its  character  as  the  cod  or  the  haddock.  It,  there- 
fore, makes  a  better  balanced  ration  than  either  of  the  other  fish.  The 
halibut  in  the  fresh  state  is  esteemed  fully  as  highly  as  the  cod,  and  the  halibut 
steak  is  a  very  common  part  of  the  fish  sold  upon  the  market. 

Herring. — The  herrings  form  a  very  important  group  of  fishes  belonging 
to  the  family  Clupeidae.  There  are  about  30  genera  in  the  family  and  150 
species.  The  herrings  are  essentially  salt-water  fishes  and  are  usually  found 
in  large  schools.  Many  species,  and  some  of  these  the  most  valuable  for  food, 
ascend  fresh-water  streams  for  spawning.  Certain  species,  for  instance,  are 
caught  at  the  same  season  as  the  shad  in  the  Chesapeake  and  Susquehanna. 
There  are  a  few  species  which  remain  permanently  in  fresh  water.  The  com- 
mon herring  {Clupea  harengus)  is  one  of  the  most  important  of  the  food  fishes 
of  the  whole  Atlantic  coast,  and  really  over  almost  all  the  north  Atlantic, 
throughout  which  it  is  generally  distributed.  The  principal  herring  fisheries 
are  in  the  North  Sea,  in  Denmark  and  Norway.  Important  fisheries  are  also 
found  off  the  coast  of  Great  Britain,  Belgium,  France,  and  the  United  States. 
It  is  estimated  that  as  many  as  three  billion  herring  may  be  found  in  a  shoal 
covering  a  dozen  square  miles.  Herring  shoals  of  much  larger  extent  are  on 
record.  The  herring  do  not  frequent  southern  waters,  but  are  found  in  the 
cool  and  more  northern  waters  of  the  Atlantic.  On  the  coast  of  the  United 
States  it  has  been  found  as  far  south  as  Cape  Hatteras,  though  it  does   not 


130  FISH   FOODS. 

occur  very  abundantly  further  south  than  New  England.  The  fish  at  the 
period  of  spawning  are  considered  the  most  valuable  for  food  purposes. 

The  herring  is  either  sold  in  a  fresh  state  or  it  may  be  smoked,  salted,  or 
pickled,  and  in  this  condition  is  very  extensively  used  as  food.  A  species  of 
herring  is  found  on  the  Pacific  coast  known  as  California  herring  (Clupea 
pallasii).  It  does  not  differ  very  greatly  in  its  general  aspect  from  its  relation 
on  the  Atlantic  coast.  This  species  occurs  very  abundantly  in  the  region  of 
Puget  Sound,  especially  in  summer  time,  and  in  southeast  Alaska.  They  are 
extremely  abundant  in  San  Francisco  markets  in  the  spring  time,  so  much  so 
that  it  is  difficult  to  find  a  sale  for  them. 

The  California  herring  are  more  highly  valued  and  bring  the  highest  price 
in  the  early  winter,  when  they  are  the  fattest. 

Composition  of  Herring. — 

Fresh.  Dry. 

Water, 69.03  percent 

Protein, 18.46       "  61.69  percent 

Fat, ii.oi       "  35.55       " 

Ash, 1.50       "  4.83       " 

The  above  data  show  that  the  flesh  of  herring  is  particularly  rich  in  fat. 
In  fact  the  herring  is  sometimes  used  as  a  source  of  oil.  In  southeast  Alaska 
are  extensive  oil  and  guano  works  which  utilize  the  herring  for  these  purposes. 

Horse  Mackerel. — Another  species  belonging  to  the  mackerel  family  is 
the  horse  mackerel  or  tuna  {Thunnus  thynnus),  which  is  found  in  considerable 
abundance  on  our  North  Atlantic  coast  and  on  the  coast  of  southern  California. 
Its  common  name  is  "  tuna,"  "  tunny,"  "  horse  mackerel, "  or  " great  albacore." 
The  horse  mackerel  is  a  fish  of  very  great  size  and  is  the  very  largest  of  the 
whole  mackerel  family.  They  occasionally  attain  a  length  of  10  feet  or  more 
and  a  weight  of  1500  pounds.  The  average  dimensions,  of  course,  are  very 
much  less  than  this.  The  horse  mackerel  does  not  grow  so  large  in  Europe 
or  upon  the  Pacific  coast.  In  these  regions  a  horse  mackerel  weighing  500 
pounds  is  considered  of  an  extraordinary  size.  The  very  large  ones  are  never 
taken  with  hook  and  line,  but  there  are  records  of  fish  of  over  200  pounds  that 
have  been  captured  in  this  way. 

The  Hogfish. — The  hogfish  of  the  West  Indies  and  our  southern  coasts 
is  another  of  the  wrasse-fishes  whose  scientific  name  is  Lachnolaimus  maximus. 
It  is  called  in  Porto  Rico  "  el  capitan."  It  often  reaches  a  weight  of  20  pounds 
and  a  length  of  from  2  to  3  feet.  The  name  "hogfish"  doubtless  is  derived 
from  the  shape  of  the  head,  which  resembles  somewhat  that  of  the  hog.  It  is 
valued  as  a  food  fish  throughout  the  West  Indies. 

Lake  Herring. — The  so-called  lake  herring  is  very  closely  related  to  the 
whitefish.  The  name  of  the  species  is  Argyrosomus  artedi.  The  lake 
herring  has  a  large  number  of  common  names,  of  which  the  most  widely 
applied  is  the  term  "Cisco."     The  terms  blueback,  greenback,  and  grayback 


MACKEREL.  I3I 

are  also  applied  to  these  herring.  The  habitat  of  this  fish  is  that  of  the  whole 
region  of  the  Great  Lakes  and  north  to  Hudson  Bay,  It  has  much  the  same 
habitat  as  the  whitefish.  The  average  weight  of  the  lake  herring  is  about  one 
pound.  The  subspecies  {Argyrosomus  artedi  sisco)  is  found  in  Lake  Tippe- 
canoe and  other  small  lakes  in  Wisconsin  and  northern  Indiana. 
Composition  of  Cisco. — 

Fresh.  Dry. 

Water, 76-15  percent 

Protein, 19.12       "  80.75  percent 

Fat, 3-48       "  14-59       " 

Ash, 1.25       "  5.25       " 

Mackerel. — The  mackerel  is  a  food  fish  which  is  very  commonly  used  in  a 
cured  state  in  the  interior  of  the  country  and  is  eaten  fresh  on  the  sea  coast. 
Its  habitat  is  principally  the  North  Atlantic  ocean.  On  the  coast  of  the  United 
States  it  is  found  from  Cape  Hatteras  north  to  the  Strait  of  Belle  Isle.  In 
Europe  it  is  found  from  Norway  southward  to  the  Mediterranean  and  Adriatic. 
The  mackerel  on  the  Atlantic  coast  usually  appear  first  in  the  spring  near  Cape 
Hatteras  and  following  the  custom  of  the  shad  are  found  later  farther  north 
in  the  New  England  states  and  also  in  the  British  possessions.  They  leave 
the  coast  in  the  inverse  order  in  the  autumn,  disappearing  first  in  the  northern 
regions  and  later  in  the  southern  portion. 

The  mackerel  is  one  of  the  most  abundant  of  fishes  in  the  Atlantic  Ocean, 
traveling  in  immense  schools.  There  is  record  of  a  school  which  was  seen 
in  1848  which  was  at  least  half  a  mile  wide  and  20  miles  long.  In  some 
seasons  the  mackerel  is  extremely  abundant  and  in  others  very  scarce.  The 
average  catch  is  probably  about  300,000  barrels.  Boston  and  Gloucester 
are  centers  of  the  mackerel  fishing  industry.  It  is  estimated  that  from  150 
to  300  vessels  of  American  bottoms  are  engaged  in  the  mackerel  industry. 
The  U.  S.  Bureau  of  Fisheries  has  been  particularly  interested  in  the  propaga- 
tion of  mackerel,  but  the  result  has  not  been  as  satisfactory  as  in  the  case  of 
many  other  fishes.  The  young  mackerel  or  small  fishes  are  known  as  "  spikes," 
'^blinkers,"  and  "tinkers."  When  they  are  about  two  years  old  they  measure 
from  5  to  9  inches  in  length.  The  mackerel  attains  its  full  size  at  about  the 
fourth  year.  The  scientific  name  of  the  common  mackerel  is  Scomber 
scombrus  Linnaeus. 

Composition  of  Mackerel. — Edible  portion: 

Fresh.  Dry 

Water, 73-37  percent 

Protein, 18.26       "  7i-7i  percent 

Fat, 7.09       "  24.88       " 

Ash, , 1.28       "  4-78       " 

The  above  data  show  that  the  flesh  of  the  mackerel  is  composed  of  about 
two-thirds  protein  and  one-third  fat  and  ash. 


132  FISH    FOODS. 

Pickled  mackerel,  salted  mackerel,  and  smoked  mackerel  are  perhaps  as 
highly  valued  for  food  purposes  as  the  fresh  fish  itself. 

Menhaden. — The  menhaden  is  not  used  chiefly  as  a  food  fish  but  to  some 
extent  therefor.  It  is  one  of  the  most  abundant  fishes  taken  upon  our  Atlantic 
coast  and  is  used  almost  exclusively  as  a  source  of  oil,  the  residue  being  dried 
and  ground  for  fertilizing  purposes.  In  this  sense  it  has  great  value  because 
of  the  high  nitrogen  content  of  the  residue  and  also  of  the  considerable  quantity 
of  phosphoric  acid  which  is  contained  therein. 

The  menhaden  is  known  scientifically  as  Brevoortia  tyrannus.  Up 
to  1880  immense  quantities  of  menhaden  were  taken  off  the  Atlantic  coast. 
Since  that  time  the  supply  has  not  been  considered  so  great.  In  the  year 
1877  it  is  stated  by  Jordan  and  Evermann  that  one  oil  company  took  20  million 
fish  and  in  one  town  alone,  namely  Booth  Bay,  50  million  fish  were  caught. 

The  fecundity  of  the  menhaden  is  very  great,  exceeding  that  of  the  shad. 
More  than  140,000  eggs  have  been  taken  from  a  single  fish.  The  menhaden 
are  not  eaten  very  extensively  in  a  fresh  state  as  food  but  preserved  in  salt 
they  have  a  considerable  value  for  that  purpose.  An  extract  has  also  been  made 
from  the  flesh  of  the  menhaden  on  the  same  principle  of  manufacture  as  is  utilized 
in  preparation  of  meat  extracts.  The  menhaden  is  known  under  a  great  num- 
ber of  common  names,  some  thirty  of  which  have  been  enumerated  by  Dr.. 
Goode. 

Composition  of  Menhaden. — 

Water, 77-i5  percent 

Fat, 3.91       " 

Protein  by  difference, 18.94       " 

The  water-free  flesh  contains  (including  bones)  21.7  percent  of  mineral 
matter. 

Composition  of  the  Mineral  Matter. — 

Lime, 8.67  percent 

Phosphoric  acid, 7.78  " 

SiHcic  acid, 1.33  " 

Potash, 1.54  " 

Soda, 1.02  " 

Magnesia, 0.67  " 

Chlorin, 0.69  " 

Total, 21.70 

Mullet. — ^The  mullet  belongs  to  the  Mugilidae,  an  important  family  of  fishes 
in  which  there  are  several  genera  and  species.  The  mullet  is  not  particular 
about  its  food  but  is  in  the  habit  of  swallowing  large  quantities  of  mud,  or 
rather  partially  swallowing  it  and  separating  the  refuse  and  most  obnoxious 
particles  by  means  of  the  gills.  The  common  mullet  or  striped  mullet  (Mugil 
cephalus)  is  a  widely  distributed  species.  This  fish  is  common  along  the 
Atlantic  coast  and  in  Hawaii,  usually  traveling  in  large  schools,  and  is  most 


PICKEREL    OR   PIKE.  I33 

abundant  in  the  shallow  waters  of  the  coast.  It  sometimes  reaches  a  length 
of  two  feet  and  is  an  important  food  fish.  The  mullet  is  ver}^  abundant  on  the 
Florida  coasts.  WTiile  the  mullet  may  be  regarded  as  a  scavenger,  living  prin- 
cipally on  mud,  it  does  not  eat  any  other  species  of  fish,  but  is  itself  eaten  by 
nearly  all  fishes  that  can  gain  access  to  it. 
Composition  oj  the  Mullet. — 

Fresh.  Dry. 

Water, 74-87  percent 

Protein, 19-32        "  77-5°  percent 

Fat, 4.64       "  18.45       " 

Ash, 1. 17       "  4-66       « 

Muskallunge. — A  very  noted  member  of  this  family  is  the  muskallunge 
{Esox  masquinongy).  It  is  a  native  of  the  Great  Lakes  and  is  especially 
found  in  the  upper  St.  Lawrence.  It  is.  not  a  ver}^  abundant  fish,  but  is  highly 
prized  from  the  angler's  point  of  view.  It  is  of  very  great  size,  having  been 
found  as  long  as  8  feet  and  weighing  over  loo  pounds.  •  Two  other  species  of 
muskallunge  are  known,  one  {Esox  ohiensis  or  the  Chautauqua  muskallunge) 
in  the  Ohio  river  basin,  particulairly  in  Lake  Chautauqua,  where  it  has  been 
artificially  propagated  with  great  success,  and  the  unspotted  muskallunge 
(Esox  immaculatus) J  which  occurs  sparingly  in  certain  small  lakes  of  northern 
Wisconsin  and  Minnesota. 

Composition  of  the  Muskallunge. — 

Fresh.  Dry. 

Water, 76.26  percent 

Protein, 19-63        "  84.87  percent 

Fat, 2.54       "  10.70       " 

Ash, 1.57       "  6.63       « 

The  flesh  of  the  muskallunge,  as  is  seen,  contains  about  four  times  as  much 
fat  as  that  of  the  pickerel,  and  forms  a  ration  which  is  not  so  unbalanced  as 
that  of  the  pickerel  itself. 

Pickerel  or  Pike. — One  species  {Esox  reticulatus)  is  of  common  occur- 
rence along  the  Atlantic  coast  and  also  in  the  fresh-water  streams  of  the  south- 
em  interior  portions  of  the  country.  The  pike  of  the  Great  Lakes  belongs  to 
the  species  Esox  Indus  Linnaeus.  It  is  found  in  the  fresh  waters  of  North 
America,  Europe,  and  Asia,  but  is  not  found  on  the  Pacific  coast  except  in 
Alaska.  It  reaches  in  some  cases  a  large  size,  having  been  found  as  much  as 
4  feet  in  length  and  weighing  40  to  50  pounds.  The  Kankakee  in  northern 
Indiana  is  a  well-known  fishing  ground  for  this  species  of  pike. 

Composition  oj  Pickerel. — Edible  portion: 

Fresh.  Dry. 

Water, 79.68  percent 

Protein, 18.64        "  92-15  percent 

Fat, 50        «  2.48       " 

Ash, 1. 18       "  5.80       « 


134  FISH   FOODS. 

The  flesh  of  the  pickerel,  as  is  seen,  is  almost  a  pure  type  of  protein.  The 
fat  falls  to  an  insignificant  quantity,  being  only  about  half  as  much  as  the  ash. 

Wall-eyed  Pike. — The  wall-eyed  pike  or  pike  perch  {Stizostedion  vitreum) 
is  a  fish  most  abundant  in  Lake  Champlain,  the  Great  Lakes,  and  in  eastern 
Canadian  lakes ;  it  occurs  also  in  certain  small  lakes  and  streams  in  the  upper 
Mississippi  valley.  In  some  localities  it  is  known  as  the  salmon  or-  jack 
salmon,  but  of  course  these  are  misnomers. 

Composition. — 

Fresh.  Dry. 

Water, 75.71  percent 

Protein, 19-03       "  79-31  percent 

Fat, 4.07        "  16.74       " 

Ash, 1. 19       "  4.92       " 

Common  Pompano. — The  pompano  (family  Carangidae)  is  one  of  the 
food  fishes  which  is  most  highly  esteemed  along  the  Gulf  coast.  It  has  been 
found  as  far  north  as  Cape  Cod  on  the  Atlantic  coast,  but  does  not  occur  in 
sufficient  numbers  to  make  it  of  any  economic  value  as  a  food  fish  north  of 
Florida.  It  is  taken  chiefly  in  the  Gulf  waters.  The  average  weight  of  the 
pompano  is  from  2  to  3  pounds,  though  very  much  larger  examples  are  some- 
times found.  As  a  food  fish  there  is  none  that  is  regarded  more  highly  than 
the  pompano,  especially  when  it  is  eaten  fresh  from  the  water  and  prepared 
in  the  manner  of  the  Creole  cooks  of  New  Orleans. 

Composition. — 

Fresh.  Dry. 

Water, 72.78  percent 

Protein, 18.65        "  72.37  percent 

Fat, 7.57        "  24.46      " 

Ash, i.oo       "  3.82      " 

These  data  show  that  the  edible  portion  of  the  pompano  is  valued  both  for 
its  protein  and  its  fat.  The  latter  exists  in  quantities  of  approximately  one- 
third  of  the  former.  It  is  not  so  much  its  nutritive  value  which  makes  the 
pompano  desirable  as  a  food  fish  but  the  extreme  delicacy  of  flavor  and  the 
richness  of  its  taste.  It  does  not  bear  shipping  well,  and  therefore  is  found 
in  its  greatest  perfection  only  near  the  place  where  it  is  taken. 

In  New  Orleans  and  in  Florida  the  pompano  is  one  of  the  principal  food 
fishes  furnished  by  the  high-class  hotels  and  restaurants  to  their  guests. 

Red  Snapper. — The  red  snapper  {Lutianus  aya)  is  the  most  noted  fish 
of  all  the  snapper  family  (Lutianidae),  although  there  are  others  which  are 
highly  prized,  such  as  the  gray  snapper.  It  sometimes  reaches  a  length  of  two 
or  three  feet  and  a  weight  of  from  10  to  35  pounds.  It  is  particularly  abundant 
in  the  deep  waters  of  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  and  off  the  west  coast  of  Florida. 
The  red  snapper  bears  shipping  better  than  most  of  the  Gulf  fish,  and  Pensa- 
cola  is  one  of  the  principal  points  where  the  fish  are  packed  in  ice  as  soon  as 
possible  after  capture  and  dispatched  to  northern  markets. 


SALMON.  135 

Composition. — 

Fresh.  Dry. 

Water, 78.46  percent 

Protein, 19.20       "  91.75  percent 

Fat, 1.03       "  4-7°      " 

Ash, 1.31        "  6.05      " 

This  is  another  one  of  the  fishes  in  which  the  edible  portion  is  almost  exclu- 
sively protein,  the  fat  appearing  only  in  small  quantities. 

Rock  Bass;  Redeye;  Goggle-eye  {Amhloplites  rupestris). — ^The  rock 
bass  is  a  very  common  fish  particularly  abundant  in  the  fresh  waters  of  the  " 
northern  central  portions  of  the  United  States.  It  is  the  fish  which  the  Ameri- 
can boy,  living  near  small  streams,  most  delights  to  catch.  The  size  of  the 
rock  bass  varies  largely  according  to  the  magnitude  of  the  "body  of  water  in 
which  it  lives.  The  average  weight  of  the  fish  in  streams  of  ordinary  size  is 
probably  about  a  pound,  though  often  it  is  considerably  more.  The  rock 
bass  has  been  propagated  to  some  extent  by  the  Bureau  of  Fisheries  and  has 
been  introduced  into  waters  where  it  formerly  did  not  occur. 

Salmon. — The  salmon  is  one  of  the  most  important  food  fishes  of  the 
United  States.  It  belongs  to  the  genus  O\corhynchus.  The  five  species  of 
this  genus  are,  in  America,  confined  to  our  Pacific  coast.  Of  these  species  the 
one  known  as  blueback  or  sockeye  is  found  most  abundantly  in  the  Fraser 
and  Columbia  rivers  and  in  Alaska,  the  silver  salmon  in  Puget  Sound,  the 
Chinook  salmon  in  the  Columbia,  and  the  dog  salmon  along  the  coast  from  Cali- 
fornia to  Bering  Sea.  The  salmon  begin  running  early  in  the  spring  and  the 
early  run  is  considered  of  greater  value  than  the  later.  The  habits  of  the 
salmon  in  the  deep  waters  of  the  ocean  are  not  very  well  known.  It  is  only 
when  they  come  into  fresh  water  for  spawning  purposes  that  their  life  his- 
tory can  be  well  studied.  It  is  believed,  however,  that  they  do  not  go 
very  far  from  the  shore.  The  run  of  salmon  on  the  Pacific  coast  usually 
begins  about  the  latter  part  of  March  and  lasts  through  the  spring  and  greater 
part  of  the  summer.  On  account  of  the  great  abundance  of  these  fish  on  the 
Pacific  coast  and  the  distance  from  large  markets  the  canning  industry  has 
developed  with  great  rapidity.  In  fact  on  the  Pacifie  coast  the  product  of 
salmon  fishing  is  devoted  almost  exclusively  to  canning  purposes.  In  the 
canning  of  salmon  no  particular  care  is  taken,  and  perhaps  none  at  all  to 
designate  upon  the  can  whether  its  contents  are  of  the  early  salmon  or  the 
later,  less  valuable  run.  It  is  claimed  by  many  authorities  that  the  salmon 
of  the  Pacific  coast  of  America,  taken  all  together  in  their  relation  to  the 
economic  problem  of  fish  food,  are  the  most  important  and  valuable  fish  in 
the  world. 

Composition  of  a  Pacific  Coast  Species. — 

Fresh.  Dry. 

Water, 63.61  percent 

Protein, 17.46      "  52.31  percent 

Fat, 17.87      "  49-05       " 

Ash, 1.06      "  2.92       " 


^ 


136  FISH    FOODS. 

Composition  of  Atlantic  Salmon. — 

Fresh.  Dry. 

Water, 63.61  percent 

Protein, 21.60       "  6i.45percent 

Fat, 13.38      "  36.88       " 

Ash, 1.41      "  3.81       " 

The  above  data  show  that  the  Pacific  salmon  are  richer  in  fat  than  the 
Atlantic  salmon.  In  fact  in  the  edible  portion  of  the  fish  the  fat  is  almost 
as  great  as  the  protein. 

Another  species  of  Pacific  salmon  is  the  humpback  salmon  {Oncorhynchus 
gorhuscha),  which  appears  in  great  abundance  in  the  rivers  of  Alaska,  but  not 
every  year, — usually  coming  in  larger  quantities  in  alternating  years.  As  a 
fish  to  be  eaten  fresh,  this  is  one  of  the  very  best  of  the  salmons.  Owing  to 
the  pale  color  of  the  flesh,  this  species  does  not  hold  as  high  a  rank  for  canning 
purposes.  It  cans  well,  however,  and  the  product  is  very  palatable  and  doubt- 
less very  nutritious.  The  trade-name  of  the  canned  product  is  "  pink  salmon," 
as  its  flesh  is  of  a  paler  color  than  that  of  the  chinook  salmon  or  red  salmon. 
Another  species  is  known  as  dog  salmon.  It  is  found  in  considerable  abun- 
dance from  California  northward  to  Bering  Strait,  spawning  usually  late  in  the 
fall.  It  is  considered  as  the  least  valuable  for  food  purposes,  although  it  is 
now  coming  to  be  used  very  extensively  by  freezing,  in  which  form  it  finds  a 
ready  market  both  in  this  country  and  abroad.  When  canned  it  is  put  on  the 
market  as  "chum."  Its  chief  interest  at  the  present  time  is  on  account  of  the 
fact  that  it  is  sometimes  sold  under  the  names  of  better  species. 

Chinook  Salmon  {Oncorhynchus  tschawytscha). — This  species  is  also 
known  as  quinnat,  king,  Columbia  river,  and  Sacramento  river  salmon.  It  is, 
next  to  the  sockeye,  the  most  important  of  all  salmon  in  commercial  value. 
The  individuals  of  this  species  reach  a  larger  size  than  those  of  any  other. 
They  have  been  known  to  weigh  90  pounds,  and  fish  of  from  40  to  60  pounds-  in 
weight  are  not  infrequently  taken.  The  average  weight  of  the  king  salmon 
which  are  captured  in  the  Columbia  river  is  probably  not  far  from  22  pounds, 
while  those  that  run  further  south,  for  instance  in  the  Sacramento  river,  average 
16  pounds. 

Another  species,  known  as  silver  salmon  {Oncorhynchus  kisutch),  also  has 
a  number  of  other  names,  mostly  of  Eastern  or  Russian  origin.  It  is  quite  an 
important  member  of  the  genus  and  its  average  weight  is  about  5  pounds.  It 
is  very  valuable  as  a  food  fish,  only  the  Chinook  and  blueback  salmon  going 
ahead  of  it.  It  is  also  a  species  which  bears  shipment  in  a  fresh  state  very  well. 
The  silver  salmon  resembles  very  closely  the  Chinook,  but  is  easily  distinguished 
therefrom  by  experienced  fishermen.  The  canned  product  of  this  species  is 
usually  put  on  the  market  as  "medium  red"  or  "coho"  salmon,  names  which 
have  now  come  to  have  a  definite  meaning  and  are  perfectly  understood  by  the 
trade. 


SALMON   or  THE  ATLANTIC   COAST.  I37 

The  Sockeye  or  Blueback  Salmon  (Oncorhynchus  nerka). — ^This  is  the 
species  which  has  the  greatest  commercial  value  and  forms  a  large  part  of  the 
catch  of  the  Pacific  coast.  It  is  the  most  abundant  of  all  the  species  of 
salmon  in  Alaska.  Its  flesh  has  a  rich  red  or  "salmon"  color,  and  lends 
itself  admirably  to  canning  processes.  In  palatability  and  attractiveness  as  a 
canned  product  it  is  not  inferior  to  any,  unless,  possibly,  it  is  the  Columbia 
river  chinook. 

Canning  of  Salmon. — The  canning  of  salmon  is  one  of  the  most  important 
of  the  fish  industries  of  the  United  States.  The  immense  coast  line  possessed 
by  the  United  States  on  the  west,  which  is  so  vastly  extended  by  the  Alaskan 
coast  and  Aleutian  Islands,  affords  the  most  extensive  fisheries  of  salmon  in  the 
world.  As  has  already  been  stated,  there  are  no  large  markets  in  that  region 
in  which  the  fresh  salmon  can  find  a  purchaser.  The  fish,  therefore,  must  be 
neglected  as  a  food  product  or  else  prepared  in  some  way  to  enable  them  to  be 
shipped  to  great  distances.  Probably  the  most  unobjectionable  way  is  by 
canning.  The  principles  of  the  canning  of  salmon  are  not  different  at  all  from 
those  which  underlie  the  sterilization  of  any  kind  of  food.  The  establishments 
in  which  the  canning  takes  place  are  perhaps  the  most  extensive  in  the  world. 
The  prime  necessity  in  these  cases  is  to  secure  complete  sterilization.  In  the 
case  of  fish  any  failure  to  secure  the  proper  sterilization  is  the  more  reprehen- 
sible, because  fish  decompose  so  readily,  forming  fermentative  products  which 
are  extremely  poisonous.  .  Cases  of  poisoning  from  eating  canned  salmon 
have  been  reported,  and  in  some  cases  they  may  prove  fatal.  Ever}'  can  of 
salmon  which  is  to  be  eaten  ought  to  be  examined  carefully  in  order  to  see  if 
there  are  any  incipient  signs  of  decomposition.  A  bad  smelling  or  otherwise 
imperfect  can  should  be  rejected  without  question.  Only  the  fish  which  is 
perfectly  fresh  to  the  taste  and  odor  and  which  gives  no  signs  of  any  kind  of  de- 
terioration should  be  eaten.  When  properly  prepared,  canned  salmon  affords  a 
delicacy  as  well  as  a  food  product  which  can  hardly  be  too  highly  prized. 

Composition  oj  Canned  Salmon. — Mean  of  three  samples-.  Water-free 
substance: 

Protein, 53-52  percent 

Fat, 40.52        " 

Ash, 6.24 

The  Salmon  of  the  Atlantic  Coast. — As  has  already  been  noted,  the 
Pacific  salmon  belong  to  a  different  genus  from  the  common  Atlantic  salmon, — 
Salmo  salar.  There  is  a  very  close  resemblance  between  the  two  genera,  and 
the  common  name  "salmon"  is  applied  to  the  individuals  of  each.  The 
Atlantic  salmon  is  a  fish  which  has  been  known  from  the  earliest  time.  The 
Roman  people  became  acquainted  with  it  in  the  early  history  of  the  Republic, 
and  especially  when  they  conquered  Gaul  and  Britain.  It  is  found  distributed 
over  the  whole  North  Atlantic  coast,  but  especially  the  northern  portion 


138  FISH   FOODS. 

from  Massachusetts  northward.  The  salmon  extends,  as  far  as  observations 
have  been  made,  beyond  even  the  Arctic  circle,  and  the  same  species  is  found 
upon  the  western  and  northern  shores  of  Europe.  The  salmon  enters  the  St. 
Lawrence  and  has  been  found  as  far  up  as  Niagara  Falls.  Our  principal 
fisheries  for  this  species  are  in  Maine  and  in  Canada,  Nova  Scotia,  and  New 
Brunswick.  They  do  not  extend  southward  beyond  the  Delaware  and  have 
rarely  been  found  in  that  river.  The  shad  and  salmon  were  particularly 
abundant  in  early  colonial  days.  The  shad  were  so  abundant  that  they  were 
not  regarded  as  useful  for  food  purposes,  but  their  value  as  a  fertilizer  was 
taught  to  the  whites  by  the  Indians.  Salmon,  apparently,  were  equally 
abundant,  and  it  was  considered  an  affront  to  offer  salmon  more  than  twice  a 
week  even  to  servants.  In  this  respect  they  were  on  the  same  plane  as  the 
diamond  back  terrapin  and  canvas  back  duck,  which  were  so  abundant,  in 
those  days,  that  they  were  a  drug  on  the  market.  The  salmon  enters  the 
fresh-water  streams  for  the  purpose  of  spawning.  The  eggs  are  largely  laid 
late  in  the  fall,  and  in  that  case  do  not  hatch  until  the  next  spring.  The 
Atlantic  salmon  often  reach  a  very  large  size.  Individuals  have  been  known 
to  weigh  from  40  to  even  80  pounds.  The  average  weight  of  the  salmon  taken 
in  Maine  waters  is  about  10  pounds  each.  Another  valued  specimen  of  salmon 
is  known  as  the  Sebago  salmon  (Salmo  sebago),  from  the  lake  in  which  it  occurs. 
It  is  a  fresh-water  fish,  having  been  doubtless  landlocked  in  some  way  after 
originally  entering  from  the  sea.  Still  a  third  species  is  the  famous  ouananiche 
(Salmo  ouananiche),  inhabiting  the  waters  of  the  Lake  St.  John  region  north  of 
Quebec. 

Composition  of  Atlantic  Salmon. — 

Fresh.  Dry. 

Water, .' 76.74  percent 

Protein, 18.52        "  79.13  percent 

Fat, 3.60       "  15.32       " 

Ash, 1. 14       "  4.93       " 

Composition  of  Sebago  Salmon. — 

Fresh.  Dry. 

Water, 78.54  percent 

Protein, 17.24       "  78.00  percent 

Fat, 2.98       "  13.74       " 

Ash, 1.24       "  5.76       « 

The  above  data  show  a  striking  difference  in  the  composition  of  the  edible 
portions  of  Pacific  and  Atlantic  salmon.  This  difference  is  shown  chiefly  in 
the  relative  proportion  of  fat.  In  the  Pacific  salmon  the  fat  approaches  in 
quantity  the  protein,  while  in  the  Atlantic  salmon  the  protein  is  much 
greater  than  the  fat.  The  Atlantic  salmon  is  used  chiefly  in  the  fresh  state 
for  two  reasons,  first,  because  the  catch  is  very  much  smaller  than  that  of  the 
Pacific  species  while  the  markets  are  very  much  more  numerous  and  very  much 
larger;  second,  because  it  is  commercially  more  profitable  to  dealers  in  the 


EUROPEAN   SARDINES.  1 39 

fresh  state.  In  Europe  and  Scotland  the  salmon  is  constantly  used  in  a  fresh 
state  during  the  whole  of  the  summer  and  a  dinner  is  scarcely  considered  com- 
plete without  it.  It  is  also  very  commonly  used  at  luncheon.  It  is  generally 
eaten  cold  and  offers  a  food  product  of  high  palatability  and  great  nutritive 
value  in  so  far  as  the  protein  is  concerned.  Eaten  with  plenty  of  potato,  as  it 
usually  is,  it  forms  a  reasonably  well-balanced  ration.  The  American  visitor 
who  is  not  used  to  eating  salmon  every  day  is  likely  to  find  its  constant  occur- 
rence upon  the  Enghsh  table  in  the  summer  to  be  a  bit  trying  to  his  taste. 

Sardines. — The  sardine  and  herring  belong  to  the  same  family — in  fact, 
small  herring  along  the  coast  of  Maine  are  put  up  as  sardines.  The  sardines 
are  very  closely  related  to  the  herrings,  but  there  are  rather  important  differ- 
ences. The  European  species,  which  is  known  as  the  sardine,  is  the  Sardinia 
pilcharda,  and  does  not  occur  on  the  coast  of  the  United  States.  The  species 
existing  on  the  Pacific  coast  is  known  as  the  California  sardine  (Sardinia 
ccBrulea).  It  is  quite  abundant  on  the  California  coast  and  spawns  in  the  open 
sea.  It  resembles  very  strongly  the  European  sardine,  but  has  no  teeth.  The 
Spanish  sardine  (Sardinia  pseudohispanica)  is  found  rather  abundantly  in 
Cuba  and  is  often  carried  northward  in  the  Gulf  Stream  as  far  as  Woods  Hole  or 
Cape  Cod.  It  is  about  8  inches  in  length  and  of  high  food  value,  resembling 
very  closely  the  European  sardine.  There  has  been  a  good  deal  of  discussion  as 
to  whether  or  not  small  herring  which  are  packed  as  sardines  in  the  United 
States  should  be  allowed,  under  the  food  laws  of  the  various  states  and  of 
the  United  States,  to  be  sold  by  that  name.  The  answer  to  this  is  that  any 
deception  in  the  label  should  be  avoided.  The  preservation  and  packing  of 
different  fish  in  the  same  way  gives  no  right  to  a  common  name.  The  true 
ethical  principles  of  trade  require  that  some  qualification  of  the  name  be  se- 
cured, in  order  to  protect  the  name  sardines,  which  is  reserved  exclusively  for 
the  species  Sardinia  pilcharda. 

Composition  of  Canned  Sardines, — 

Water, 56.37  percent 

Water-free  substance, . .  .43.63       " 

Protein, 24.87       " 

Fats, J  2.71       " 

Ash, ; 5.00       " 

Sodium  chlorid, .  0.61        " 

The  above  data  are  based  upon  the  analysis  of  the  sample  after  the  oil 
has  been  separated  by  drainage. 

European  Sardines. — The  sardine  is  eaten  fresh  along  the  Spanish  and 
French  coast,  where  they  are  taken  in  great  abundance  and  form  a  delicious 
food  in  this  condition.  The  number  which  is  given  to  a  single  individual 
is  quite  generous,  as  the  writer  has  had  served  him  on  the  Mediterranean 
coast  in  Spain  as  many  as  twenty  fresh  sardines  at  one  order.     The  number, 


or -HE 


I40  FISH   FOODS. 

however,  was  not  found  any  too  large  when  the  palatability  of  the  product 
was  taken  into  consideration.  Sardines  are  preserved  by  salt  and  smoke  and 
particularly  by  packing  in  oil. 

Method  of  Packing  in  Oil, — The  sardines  after  proper  cleaning  are  heated 
in  oil  for  the  purpose  of  sterilizing  them.  Olive  oil  is  usually  employed  for 
this  purpose,  though  some  packers  prefer  to  heat  the  fish  in  peanut  oil,  claim- 
ing that  it  gives  them  a  better  color.  There  seems  to  be,  however,  no  sufficient 
ground  for  this  claim.  The  peanut  oil  is  probably  used  simply  because  it 
is  cheaper.  When  the  fish  are  thus  sterilized  and  thoroughly  cooked  they  arc 
placed  in  boxes  in  the  well  known  manner  in  which  they  are  found  and 
covered  with  oil,  sealed,  and,  if  necessary,  again  sterilized  in  order  to  prevent 
decomposition.  OKve  oil  is  the  oil  usually  employed  for  packing  purposes, 
though  cheaper  grades  of  edible  oil  are  very  commonly  found  in  sardines. 
The  substitutes  for  olive  oils  which  are  usually  employed  are  peanut  oil, 
cottonseed  oil,  and  sesame  oil,  either  single  or  mixed.  When  the  sardines 
have  been  previously  boiled  in  a  cheaper  oil  and  then  packed  with  olive  oil 
the  olive  oil  will  be  contaminated  with  the  cheaper  oil  used  in  the  boiling. 

Adulteration  of  Sardines. — As  indicated  above,  the  chief  adulteration  of 
sardines  is  in  the  misbranding  respecting  the  nature  of  the  fish  and  the  oil 
used  in  packing.  A  young  herring  packed  in  the  manner  of  a  sardine  properly 
demands  a  special  label  instead  of  the  word  "sardine"  alone.  A  difference 
respecting  the  misbranding  in  regard  to  the  oil  employed  is  avoided  by  the 
statement  on  the  package  of  the  character  of  the  oil  used.  The  phrase  "Sar- 
dines packed  in  oil"  should  be  construed  always  to  mean  in  the  highest  grade 
oil,  that  is,  olive  oil.  This  phrase,  however,  is  usually  employed  when  inferior 
oils  are  used.  Inasmuch  as  oil  is  not  the  name  of  any  individual  product 
but  of  a  large  class  of  products,  including  that  of  both  animal  and  vegetable 
origin,  it  is  generally  held  that  the  term  "oil"  is  not  a  sufficient  indication 
of  the  character  of  the  oil  used.  In  all  cases  the  packages  should  designate 
the  special  kind  of  oil  used  in  the  preparation.  The  addition  of  chemical 
preservatives  to  sardines  in  so  far  as  the  author  knows,  is  not  practiced,  at 
.  least  not  to  any  appreciable  extent. 

The  French  Fisheries. — The  sardine  fisheries  in  France  are  mostly  off  the 
coast  of  Brittany,  and  are  subject  to  many  very  serious  fluctuations.  For 
.instance,  the  present  year,  1906,  has  been  one  of  disaster  to  the  French  fish- 
eries. What  is  the  cause  of  the  disappearance  of  the  pilchard  (the  true  sardine) 
is  not  known.  The  fishermen  think  that  large  fish  have  driven  the  small  ones 
either  into  the  Bay  of  Biscay  or  the  Mediterranean,  or  even  to  the  west  shores 
of  Africa.  The  fish  are  thought  to  originate  in  the  Mediterranean,  and  their 
name  is  derived  from  the  fact  that  they  were  originally  found  in  great  quantities 
off  the  coast  of  Sardinia.  When  the  spring  comes  and  the  fine  weather  is  estab- 
lished they  migrate  first  along  the  coast  of  Spain,  finally  reaching  the  French 


SHAD.  141 

coast  some  time  during  the  month  of  May.  By  this  time  the  young  fish  are 
nearly  grown  to  a  proper  size  for  catching.  The  fishing,  however,  does  not 
really  begin  until  July  and  is  usually  finished  by  November.  The  little  town  of 
Concarneau  is  the  seat  of  these  fisheries.  About  two  thousand  small  boats 
go  out  from  this  town  and  at  or  near  this  place  are  also  the  large  canneries 
and  packing  establishments.  The  fishing  grounds  are  about  five  miles  from 
the  coast  and  the  small  boats  sail  out  from  two  to  four  o'clock  in  the  morning. 
The  fishing  is  by  means  of  nets  and  a  very  important  part  of  the  work  is  the 
spreading  of  the  bait  upon  the  surface  of  the  water  to  attract  the  fish.  The 
principal  bait  or  roque  is  the  roe  of  the  cod,  which  sometimes  reaches  a  price  of 
$60  per  barrel.  Sometimes  a  single  boat  will  use  from  30  to  40  barrels  of  bait. 
Only  the  most  skilled  fisherman,  usually  the  master  himself,  is  allowed  to 
distribute  this  precious  material.  As  many  as  one  hundred  thousand  fish 
have  been  caught  in  the  net,  though  this  magnitude  of  catch  is,  of  course, 
exceptional.  When  the  fish  are  brought  ashore  they  are  counted  into  baskets, 
about  200  to  a  basket,  and  those  unfit  for  use  are  thrown  out.  They  are  taken 
to  the  canneries  as  quickly  as  possible  to  be  cleaned,  boiled,  dipped  in  oil,  and 
then  hermetically  sealed  in  a  tin  in  which  they  are  sent  into  commerce. 

Adulteration. — The  chief  adulteration  of  sardines  is  found  in  misbranding 
as  to  country  of  origin.  The  French  catch  has  the  highest  reputation  of  any 
in  the  world  and  for  this  reason  the  label  is  often  made  to  represent  the  fish 
as  of  French  origin  when  in  reality  they  are  caught  on  the  shores  of  Spain 
or  of  other  countries.  Formerly  the  fish  were  brought  in  great  numbers  from 
the  Spanish  coast  into  France.  They  were  naturally  much  deteriorated 
in  transit.  Nevertheless  they  were  tinned  and  marked  as  of  pure  French 
origin.  This  practice  has  now  been  forbidden  by  law  in  France.  The 
Norwegian  fish  known  as  Sprotten  (sprats)  on  the  German  and  Holland  coasts 
are  packed  as  sardines  and  sent  into  this  country  as  sardines. 

Scup. — The  scup  is  a  fish  (family  Sparidae)  which  is  taken  in  great  abun- 
dance on  our  Atlantic  coast  in  the  summer  and  autumn  and  is  brought  in  im- 
mense quantities  to  the  market.  The  proper  name  of  the  fish  is  Stenotomus 
chrysops. 

Composition. — 

Fresh.  Dry. 

Water, 74-99  percent 

Protein, 18.52       "  75.33  percent 

Fat, 5.1 1       "  19.25        " 

Ash, 1.38       "  5.64       " 

The  flesh  of  this  fish  is  a  better  balanced  ration  than  that  of  the  red  snapper, 
the  proportion  of  fat  being  much  larger. 

Shad. — One  of  the  most  important  food  fishes  on  the  Atlantic  coast  is 
the  shad.  It  is  found  along  the  whole  Atlantic  coast,  coming  into  fresh  water 
for  spawning,  where  it  is  caught  for  food  purposes.     The  shad  begin  to  appear 


142  FISH   FOODS. 

in  the  streams  of  the  south  Atlantic  coast  early  in  the  winter  and  as  the  spring 
advances  they  go  northward.  They  appear  in  the  Potomac  in  April  and  May, 
and  later  in  the  Delaware  and  Connecticut  rivers  and  other  fresh-water  streams 
further  north.  The  fish  is,  therefore,  to  be  had  fresh  upon  the  market  over  a 
long  period  of  time.  The  common  shad  is  known  scientifically  as  Alosa 
sapidissima  (Wilson).  As  a  result  of  the  work  of  the  U.  S.  Bureau  of  Fisheries 
the  shad  has  been  introduced  into  the  waters  of  the  Pacific  coast  where  none 
was  found  originally.  The  shad  fry  were  first  introduced  into  the  Sacramento 
river  and  afterward  into  the  Columbia  river.  The  environments  on  the 
Pacific  coast  were  found  congenial.  The  fish  soon  found  grounds  on  which 
they  could  spawn,  and  they  have  spread  over  almost  the  entire  length  of  the 
Pacific  coast.  It  has,  of  late,  become  a  very  common  and  abundant  food 
fish  on  the  Pacific  coast  and  has  lost  none  of  its  palatability  by  transplant- 
ing. Science  has  not  been  able  to  ascertain  anything  of  very  great  interest 
respecting  the  life  of  the  shad  in  the  sea.  When  they  leave  the  rivers  they 
practically  disappear,  and  are  not  known  again  until  the  next  spawning 
season  returns.  For  spawning  purposes  the  shad  prefer  a  water  temperature 
of  from  55  to  65  degrees.  Whenever  the  temperature  goes  above  the  latter 
figure  they  begin  to  disappear.  The  males  and  females  go  in  separate  schools. 
The  males  usually  precede  the  females.  It  is  stated  by  Jordan  and  Ever- 
mann  that  of  61,000  shad  received  at  the  Washington  market  from  March 
19  to  24,  99  percent  were  male.  As  the  season  advanced  the  males  became 
very  much  less  frequent  and  at  the  end  extremely  scarce.  The  U.  S.  Bureau 
of  Fisheries  has  taken  especial  pains  to  increase  the  number  of  shad  in  all 
waters.  During  the  spring  of  1900  there  were  artificially  planted  in  the  Atlantic 
coast  streams  over  240,000,000  young  shad.  One  fish  often  contains  as 
many  as  150,000  eggs.  The  average  number,  however,  is  about  30,000. 
Shad  roe  is  the  most  valuable  part  of  the  fish  and  brings  a  much  higher  price 
in  the  market  than  an  equal  weight  of  fish  itself.  Planked  shad  is  one  of  the 
greatest  delicacies  of  the  Washington  markets.  At  Marshall  Hall,  opposite 
Mount  Vernon,  there  are  given  a  great  many  shad  bakes  during  the  season. 
Oak  wood  is  placed  in  long  lines  and  burned, — oak  planks  are  set  up  on  each 
side  of  the  line  of  burning  wood,  inclined  at  an  angle  of  about  60  or  70  degrees. 
On  these  oak  planks  the  shad  are  cooked,  held  usually  by  driving  a  nail 
through  the  head, — the  cut  surface  being  exposed  to  the  heat  of  the  burning 
fire.  In  addition  to  being  cooked  in  this  way  the  fish  absorbs  a  small  amount 
of  the  empyreumatic  odors  of  the  burning  wood.  During  the  baking  the 
shad  are  treated  from  time  to  time  with  melted  butter.  There  is  no  other 
way  which  a  shad  can  be  cooked  which  renders  it  so  delicious  as  by  this  primi- 
tive method.  The  shad,  from  an  economic  point  of  view,  is  third  in  impor- 
tance in  the  United  States,  only  the  salmon  and  the  cod  exceeding  it  in  value. 
The  annual  catch  of  shad  on  the  Atlantic  sea  coast  numbers  from  10  to  20 


THE   SHEEPSHEAD.  1 43 

million,  weighing  from  40  to  60  million  pounds  and  worth  from  one  and  one- 
half  to  two  million  dollars. 
Composition  of  Shad. — 

Fresh.  Dry. 

Water, 70.62  percent 

Protein, 18.56       "  64.36  percent 

Fat, 9.47       "  31.93       " 

Ash,...., 1.3s       "  4.62       « 

Of  the  whole  weight  of  shad  the  average  edible  portion  amounts  to  52.35 
percent,  and  the  refuse,  counting  the  bones,  skin,  and  entrails  is  47.65  per- 
cent. 

Shad  Roe. — The  eggs  of  shad,  as  has  already  been  mentioned,  are  regarded 
as  the  most  valuable  portion  of  the  fish.  Roe  shad  also  are  more  highly 
prized  as  a  food  fish  than  the  male  shad.  As  a  result,  roe  shad  sell  for 
a  much  higher  price  on  the  market  than  the  male  shad.  The  eggs  are  quite 
small,  and  as  has  already  been  said,  occur  in  immense  numbers,  the  average 
number  to  a  fish  being  about  30,0x50. 

Composition  oj  Shad  Roe. — 

Water,. . ; '. . 71.2  percent 

Protein, 23.4        " 

Fat, 3.8        « 

Ash, 1.6 

Aside  from  the  water  of  the  roe,  it  is  noticed  that  by  far  the  most  abundant 
component  is  the  protein.  This,  of  course,  is  what  would  be  expected  of  an 
egg  product.  The  protein  is  a  little  more  than  six  times  as  great  as  the  fat. 
The  ash  contains  large  quantities  of  phosphorus,  which  exists  in  the  original 
egg,  largely  in  the  form  of  lecithin,  in  which  state  it  is  regarded  as  most 
valuable  for  nourishing  the  phosphatic  tissues  of  the  body.  Shad  roe  is  eaten 
almost  entirely  in  the  fresh  state.  It  does  not  produce  a  pickled  or  cooked 
product  of  anything  like  the  value  of  the  sturgeon  eggs.  So  far  as  the  author 
knows  no  form  of  shad  egg  preparation  similar  to  caviar  is  on  the  market. 

There  are  three  species  of  shad  in  America,  but  the  only  one  of  great  im- 
portance is  the  common  Atlantic  shad  which  has  been  described. 

The  Sheepshead. — This  abundant  and  important  food  fish  exists  in  large 
numbers  along  the  Atlantic  coast.  It  also  belongs  to  the  Sparidae  and  its  scien- 
tific name  is  Archosargus  probatocephalus.  This  species  is  found  from  Cape 
Cod  to  Texas.  It  is  especially  found  in  the  vicinity  of  oyster  beds,  where  it  is 
destructive  to  the  oysters.  It  is  quite  abundant  in  the  Indian  river,  being,  next 
to  the  mullet,  the  most  frequently  found  fish  in  those  waters.  Though  strictly 
a  salt-water  fish,  it  often  runs  up  into  fresh  waters.  The  fish  is  distinguished 
by  the  number  of  broad  silvery  colored  bands  extending  around  its  entire  body. 
The  average  weight  of  the  sheepshead  is  three  or  four  pounds,  though  oc- 
casionally a  fish  three  or  four  times  that  size  is  captured. 


144  FISH   FOODS. 

Composition  of  Sheepshead. — 

Fresh.  Dry. 

Water, 75-55  percent 

Protein, 19.54       "  83.47  percent 

Fat, 3.69       "  13.59       " 

Ash, 1.22       "  5.14        " 

The  Smelt. — The  smelt  belongs  to  a  family  which  has  a  number  of  species, 
some  of  which  are  very  abundant  in  Europe,  where  they  are  highly  prized 
even  to  a  greater  extent  than  in  this  country  for  food.  The  smelt  is  a  small 
fish,  very  long  in  proportion  to  its  breadth.  The  American  smelt  {Ostnerus 
mordax)  is  found  very  abundantly  on  the  Atlantic  coast  north  of  New  York. 
Although  a  sea  fish,  it  often  enters  rivers  and  becomes  landlocked  in  lakes. 
It  is  found  abundantly  in  Lakes  Champlain  and  Memphremagog  and  many  of 
the  New  England  and  Nova  Scotian  lakes.  The  smelt  in  early  times  was  a 
very  abundant  fish. 

Composition  of  the  Smelt. — Edible  portion: 

Fresh.  Dry. 

Water, 79- 16  percent 

Protein, 17.37        "  84.31  percent 

Fat, 1.79       "  8.65 

Ash, 1.68       "  8.16 

These  data  show  that  the  flesh  of  the  smelt  is  very  rich  in  protein,  the  fat 
falling  to  a  very  small  proportion  of  the  total  edible  substance. 

Spanish  Mackerel. — This  is  a  very  highly  prized  fish  and  is  eaten  largely 
in  the  fresh  state  along  the  Atlantic  coast.  Its  scientific  name  is  Scomhero- 
moriis  maculatus.  The  catch  is  subject  to  great  variations.  In  early  years 
the  Spanish  mackerel  was  scarcely  known  on  our  coast,  but  in  the  last  forty 
years  it  has  assumed  considerable  importance.  Although  more  abundant 
than  formerly  it  still  commands  a  very  high  price.  The  weight  of  the  full- 
grown  mackerel  is  usually  from  five  to  eight  pounds,  though  occasionally  very 
large  individuals  are  taken.  Jordan  and  Evermann  speak  of  one  which  was 
41  inches  long  and  weighed  25  pounds. 

Composition. — Edible  portion : 

Fresh.  Dry, 

Water, 68.10  percent 

Protein, 20.97        "  67.25  percent 

Fat, 9.43        "  29.56       " 

Ash, 1.50       "  4.71       " 

In  this  fish  it  is  seen  that  the  fat  is  a  little  less  than  one-third  the  quantity 
of  the  protein. 

Sturgeon. — The  sturgeon  belongs  to  the  family  of  Acipenseridae.  They 
are  large  fishes  frequenting  the  sea  and  also  the  fresh  waters  of  northern  regions. 
Most  of  the  species  are  anadromous,  entering  fresh  water  and  ascending  the 
streams  in  spring.  There  are  two  genera  belonging  to  this  family  and  20 
species  that  are  well  defined,  although  about  100  nominal  species  have  beea 


STURGEON. 


145 


described.  The  white  sturgeon  or  Oregon  sturgeon  is  found  on  the  Pacific 
coast  from  Monterey  north  to  Alaska.  It  ascends  the  large  rivers  during  the 
spring,  notably  the  Sacramento,  Columbia,  and  Fraser  rivers.  Some  of  them 
are  very  large  and  their  value  for  food  and  commercial  purposes  has  only  been 
lately  recognized.  They  are  principally  valuable,  however,  for  their  eggs 
or  roe,,  since  it  is  from  the  eggs  of  sturgeon  that  caviar  is  made.  The  roe  in 
the  fresh  state  is  worth  from  25  to  30  cents  a  pound.  The  fresh  fish  are  frozen 
and  shipped  to  Eastern  markets. 

The  common  sturgeon  {Acipenser  sturio)  frequents  the  east  and  north 
Atlantic  coast  and  ascends  the  rivers  in  the  spring,  especially  the  Delaware. 
The  quantity  of  sturgeon  taken,  however,  has  constantly  decreased  for  several 
years.  The  principal  part  of  the  caviar  made  in  the  United  States  is  procured 
from  the  common  sturgeon  and  the  Lake  sturgeon,  which  is  found  in  the  Great 
Lakes,  the  upper  Mississippi  Valley,  and  the  Lake  of  the  Woods. 

Preparation  of  Caviar. — After  the  eggs  have  been  removed  from  the  fish, 
they  are  placed  in  large  masses  upon  a  stand,  the  top  of  which  is  formed  of  a 
small-meshed  screen.  On  the  under  side  is  placed  a  zinc-lined  trough, 
about  18  inches  deep,  2  feet  wide  and  4  feet  long.  The  operator  gently  rubs 
the  mass  of  eggs  back  and  forth  over  the  screen,  whose  mesh  is  just  large  enough 
to  let  the  eggs  drop  through  as  they  are  separated  from  the  enveloping  mem- 
brane. They  thus  fall  into  the  trough  from  which  they  are  drawn  off  into 
tubs  through  a  sliding  door  in  one  end  of  the  trough.  After  all  the  roe  has 
been  separated,  the  tub  is  removed  and  a  certain  proportion  of  the  best  Lune- 
berg  salt  is  added  and  mixed  with  the  eggs  by  careful  stirring  with  the  hands. 
This  is  the  most  delicate  part  of  the  whole  process,  and  the  best  results  can 
be  obtained  by  that  proficiency  which  comes  from  long  experience.  After 
adding  the  salt,  the  eggs  at  first  become  dry,  but  in  10  or  15  minutes  the  salt 
has  drawn  from  the  eggs  their  watery  constituents  and  a  copious  brine  is 
formed,  which  is  poured  off  when  the  tub  becomes  too  full.  The  salted 
eggs  are  then  poured  into  fine-meshed  sieves  which  hold  about  10  pounds 
each,  where  they  are  allowed  to  drain  for  8  to  20  hours.  The  eggs  have  now 
become  the  caviar  of  commerce,  which  is  put  in  casks  or  cans  of  various  sizes. 

Composition  of  the  Flesh  of  Sturgeon. — 

Fresh.  Dry. 

Water, 78.71  percent 

Protein, 17-96       "  85.19  percent 

Fat, 1.90       "  8.90       " 

Ash, 1.43       "  6.72 

Composition  of  Caviar. — 

Water, 66.05  percent 

Protein, i4-37       " 

Fat, - 8.97       " 

Ash, 7.26       " 

Undetermined, 3.35       " 

Of  the  ash,  6.16  parts  of  the  7.26  present  are  common  salt. 
II 


146 


FISH   FOODS. 


Composition  of  the  Eggs  of  Fish. — Attention  has  been  called  to  the 
valuable  food  properties  of  the  eggs  of  fishes.  The  roe  of  a  number  of  fishes 
is  celebrated  both  for  flavor  and  food  value.  The  two  most  important  roes 
are  those  of  the  sturgeon,  used  in  the  manufacture  of  caviar,  and  the  roe  of 
shad,  used  principally  in  the  fresh  state. 

Composition  of  Roe. — The  composition  of  shad  roe,  fresh  sturgeon  caviar, 
and  pickled  caviar  is  given  in  the  following  table: 


Water. 

Protein. 

Fat. 

Ash. 

Shad  roe,  . 

Percent 
71-25 
56-97 
50.92 

Percent 
23-44 
27.87 
27.92 

Percent 
3-78 
2.85 

13-59 

Percent 

1-53 
2.31 

7-57 

Fresh  caviar, 

Pickled  caviar, 

The  above  data  show  a  marked  difference  between  the  composition  of 
shad  roe  and  sturgeon  roe,  the  latter  being  very  much  richer  in  fat  and  also 
containing  a  greater  quantity  of  ash.  The  large  quantity  of  ash  in  the  pickled 
caviar  is  doubtless  due  to  the  con^mon  salt  used  in  the  curing.  There  is 
not  a  very  great  difference  between  the  composition  of  the  roe  and  that  of 
the  flesh  of  fish.  The  roe  is  essentially  a  nitrogenous  food,  also  with  a 
considerable  quantity  of  fat  and  with  a  certain  amount  of  mineral  matter. 
It  contains  less  water  than  the  flesh  of  fish,  and,  therefore,  pound  for  pound  in 
the  fresh  state  has  a  larger  quantity  of  nutrients.  Otherwise,  for  food  pur- 
poses, there  is  but  little  difference.  It  is  doubtless  true,  however,  that  the 
mineral  matters  of  the  roe  are  somewhat  different  from  those  of  the  flesh 
of  fish  in  containing  a  larger  quantity  of  organic  phosphorus  in  the  form  of 
lecithin. 

Striped  Bass. — The  striped  bass  or  rock  {Roccus  lineatus)  is  a  fish  of  the 
family  Serranidae  and  quite  common  in  the  Potomac.  It  occurs  commonly 
around  the  Atlantic  coast.  Its  scientific  name  is  Roccus  lineatus.  It  is  taken 
in  all  waters  along  the  coast  from  the  Carolinas  to  New  England,  and  espe- 
cially near  the  mouth  of  the  Potomac  and  in  Chesapeake  Bay.  It  is  a  fairly 
common  as  well  as  one  of  the  best  food  fishes  at  Washington  and  in  many  of 
the  fish  markets  on  the  Atlantic  coast. 

Fresh.  Dry. 

Water, 77-7o  percent 

Protein, 18.31       "  83.28  percent 

Fat, 2.83       "  12.50       " 

Ash, 1. 16       "  5.22       " 

Sole. — The  term  "sole"  is  applied  here  to  certain  species  of  flounders  and 
the  two  terms  are  sometimes  used  synonymously.  The  true  soles,  however, 
of  which  there  are  several  species,  belong  to  a  distinct  though  closely  related 
family.    The  species  of  flounder  to  which  the  name  "sole"  is  generally  given 


TROUT.  147 

is  Eopsetta  jordani.  It  occurs  along  the  Pacific  coast  from  Monterey  to  Puget 
Sound.  Large  numbers  are  taken  in  Monterey  Bay.  The  average  weight 
of  this  "sole"  is  about  three  pounds.  It  is  highly  esteemed  as  a  food  fish. 
They  are  dried  in  great  numbers  by  the  Chinese,  who  suspend  them  by  strings 
on  a  frame  placed  on  the  roofs  of  the  houses,  where,  after  they  become  dry,  they 
strike  against  each  other  when  moved  by  the  wind,  producing  a  sound  which 
is  something  like  that  emanating  from  the  leaves  of  a  forest. 

Tautog. — The  Taiitoga  onitis  is  one  of  the  wrasse-fishes  (family  Labridae) 
and  is  abundant  along  the  Atlantic  coast  from  New  Brunswick  to  the  Carolinas. 
East  of  New  York  it  is  commonly  called  the  "  tautog."  On  the  New  York 
coast  it  is  known  as  " blackfish,"  and  further  south  as  the  "oyster  fish." 

Tilefish. — The  tilefish  is  interesting  not  because  of  its  high  food  value  but 
because  of  the  fact  that  it  was  discovered  by  accident  in  1879  when  a  fisherman 
off  the  coast  of  Nantucket  captured  5000  pounds  of  a  fish  which  was  new  to 
him.  The  species  was  also  new  to  science.  This  fish  disappeared  as  suddenly 
as  it  came  and  no  more  were  caught  until  1892.  Since  then  they  have  been 
taken  rather  frequently.  The  tilefish  reaches  a  length  sometimes  of  three  feet 
and  a  weight  of  30  pounds.  It  is  pronounced  by  experts  to  be  the  equal  of  the 
pompano. 

Trout. — Trout,  of  which  there  are  many  species,  are  greatly  prized  both 
on  account  of  their  value  as  game  fishes,  affording  sport  for  anglers,  and  be- 
cause of  their  high  palatable  qualities.  They  belong  to  the  same  family  as  the 
Atlantic  salmon  and  often  it  is  difficult  to  distinguish  by  any  of  its  common 
characteristics  a  trout  from  a  salmon.  This  is  especially  true  of  trout  of 
western  America.  The  species  of  trout  which  are  most  highly  prized  on  the 
Pacific  coast  are  the  cut-throat  trout  (Salmo  clarkii),  the  rainbow  trout  {Salmo 
iridens),  and  the  steel-head  (5a/w(7  gairdneri).  The  familiar  silver  trout  of 
Lake  Tahoe  is  another  closely  related  species.  They  are  distinguished  by  a 
remarkable  system  of  spots  of  a  circular  form,  black  in  color,  and  of  varying 
size.  The  Lake  Tahoe  trout  which  is  commonly  secured  is  not  the  same  as  the 
silver  trout  of  Lake  Tahoe  but  is  of  a  little  different  character,  and  is  also 
known  as  the  Truckee  Trout,  "  Pogy, "  and  "  Snipe."  It  reaches  a  weight  of 
from  three  to  six  pounds  and  is  sometimes  served  on  the  dining  cars  of  the 
Central  Pacific  Railway,  in  running  through  Idaho  and  into  California.  Various 
other  species  of  the  trout  are  found  in  Utah,  in  the  Rio  Grande  and  the  Colo- 
rado, and  in  the  lakes  of  Colorado.  Perhaps  the  most  important  of  these  is  the 
steel-head  trout  occurring  along  the  Pacific  coast.  The  rainbow  trout  is  also  a 
fish  that  is  highly  prized  along  the  Pacific  coast.  The  brook  trout  of  western 
Oregon  is  also  an  important  fish. 

The  Trout  of  the  Great  Lakes. — The  fish  known  as  trout  m  the  Great  Lakes 
belong  to  a  different  genus  from  those  already  mentioned,  namely,  genus 
Cristivomer.     It  has,  however,  the  typical  spots,  which  are  of  a  grayish  color 


148  FISH   FOODS. 

instead  of  red  or  black  like  those  of  the  other  trout  which  have  been 
mentioned. 

The  principal  species  which  abounds  in  the  Great  Lakes  is  the  Mackinaw 
trout  (Cristivomer  namaycush).  It  is  also  found  in  the  large  lakes  from  Maine 
westward  to  the  Pacific  ocean  and  even  to  northern  Alaska.  This  is  the  largest 
species  of  trout.  The  average  weight  of  the  fish  probably  does  not  exceed  1 5 
or  20  pounds.  Individual  examples  have  been  found  weighing  over  100 
pounds.  There  is  only  one  common  fish  which  exceeds  it  in  weight,  namely, 
the  sturgeon.  Next  to  the  white  fish  it  is  the  most  important  commercial  fish 
of  the  Great  Lakes.  The  supply  of  lake  trout  has  been  diminishing  and  the 
price  increasing  for  several  years.  The  spawning  season  of  lake  trout  begins 
in  September  and  continues  until  December. 

Composition  of  Lake  Trout. — 

Fresh.  Dry. 

Water, 69.14  percent 

Protein,    18.22      "  60.10  percent 

Fat,    11.38      "  36.80       " 

Ash 1.26      "  4.90       " 

Composition  of  Brook  Trout. — 

Fresh.  Dry. 

Water, 77-72  percent 

Protein, 18.97        "  86.62  percent  * 

Fat, 2.10        "  9.16      " 

Ash, 1.21        "  5.39      " 

The  above  data  show  that  lake  trout  has  a  flesh  whicn  approximates  in 
composition  that  of  Pacific  salmon,  being  quite  rich  in  fat,  while  the  brook 
trout  has  a  composition  more  like  the  Atlantic  salmon,  being  very  rich  in  pro- 
tein and  poor  in  fat.  Trout  of  all  kinds  are  used  practically  in  only  a  fresh  state. 
The  catch  is  not  large  enough  to  warrant  the  establishment  of  canning  fac- 
tories and  all  that  are  caught  in  the  northern  and  central  northern  lakes  and 
streams  find  a  ready  market  in  a  fresh  state  at  much  more  remunerative  prices 
than  could  be  obtained  by  canning.  It  is  always  a  fortunate  circumstance 
when  the  condition  of  the  catch  and  of  the  market  are  such  as  to  enable  the 
fish  to  be  eaten  as  fresh  as  possible  from  the  water.  Fish  is  a  kind  of  food 
which  is  never  improved  by  keeping  in  any  way  and  is  at  its  best  the  minute 
the  fish  is  taken  from  the  stream.  The  brook  trout  do  not  belong  to  the  same 
genus  as  the  lake  trout  but  to  the  genus  Salvelinus.  They  have  a  general 
resemblance,  however,  to  that  genus.  As  a  fish  to  be  caught  by  the  hook  and 
as  a  victim  of  sport  the  brook  trout  perhaps  occupies  the  highest  place  among 
the  fish  of  the  country ;  especially  is  it  sought  for  in  the  mountain  streams,  and 
it  occurs  in  most  parts  of  the  northeastern  United  States.  It  extends  from 
Maine  to  northern  Georgia  and  Alabama,  especially  in  the  Appalachian  Moun- 
tains and  west  through  the  Great  Lakes  to  the  Mississippi,  while  in  Canada  it 
is  found  from  Labrador  to  the  Saskatchewan. 


WEAKFISH.  4^ 

The  brook  trout  has  been  especially  cultivated  by  the  U.  S.  Bureau  ol  fish- 
eries and  introduced  into  waters  in  the  United  States  where  it  is  not  found 
naturally.  The  season  for  spawning  for  the  brook  trout  is  in  the  autumn, 
when  the  water  is  growing  colder,  and  continues  from  August  to  December, 
according  to  the  latitude.  In  spawning  time  the  fish  come  up  into  the 
smallest  parts  of  the  stream  where  shallow  water  can  be  found.  The  eggs 
remain  until  the  next  spring,  when  they  are  hatched.  The  brook  trout 
varies  greatly  in  size,  according  to  the  magnitude  of  the  stream.  In  the 
small  streams  it  weighs  often  less  than  J  pound,  while  in  large  streams  it 
weighs  2  or  3  pounds.  The  large  trout  has  almost  disappeared  from  the 
small  streams  as  a  result  of  the  activity  of  fishermen. 

There  are  many  other  species  of  trout  which  are  known  in  different  parts 
of  the  country.  For  instance,  the  Dublin  Pond  trout  of  Dublin  Pond,  N.  H., 
the  Dolly  Varden  trout  in  the  northern  Pacific  states  and  Alaska,  the  Sunapee 
trout  in  the  northeastern  states,  and  the  Blueback  trout  in  Maine.  These 
fishes  all  have  practically  the  same  quality,  varying  only  in  minute  details,  and 
have  the  same  value  as  a  food. 

Turbot. — A  species  of  halibut  known  as  Greenland  halibut  (ReinJtardtius 
hippoglossoides)  is  also  known  as  turbot  in  this  country.  It  occurs  chiefly 
off  the  coast  of  Greenland,  and  is  taken  in  the  very  coldest  part  of  the  year. 
The  European  turbot  is  Psetta  maxima. 

Weakfish. — The  weakfish  belongs  to  the  croaker  family  (Sciaenidae)  and 
has  a  high  value  as  a  food  fish,  the  flesh  being  rich  in  flavor  and  very  tender  and 
easily  disintegrated,  from  which  quality  it  is  believed  the  name  "weakfish"  is 
derived.  The  common  weakfish  is  the  species  Cynoscion  regalis.  It  is  also 
known  in  some  localities  as  the  squeteague.  The  fish  is  rather  long  in  pro- 
portion to  its  breadth  and  sometimes  grows  to  a  large  size.  Examples  weigh- 
ing over  25  pounds  have  been  captured.  Very  rarely,  however,  does  a  weakfish 
weigh  more  than  10  pounds,  and  the  average  is  perhaps  not  more  than  one-half 
that.  The  weakfish  is,  particularly  when  young,  a  victim  of  the  bluefish,  and 
great  numbers  succumb  to  the  ravages  of  its  more  powerful  enemy.  The 
weakfish  is  found  over  the  entire  length  of  the  Atlantic  and  Gulf  coasts  as  far 
north  as  the  Bay  of  Fundy.  The  weakfish  sometimes  ascends  the  tidal  waters 
and  congregates  around  the  river  mouths,  where  the  food  is  more  abundant. 
While  found  on  the  markets  in  the  North,  it  is  more  highly  prized  in  the 
southern  markets. 

Composition. — 

Fresh.  Dry. 

Water, 78.97  percent 

Protein, 1 7.45       "  84.63  percent 

Fat, 2.39       "  11.37    '  " 

Ash, 1. 19       "  5.64       " 


150  FISH   FOODS. 

The  flesh  of  the  weakfish,  as  shown  by  the  above  data,  is  one  in  which  the 
protein  exists  in  very  much  greater  proportion  than  the  fat.  It  is  not  so  rich 
in  protein,  however,  as  some  of  the  other  species  which  have  been  men- 
tioned. 

Whitefish. — This  fish  occurs  in  large  numbers  in  all  our  Great  Lakes,  and 
is  an  abundant  article  of  food.  Its  scientific  name  is  Coregonus  clupeijormis. 
It  inhabits  the  whole  of  the  Great  Lakes  regions  from  Lake  Champlain  to 
Lake  Superior.  It  does  not  occur  in  very  great  abundance,  if  at  all,  west  of 
Lake  Superior,  although  it  has  been  reported  to  have  been  found  in  the  fresh 
water  lakes  both  to  the  north  and  west  of  that  region. 

The  common  whitefish  prefers  the  deep  water  of  the  lakes,  coming  only  into 
shallow  water  near  the  shore  at  spawning  time,  which,  in  the  Great  Lakes, 
is  from  October  to  December.  During  the  months  of  January,  February, 
and  March  the  fishing  for  whitefish  is  practically  discontinued,  since  the 
fish  at  that  time  have  returned  to  deep  water  and  are  not  accessible. 

The  size  of  the  whitefish  in  the  Great  Lakes  is  not  so  great  as  the  extent 
of  water  would  indicate.  Probably  three  pounds  would  be  an  average  size, 
although  the  individual  fish  range  from  ij  to  6  pounds.  The  weight  rarely, 
however,  exceeds  4  or  5  pounds.  Occasionally  whitefish  have  been  found 
weighing  as  high  as  20  pounds,  but  this  is  very  rare.  The  whitefish  reaches 
its  full  average  size  about  the  end  of  the  fourth  year.  The  number  of  eggs 
which  are  found  in  the  female  fish  is  not  so  large  as  in  the  shad,  but  usually  the 
number  does  not  fall  below  10,000  and  sometimes  reaches  as  high  as  75,000. 
The  eggs  are  very  small  comparatively,  and  about  36,000  of  them  make  a 
quart.  The  U.  S.  Bureau  of  Fisheries  has  done  a  great  deal  to  increase  the 
supply  of  whitefish  by  planting  millions  of  whitefish  fry  in  suitable  water. 

Different  Species  of  Whitefish. — There  are  many  species  of  whitefish  be- 
sides the  common  whitefish  which  appear  in  the  Great  Lakes.  Coulter's 
whitefish  is  found  in  the  waters  of  British  Columbia,  but  it  is  not  distributed 
very  widely  throughout  the  country.  The  Rocky  Mountain  whitefish  is  very 
widely  distributed,  occurring  in  all  suitable  waters  from  the  west  slope  of  the 
Rockies  to  the  Pacific.  There  is  also  a  subspecies  of  this  fish  occurring  in 
Lhe  headwaters  of  the  Missouri  river.  Menominee  whitefish  occur  in  the 
lakes  of  New  England,  New  York,  and  the  Great  Lakes, — it  is  also  known  as 
round  whitefish,  frostfish,  shadwaiter,  pilotfish,  chivey,  and  blackback. 

Composition  oj  Whitefish. — 

Fresh.  Dry. 

Water, 69.83  percent 

Protein, 22.06       "  76.00  percent 

Fat, 6.49       "  21.51 

Ash, 1.62       "  5.36 


MARKETING   OF  FISH.  I5I 

Average  Composition  of  Fish* — 

Water, 76.06  percent 

Solids, 23.94  " 

Nitrogen, 3.51  " 

Phosphoric  acid, 52  " 

Sulfur, 24 

Fat, 1.45  " 

Ash, 1.21 

Protein, 21.92  " 

Fluorids  in  Fish. — Nearly  all  kinds  of  fish  yield  a  distinct  test  for  fluorin 
which  is  not  to  be  mistaken  for  an  adulteration.  The  fluorin  is  found  nor- 
mally in  the  bones  of  the  fish  and  sometimes  in  traces  in  the  flesh.  The  addi- 
tion of  fluorid  as  a  preservative  is  highly  reprehensible,  and  its  presence  is 
indicated  by  the  increase  in  quantity. 

Marketing  of  Fish. — In  the  food  act  it  is  provided  that  no  animals  shall  be 
used  for  food  which  have  died  otherwise  than  by  slaughter.  Whether  or 
not  this  would  apply  to  fish  is  a  matter  of  some  doubt.  Unfortunately  fish, 
as  a  rule,  are  allowed  to  die  by  being  deprived  of  oxygen,  which  they  get  from 
the  water  as  it  passes  over  their  gills.  The  common  practice  is  to  take  the 
fish  for  commercial  purposes  in  seines  or  other  gear  and  allow  them  to  die,  as  it 
were,  by  suffocation.  The  greater  number  of  fish  exposed  upon  our  markets 
have  died  in  this  way  and  are  then  packed  in  ice  and  kept  until  sold.  The  ideal 
way  to  treat  fish  would  be  to  transfer  them  from  the  seine  to  a  pool  of  water, 
fresh  or  salt,  in  which  they  are  kept  alive  until  they  are  wanted  for  cooking. 
This  method  is  practiced  in  some  very  high-grade  restaurants  and  hotels 
where  the  diner  may  pick  for  himself  from  the  pool  the  fish  he  desires  to  eat. 
It  is  evident  that  for  commercial  purposes  where  a  cheap  food  is  desirable  a 
method  of  this  kind  could  not  be  practiced.  It  is  a  question  which  the  hygien- 
ist  as  well  as  the  practical  man  should  consider,  that  is,  whether  or  not  it  is 
possible  to  slaughter  the  fish  and,  as  soon  as  they  are  taken,  dress  them,  pack 
their  carcasses  in  ice,  and  in  this  way  deliver  them  to  the  markets.  Where 
fish  are  used  for  canning  or  salting  purposes  they  are  often  slaughtered  as  soon 
as  caught.  This  is  particularly  true  of  herring  captured  in  the  Potomac  and 
Susquehanna  rivers.  It  is  an  interesting  problem  to  study  whether  or  not  the 
flavor  and  character  of  the  flesh  are  impaired  by  the  suffocation  process 
subsequent  to  their  capture.  In  all  cases  except  in  cold  weather,  the  fish  after 
capture,  no  matter  whether  they  are  allowed  to  die  by  suffocation  or  slaugh- 
tered, should  be  packed  in  ice  and  kept  until  the  market  is  reached,  which 
should  be  at  as  early  a  date  as  possible.  Fish  are  never  so  good  as  when 
fresh  and  the  fresher  the  better. 

Cold  Storage. — Fish  is  a  product  which  is  often  found  in  cold  storage  in 
large  numbers  and  kept  there  for  a  long  time.     The  usual  problem  attending 

*  Average  analysis  of  cod,  halibut,  bass,  etc.,  used  at  the  hygienic  table  of  the  Bureau 
of  Chemistry. 


152  FISH   FOODS. 

the  cold  storage  of  food  is  even  more  important  when  applied  to  fish.  In 
cold  storage  fish  are  frozen  solid  and  kept  in  this  state  until  ready  for  con- 
sumption. Just  how  long  the  palatability  and  wholesomeness  of  fish  can  be 
preserved  when  frozen  solid  has  not  been  determined.  It  follows  logically 
that  the  colder  the  temperature  the  less  the  degree  of  deterioration,  but  it 
does  not  follow  logically  that  this  temperature  can  be  maintained  indefinitely 
without  injuring  the  character  of  the  product.  One  thing  appears  to  be 
certain,  namely,  that  the  consumer  is  entitled  to  know  whether  in  any  given 
case  the  fish  he  purchases  is  a  fresh  or  a  cold  storage  article.  At  the  present 
time,  in  so  far  as  I  know,  there  are  no  national,  state,  or  municipal  laws  whereby 
this  fact  can  be  ascertained.  Without  raising  the  question  of  comparative 
value  or  palatability  there  is  no  doubt  but  what  the  consumer  is  entitled  to 
know  the  character  of  the  fish  he  purchases. 

Canning  Fish. — Allusion  has  already  been  made  to  the  practice  of  can- 
ning fish,  especially  salmon.  Great  precautions  must  be  used  in  cases  of 
this  kind,  since  fish  is  a  food  which  tends  to  develop  poisonous  principles 
incident  to  decomposition.  Canned  fish,  therefore,  must  be  thoroughly  ster- 
ilized so  that  no  fermentative  action  tending  to  produce  ptomain  poison  can 
possibly  take  place.  It  should  be  the  duty  of  inspectors  of  food  to  frequently 
examine  packages  of  canned  fish  to  determine,  first,  by  the  external  appearance 
of  the  can,  and,  second,  by  opening  a  certain  number  of  them,  whether  any 
decomposition  has  taken  place.  Too  great  care  cannot  be  exercised  in  this 
matter,  since  dangerous  and  often  fatal  results  follow  the  consumption  of 
spoiled  fish. 

Drying  and  Salting  Fish. — The  preservation  of  fish  by  pickling,  salting, 
drying,  and  smoking  is  a  great  industry  and  produces  some  of  the  most  pala- 
table products.  Mackerel,  herring,  and  cod  are  types  of  fish  which  upon 
proper  curing  make  a  most  delectable  dish.  Nothing  but  encouragement 
should  be  given  to  industries  of  this  kind,  but  in  order  that  they  may  be  of  the 
most  value  they  should  be  conducted  properly  with  due  regard  to  hygienic 
principles  and  for  the  sole  purpose  of  making  a  wholesome  and  palatable 
product. 

Adulteration  of  Fish  Products. — Attention  has  already  been  called  to 
the  adulteration  of  salmon  by  canning  an  inferior  grade  or  even  a  different 
kind  of  fish  under  the  name  of  a  better  species.  The  same  remark  may  be 
made  respecting  all  fish,  hake,  haddock,  and  cusk  being  often  offered  as  cod. 
In  the  case  of  sardines  a  similar  practice  is  in  vogue,  and  the  small  herring 
which  are  captured  off  the  coast  of  Maine  are  often  sold  under  the  name  of 
sardines.  The  substitution  of  one  variety  of  fish  for  another,  however,  is 
injurious  only  in  the  way  of  fraud,  the  substitute  fish  presumably  being  of  equal 
wholesomeness  to  the  other  under  whose  name  it  is  sold.  On  the  con- 
trary, the  form  of  sophistication  which  permits  the  introduction  of  deleterious 


CLAMS.  153 

substances  into  fish  food  is  highly  objectionable  from  the  dietetic  point  of 
view.  Following  the  general  principles  of  nutrition,  all  chemical,  non-condi- 
mental  preservatives  are  to  be  rigidly  excluded  from  fish  products.  This 
rule  excludes  boric  acid,  borax,  benzoic  acid  and  benzoates,  sulfites,  formal- 
dehyde, and  all  other  forms  of  chemical  preservatives. 

When  fish  are  packed  in  oil  the  character  of  the  oil  used  should  be  made 
known  to  the  consumer.  Especially  is  this  true  if  from  the  locality  where 
the  fish  is  preserved  and  the  general  method  of  packing  the  consumer  is  led 
to  believe  that  a  high-grade  oil  such  as  olive  oil  has  been  used. 

Value  of  Fish  as  Food. — From  the  statements  which  have  been  made  in 
connection  with  fish  in  particular  and  the  analyses  which  have  been  given 
it  is  seen  that  fish  is  a  food  of  a  peculiarly  nitrogenous  character.  The 
edible  portions,  exclusive  of  water,  are  at  least  three-fourths,  and  probably 
more,  composed  of  protein.  The  other  edible  nutritive  product  is  fat  or 
fish  oil.  The  mineral  nutrients  compose  the  remaining  edible  portion  of 
fish  after  the  protein  and  fat  are  considered.  The  mineral  portions  of  fish 
cannot  be  regarded  as  not  nutritious  since  they  contain  phosphoric  acid 
and  lime,  which  are  essential  ingredients  of  food.  The  flesh  of  fish,  however, 
as  it  has  been  seen,  is  not  a  complete  ration,  but  is  lacking  in  carbohydrates,  and 
for  this  reason  fish  should  be  eaten  with  potatoes,  rice,  or  other  highly  starchy 
foods.  The  value  of  fish  as  a  food  is  unquestionable  and  its  more  general 
consumption  would  doubtless  prove  beneficial. 

Those  who  live  in  the  interior  of  large  and  extensive  regions  where  fresh 
water  fish  are  not  very  abundant  do  not  appreciate  the  value  of  fish  as  food 
as  do  those  who  live  upon  the  coasts  washed  by  salt  water  and  near  the  interior 
fresh  waters  where  an  abundant  supply  of  fish  is  secured. 


SHELLFISH. 

Clams. — Clams  are  shellfish  which,  though  not  so  extensively  used  as  the 
oyster,  are  valued  food  products.  The  clams  of  commerce  are  of  two  kinds. 
The  species  known  as  long  or  soft  clam  is  abundant  on  the  New  England  coast, 
and  is  of  considerable  commercial  importance  both  fresh  and  as  a  canned 
product.  This  is  the  clam  used  at  clam  bakes,  for  which  the  New  England 
coast  is  famous.     Its  technical  name  is  Mya  arenaria. 

The  other  species,  the  round  or  hard  clam,  northward  known  as  quahog, 
is  the  most  common  clam  of  the  markets  south  of  New  York.  Its  scientific 
name  is  Venus  mercenaria. 

A  very  small  round  clam  is  known  as  the  little  neck.  This  has  a  flavor  which 
is  extremely  delicate  and  it  takes  the  place,  in  the  warm  months,  of  the  blue 
point  oyster  on  the  menus  of  the  hotels  and  restaurants.  The  clam  may  be 
considered  as  a  supplemental  shellfish  to  the  oyster,  being  most  delicious  and 


154  FISH   FOODS. 

most  abundant  during  the  closed  oyster  season.     The  average  weight  of  the 
round  clam  is  about  60  grams,  of  which  about  one-fourth  is  flesh,  one-fourth 
liquid,  and  one-half  shell  and  refuse.     There  are  many  specimens  very  much 
larger  than  this  but  the  weight  is  given  for  those  usually  eaten. 
Composition  of  Clams. — Edible  portion: 

Water, 78.57  percent 

Protein, - 14.86       " 

Fat, 1.78       " 

Ash, 2.49       " 

Undetermined, 2.30       " 

The  liquid  which  escapes  upon  the  opening  of  the  shell  is  composed  chiefly 
of  water  and  salt  and  its  composition  is  as  follows: 

Water, 96.02  percent 

Protein, .65       " 

Fat, None 

Common  salt, 2.81        " 

Undetermined, .52       " 

The  flesh  of  clams,  it  is  seen,-  is  not  very  different  from  that  of  fish  in  general. 
It  is  composed  chiefly  of  water  and  of  the  nutrients  the  protein  is  the  pre- 
dominating constituent.  The  ash  content  is  somewhat  higher  than  is  the 
case  with  fish. 

If  the  flesh  and  fluid  substance  of  the  clam  be  considered  together  the 
composition  of  the  whole  mass  is  represented  by  the  following  data: 

Water, 86. 1 1  percent 

Protein, 8.71        " 

Fat, i.oi       " 

Ash, : 2.63       " 

Undetermined, i  .54       " 

Composition  of  Water- free  Substance  of  the  Flesh. — 

Protein, 69.37  percent 

Fat, 8.32       " 

Ash, 11.64       " 

Undetermined, 10.67       " 

Composition  of  the  Dry  Substance  of  the  Liquid  Portion. — 

Protein, 16.37  percent 

Fat, 10       " 

Ash, 70.41       " 

Undetermined, 13-12       " 

Composition  of  the  Dry  Substance  of  the  Flesh  and  Liquid  Together. — 

Protein, 62.81  percent 

Fat, 730        " 

Ash, 18.92        " 

Undetermined, io-97        " 


CRABS.  155 

The  Lobster  (Homarus  americanus) . — The  lobster  is  a  crustacean  which 
occurs  along  the  northern  Atlantic  coast.  Formerly  it  was  so  very- 
abundant  that  it  was  almost  a  drug  on  the  market.  In  the  last  quarter 
of  a  century  the  increase  in  the  consumption  of  the  lobster  has  been 
more  rapid  than  the  increased  growth,  so  that  the  price  has  become  higher 
and  higher;  and  this,  to  a  certain  extent,  is  limiting  the  consumption.  The 
coast  of  Maine  is  especially  the  fishing  grounds  for  the  American  lobster, 
though  it  is  found  much  further  south  and  also  in  great  abundance  fiu-ther 
north.  The  lobster  varies  greatly  in  size.  The  law,  at  the  present  time, 
prevents  very  young  lobsters  from  being  sent  into  commerce.  They  are 
usually  from  10.5  to  15  inches  in  length,  though  occasionally  examples  of  enor- 
mous size  are  taken.  The  edible  portion  of  the  lobster  is  the  liquid  and  the 
flesh  of  the  body,  claws,  and  tail.  Only  about  one-half  the  weight  of  the  lobster, 
including  the  liquid,  therefore,  is  edible.  The  rest  is  refuse.  In  a  lobster 
weighing  a  thousand  grams  (2.2  pounds),  five  hundred  grams  (i.i  pound) 
will  be  the  average  edible  portion,  and  the  other  half  the  refuse  and  loss. 
The  average  lobster  of  the  present  day,  perhaps,  weighs  scarcely  two  pounds, 
though  in  former  times  the  weight  was  very  much  greater  because  the  younger 
and  smaller  lobsters  were  not  sent  to  the  market.  The  color  of  the  lobster 
as  it  comes  from  the  water  is  dark  green,  almost  black  at  times.  Heat  changes 
the  color  of  the  shell,  so  that  after  boiling  or  baking  the  lobster  becomes 
red.  The  flesh  of  the  lobster  is  decidedly  sweet,  owing  to  the  large  quantity 
of  glycogen  which  it  contains.  There  is  only  one  kind  of  meat  that  is  eaten 
which  approaches  the  lobster  in  its  content  of  glycogen,  and  that  is  horse 
meat. 

Composition  oj  the  Lobster. — Edible  portion: 

Fresh.  Dry. 

Water, 84.30  percent 

Protein, 11-63       "  74.06  percent 

Fat, 1.82       "  11.62      " 

Ash,... 1.63       "  10.38      " 

Glycogen, 62       "  3.94      " 

Crabs. — The  crab  is  a  shellfish  very  highly  prized  along  the  whole  of  the 
Atlantic  coast.  Numerous  species  of  crabs  are  used  for  food.  These  are  used 
in  two  forms — as  hard-shelled  or  soft-shelled  crabs.  The  species  most  valued 
is  Callinectes  hastatus.  It  is  very  abundant  on  the  middle  and  south  Atlantic 
coast.  Crabs  are  quite  abundant  on  the  Pacific  coast  also.  About  44  per- 
cent of  the  total  weight  of  the  crab  is  edible  and  56  percent  shell  and  refuse. 
In  the  edible  portion  about  77  percent  is  water  and  23  percent  solid  matter. 

Composition  oj  the  Water-free  Substance  of  the  Crab. — 

Protein, 72.56  percent 

Fat, 8.55 

Ash, 13.64        « 


156  FISH   FOODS. 

The  flesh  of  the  crab  is,  therefore,  essentially  a  nitrogenous  food,  containing 
only  a  small  quantity  of  fat.  A  considerable  portion  of  the  ash  is  common 
salt. 

Crawfish. — The  crawfish  may  be  regarded  as  a  fresh-water  lobster.  It 
is  found  practically  over  the  whole  of  the  United  States  in  the  fresh  waters 
but  is  not  used  to  any  extent  for  food  purposes,  except  on  the  Pacific  coast.  It 
contains  even  a  less  proportion  of  edible  matter  than  the  lobster.  The  refuse, 
shell,  etc.,  form  about  five-sixths  of  its  weight.  In  the  edible  portion  the  water 
constitutes  81.22  percent,  while  the  solid  matters  are  only  18.78  percent. 

Composition  oj  the  Water-jree  Substance  of  the  Crayfish. — 

Protein, 85.19  percent 

Fat, 2.45       " 

Ash, 6.98       " 

Canned  Lobster,  Clams,  and  Crabs. — As  in  the  case  of  oysters,  there  is 
a  large  industry  in  the  United  States  engaged  in  the  canning  of  the  flesh  of 
lobsters,  clams,  and  crabs.  The  same  precautions  should  be  observed  in 
the  eating  of  these  canned  products  as  those  mentioned  in  the  case  of  salmon. 
Numerous  instances  of  illness  and  sometimes  of  death  have  been  recorded  as 
the  result  of  eating  these  canned  products  which  have  been  imperfectly  ster- 
ilized. When  the  flesh  is  canned  immediately  after  the  capture  of  the  animal, 
before  any  incipient  decomposition  has  taken  place  and  when  the  sterilization 
is  perfect,  the  canned  product  can  be  eaten  without  fear.  Where  the  health 
of  the  people  is  so  seriously  involved,  the  factories  where  these  products  are 
prepared  should  be  carefully  inspected  either  by  the  municipal,  state,  or 
federal  authorities.  All  material  used  in  canning  which  is  not  perfectly 
fresh  from  the  water  is  to  be  rejected  and  the  processes  employed  in  the 
preparation  and  sterilization  must  be  those  which  will  effectively  secure  a 
complete  immunity  from  subsequent  fermentation  and  the  development  of 
ptomain  products. 

Composition  oj  Canned  Lobster  {Dry  Substance). — 

Protein, 81.46  percent 

Fat, 4-64 

Ash, 11.23       " 

As  seen  from  the  above  the  composition  of  the  dry  substance  in  canned  lobster, 
except  content  of  water,  is  not  perceptibly  different  from  that  of  the  fresh 
sample. 

Composition  oj  the  Dry  Substance  oj  Canned  Crabs. — 

Protein, 79-io  percent 

Fat, 7.55        " 

Ash, 9.68 

Shrimp  (Crangon  vulgaris). — The  shrimp  is  a  highly  valued  article  of 


AQUATIC   REPTILES.  1 57 

food,  especially  when  it  can  be  had  fresh  or  properly  canned.  It  has  been  a 
practice  to  ship  shrimps  in  bulk  preserved  with  sulfites  or  boric  acid.  This 
is  a  most  reprehensible  form  of  adulteration. 

Canned  Shrimps. — In  the  total  dry  edible  portion,  including  solids  in 
the  liquid  contents  of  the  can,  are  found: 

Protein, 86.89  percent 

Fat, 3.44       " 

Crude  ash, 8.84       " 

In  edible  portion  (flesh  plus  liquids): 

Water, 70.80  percent 

Water-free  substance, 29.20  " 

Protein, 25.38  " 

Fat, i.oo  " 

Crude  ash, 2.58  "     • 

Extractives, 0.24  " 

Nitrogen, 4.06  " 

Total  edible  portion, 100.00  " 

The  above  data  show  that  the  shrimp  in  the  canned  state  has  less  water  in 
it  than  in  the  fresh  state,  and  contains  one-fourth  of  its  weight  of  protein. 

Aquatic  Reptiles. — All  forms  of  turtle  may  be  used  for  edible  purposes, 
both  of  the  fresh-water  and  salt-water  species.  Both  the  turtle  and  terrapin 
are  amphibious  animals;  that  is,  they  can  live  either  in  the  water  or  on  the 
land.  Among  the  turtles  the  marine  variety  known  as  the  green  turtle  is  most 
highly  prized  for  food  purposes.  Its  Latin  name  is  Chelonia  mydas.  It  grows 
sometimes  to  an  enormous  size,  weighing  several  hundred  pounds,  and  speci- 
mens weighing  50  and  100  pounds  are  not  unusual.  It  is  utilized  chiefly  for 
making  soup,  and  green  turtle  soup  is  considered  of  high  quality  by  experts. 
The  flesh  is  also  edible,  and  in  the  making  of  some  varieties  of  green  turtle  soup 
pieces  of  the  flesh  are  included. 

Composition  of  the  Green  Turtle. — The  edible  portion  of  the  green  turtle 
has  the  following  composition: 

Water, 79-78  percent 

Protein, 19.83      " 

Fat, 53      " 

Ash, ' 1.20      " 

The  edible  portion  of  the  green  turtle  is  not  very  large  in  porportion  to 
its  weight,  as  it  forms  only  from  20  to  24  percent  of  the  whole  weight  of 
the  turtle. 

Among  the  reptiles  there  are  several  aquatic  species  which  are  used  as  food. 
The  most  noted  of  these  is  the  diamond-back  terrapin,  which  is  found  in  the 
salt-water  bays,  lagoons,  and  marshes  of  our  Atlantic  coast  from  New  Jersey 
to  Texas.  Its  center  of  greatest  abundance  is  in  Chesapeake  Bay.  There  is 
no  fish  or  other  water  animal  tha '  haf  a  higher  value  for  edible  purposes  than 


158  FISH   FOODS. 

the  terrapin.  The  extreme  delicacy  of  its  flavor,  the  richness  of  its  aroma,  and 
its  easy  digestibility  give  to  it  a  rank  which  perhaps  no  other  usual  food  product 
possesses.  In  addition  to  this  the  increased  scarcity  of  the  terrapin,  especially 
the  more  famous  variety  of  it,  namely,  the  diamond-back,  has  gradually  in- 
creased the  cost  until  at  the  present  time  the  terrapin  is  eaten  only  by  the  rich. 
In  the  United  States  it  exists  along  the  whole  Atlantic  coast  from  New  York 
southward  and  also  along  the  Gulf  coast.  Formerly  it  was  most  abundant  on 
the  Maryland  coast,  but  the  nearness  of  this  field  to  the  great  markets  of  the 
country  has  resulted  in  such  a  depletion  of  the  stock  as  to  make  the  terrapin 
very  scarce.  Many  attempts  have  been  made  at  artificial  growing  of  terrapin 
and  these  have  been  more  or  less  successful,  but  have  not  met  with  the  pro- 
nounced success  which  was  expected.  The  enclosure  in  which  the  terrapin 
are  kept,  viz.,  the  "crawl,"  is  a  feature  in  the  artificial  cultivation  or  breeding 
of  these  marine  vertebrates.  It  is  to  be  hoped  that  greater  success  in  the  future 
will  attend  the  artificial  breeding  of  terrapin,  since  the  natural  stock  seems  well 
on  the  way  to  extinction. 

Composition  oj  the  Terrapin. — Edible  portion: 

Fresh.  Dry. 

Water, 74-47  percent 

Protein, 21.23       "  83.13  percent 

Fat, 3.47       "  13-59       " 

Ash, 1.02       "  3.99       " 

The  Mussel. — The  mussel  may  be  described  as  a  fresh-water  oyster. 
It  occurs  in  almost  all  parts  of  the  United  States  in  the  fresh  waters  and  in 
external  appearance  resembles  to  some  extent  the  oyster,  but  the  shell  is 
usually  smoother.  In  the  mussel  is  often  developed  concretions  of  the 
carbonate  of  lime  in  a  particular  form  known  as  pearls.  In  fact  the  chief 
value  of  the  mussel  is  in  the  supply  of  pearls  which  they  furnish,  since  their 
flesh,  although  often  eaten,  is  not  considered  very  palatable  nor  desirable. 
Pearls  may  be  found  in  mussels  in  every  locality,  but  in  some  regions  they 
are  more  abundant  than  in  others, — for  instance,  the  mussels  of  Wisconsin 
are  especially  noted  for  the  occurrence  of  the  pearls.  Pearls  are  also  fre- 
quently found  in  oysters,  but  by  no  means  so  frequently  as  in  the  mussel. 

Composition  oj  the  Mussel. — The  edible  portion  of  the  mussel  forms  about 
one-half  its  weight. 

Water, 78.64  percent 

Protein, 12.51        " 

Fat, 1.67       " 

Ash, 1.73       " 

Undetermined, , 5.45       " 

Oysters. — Oysters  belong  to  a  class  of  animals  known  as  moUusks. 
They  grow  in  salt  or  brackish  water  and  are  found  along  almost  the  whole 


OYSTERS.  159 

of  the  coast  of  the  United  States.  They  exist  in  the  greatest  abundance 
along  the  coast  in  the  vicinity  of  Long  Island  Sound,  Norfolk,  Virginia,  along 
the  coast  of  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  off  the  coast  of  Mississippi,  Louisiana,  and 
Texas,  and  along  the  Pacific  coast  from  San  Francisco  to  the  northern  limits 
of  Washington. 

Size. — The  size  of  an  oyster  depends  greatly  upon  its  food  and  also  upon 
its  species.  There  are  some  varieties  which  at  a  given  period  of  growth 
are  naturally  very  much  larger  than  others.  The  larger  variety  grows  near 
Norfolk  and  along  the  Gulf  coast.  A  smaller  species  is  especially  abimdant 
on  the  Pacific  coast,  though  a  number  of  very  large  specimens  of  oysters 
have  been  found  on  that  coast. 

Age. — An  oyster  is  eaten  at  any  time  after  two  years.  Oysters,  however, 
three  or  four  years  old  are,  perhaps,  in  all  respects  the  best.  The  age  is 
determined  largely  by  the  appearance  of  the  shell,  experts  being  able  to 
practically  determine  the  age  of  an  oyster  by  an  examination  of  the  shell. 

The  oyster  grows  within  a  shell  which  is  composed  almost  exclusively  of 
carbonate  of  lime.  The  periphery  of  the  shell  is  ovoid  in  shape,  irregular, 
and  the  surface,  especially  of  old  oysters,  is  corrugated,  rough,  and  unattractive. 
The  interior  of  the  shell  is  smooth  and  generally  white,  but  sometimes  has 
a  blue  or  reddish  tinge.  The  shells  of  edible  oysters  vary  in  size  from  2  to 
6  inches  in  length  and  from  2  to  4  inches  in  width.  The  oysters  sold  in  the 
market  are  known  by  various  names,  usually  derived  from  the  location  from 
which  they  come.  A  small  variety  distinguished  by  a  blue  color  on  the 
inside  of  the  shell  is  known  as  blue  points.  The  real  blue  points  come  only 
from  Long  Island.  Another  variety  named  Rockaway  is  also  a  Long  Island 
variety,  and  should  come  exclusively  from  Rockaway  or  vicinity.  Shrewsbury 
is  another  highly  prized  variety  from  the  neighborhood  of  Shrewsbury,  New 
Jersey.  Buzzards  Bay,  James  River,  Norfolk,  Lynnhaven,  Rappahannock, 
Stony  Creek,  Saddle  Rock,  etc.,  are  names  commonly  found  in  the  trade. 
Unfortunately,  the  name  of  the  location  is  not  always  an  indication  of  the 
actual  source  from  which  the  oysters  may  have  come.  For  instance  the  term 
"blue  point"  is  now  very  commonly  given  to  small  oysters  not  exceeding  2 
or  2J  inches  in  length  with  a  correspondingly  diminished  breadth.  On 
the  contrary  "saddle  rock"  is  a  name  given  to  very  large  oysters  no  mat- 
ter from  what  region  they  may  come.  It  is  a  common  practice  to  separate 
the  oysters  taken  from  one  location  into  groups  of  similar  size  and  attach  to 
each  group  a  special  name  which  may  or  may  not  be  indicative  of  location. 

Cultivation  of  Oysters. — The  natural  beds  of  oysters  are  rapidly  exhausted 
by  the  free  fishing  which  is  in  some  cases  allowed,  and  the  supply  must  be 
kept  up  by  proper  cultivation.  Oyster  farming  has  become  a  great  industry 
along  all  parts  of  the  coasts  where  the  conditions  are  well  suited  to  culture. 
The  ideal  conditions  are  inlets  where  the  oysters  are  protected  from  the  action 


l6o  FISH    FOODS. 

of  ocean  waves  and  where  abundant  food  can  be  derived  from  the  low  marshy 
grounds  in  the  vicinity.  The  laws  in  force  in  the  states  protect  the  oyster 
farms  from  poachers  and  deeds  are  given  for  oyster  beds  which  are  beyond 
the  low  water  line.  The  conditions  of  culture  vary  in  various  states.  The  public 
beds  are  also  protected  by  law  in  many  states  and  incipient  war  is  sometimes 
carried  on  between  the  authorities  of  one  state  and  the  poachers  from  other 
states.  Maryland,  especially,  has  laws  of  a  very  strict  character  respecting 
the  taking  of  oysters,  and  the  state  furnishes  armed  forces  for  the  protection 
of  public  beds. 

Season  for  Oysters. — The  best  season  for  oysters  on  the  Atlantic  coast  of 
the  United  States  extends  from  September  first  to  May.  These  dates 
may  also  be  applied  to  oysters  of  the  Gulf  and  Pacific  coasts.  It  is  com- 
monly said  that  all  months  which  have  an  ''R"  in  them  are  suitable  for 
eating  oysters.  In  point  of  fact  oysters  are  eaten  the  year  round,  especially 
on  the  Atlantic  coast,  though  to  a  very  limited  extent  during  the  spring  and 
summer  months.  Those  who  own  their  own  oyster  beds  are  privileged  to 
take  oysters  at  all  seasons,  and  it  is  not  unusual  for  a  restaurant  to  furnish 
oysters  during  the  whole  year,  those  in  the  closed  season  being  derived  from 
private  beds. 

Life  of  an  Oyster. — After  an  oyster  is  taken  from  its  bed  it  may  be  kept 
alive  for  a  long  time  at  a  temperature  which  does  not  rise  too  high  nor  sink 
too  low.  The  best  temperature  for  keeping  oysters  alive  is  about  40  to  50 
degrees  Fahrenheit.  The  oysters  should  be  protected  from  the  sunlight 
by  a  proper  covering  in  a  cool  place  and  kept  moist  with  sea  water  or  brine 
which  is  sprinkled  over  them  in  such  a  way  as  to  come  in  contact  with  each 
oyster  in  the  heap.  Oysters  kept  under  these  conditions  often  remain  in  an 
excellent  state  for  consumption  for  a  week  or  ten  days  or  even  longer.  If 
such  conditions  are  maintained  oysters  may  be  shipped  in  bulk  to  all  parts  of 
the  country  in  cars  kept  cool,  and  this  is  the  best  way  in  which  to  distribute 
oysters  for  consumption  in  a  fresh  state. 

The  treating  of  oysters  with  fresh  water  in  order  to  swell  them  and  thus 
make  them  appear  larger  and  plumper  than  they  really  are  is  a  treatment 
which  is  reprehensible  in  every  respect.  Not  only  does  it  deceive  the  customer 
in  regard  to  the  size  of  the  oyster  but  it  deprives  the  oyster  of  its  proper  taste 
and  flavor.  "Soaked"  oysters  quickly  lose  their  flavor,  whereas  the  oysters 
kept  as  above  described  and  sprinkled  with  brine  retain  their  natural  flavor 
and  odor.  The  objection  to  the  transportation  of  oysters  in  this  way  is  that 
the  shell  usually  weighs  many  times  more  than  the  oyster  and  the  same  rate  of 
freight  must  be  paid  upon  it  as  upon  the  oyster  itself.  Nevertheless,  the 
fact  remains  that  fresh  oysters  are  best  immediately  after  removal  from 
the  shells.  As  soon  as  the  shell  is  removed  and  the  oyster  killed  by  this 
removal  it  begins  to  deteriorate  and  in  a  short  time  its  flavor  and  aroma  are 
impaired.     It  is  a  common  practice  in  many  cities,  even  where  oysters  are 


OYSTERS.  l6l 

delivered  fresh  daily  from  their  beds,  to  open  large  quantities  of  them  and  put 
them  in  tubs  and  sell  them  from  these  tubs  to  customers.  It  thus  happens  that 
customers  often  buy  oysters  that  have  been  opened  24  hours  or  more  and  which 
are  naturally  of  a  very  inferior  flavor.  Strict  regulations  in  regard  to  the  use 
of  fresh  oysters,  favoring  their  being  opened  when  they  are  ready  for  consump- 
tion or  requiring  that  they  should  be  kept  in  a  condition  of  palatabilit}'  and 
properly  cooled  until  ready  for  consumption,  should  be  observed. 

Shipment  of  Opened  Oysters. — Opened  oysters  are  shipped  extensively  to 
all  parts  of  the  country.  After  removal  from  the  shell  the  oysters  are  washed 
to  remove  the  natural  water,  since  this  becomes  ropy  during  shipment.  They 
are  then  packed  in  wooden  tubs  of  various  sizes,  a  piece  of  ice  added,  covered, 
and  delivered  to  the  fast  express  or  freight  service.  The  shipment  of  shucked 
oysters  to  which  water  has  been  added  either  directly  or  in  the  form  of  melted 
ice  is  deemed  unlawful,  because  a  substance,  /.  e.,  water,  has  been  mixed  and 
packed  with  the  oysters  so  as  to  reduce  or  lower  or  injuriously  affect  the  quality 
or  strength.  It  is  highly  advisable  to  ship  shucked  oysters  surrounded  by 
ice  but  not  in  contact  with  it.  Oysters  thus  shipped  retain  their  flavor  and 
palatabilitv  to  a  remarkable  degree  and  are  not  contaminated  by  ice. 

Proportion  of  Shell  and  Oysters. — The  following  illustration  (Report  of  the 
U.  S.  Commissioner  of  Fish  and  Fisheries  for  1888,  page  784)  shows  the 
relative  proportion  of  the  flesh,  liquid,  and  refuse  for  two  or  three  varieties 
of  oysters: 

Name:  Oysters  ("East  Rivers"). 

Locality:  Cow  Bay,  Long  Island  Sound,  New  York. 

Received:  April  8,  188 1,  from  E.  G.  Blackford. 

Description:  Length,  2 J  to  5^  inches;  breadth,  1}  to  3^  inches. 

Weighings  in  Preparation  for  Analysis. 

Grms.  Lbs.  Oz.  Perckwi. 

Flesh, 558.0  I  3.6  10.27 

Liquid, 543.7  i  3.1  10.01 

Refuse  (shells,  etc.), 4,284.7  9  7.2  78.86 

Loss, 47.3  ..  1.7  .86 

Total,  51  oysters, 5,433-7  u     i5-6  100.00 

Name:  Oysters  ("Sounds"). 

Locality:  Princess  Bay,  Staten  Island,  New  York. 

Received:  November  30,  1881,  from  Dorlon  &  Shaffer,  New  York  City. 

Description:  Thirty  oysters  in  shell. 

Weighings  in  Prep.\ration  for  Analysis. 

Grms.  Lbs.  Oz.  Percent. 

Flesh, 384.0  ..  13.5  8.24 

Liquid, 436.0  ..  15.4  9.35 

Refuse, 3,816.0  8  6.6  81.87 

Loss, 25.0  ..  0.9  0.54 


Total,  30  oysters, 4,661.0  10       4.4 


100.00 


The  above  data  show  that  for  100  pounds  of  shelled  oysters  only  about 
10  pounds  of  meat  are  found.  There  is  also  about  10  pounds  of  liquid  cr 
juice  that  escapes  when  the  oyster  is  opened.  There  is  an  average  of  80 
pounds  of  shell  and  other  refuse.     When  it  is  remembered  that,  as  wiU  be 


12 


l62 


FISH  FOODS. 


shown  in  the  table  given  below,  in  lo  pounds  of  the  meat  there  is  over  80 
percent  of  water  it  is  seen  that  the  actual  nourishment  contained  in  100 
pounds  of  oysters  is  reduced  to  a  little  over  i  pound.  There  is  a  general 
opinion  that  oysters  are  a  very  nutritious  food  and  this  is  true  in  so  far  as  the 
nitrogenous  element  of  food,  that  is,  the  protein,  is  concerned,  and  in  propor- 
tion to  the  quantity  prteent.  As  a  nourishing  food  the  oyster  cannot  be  con- 
sidered as  of  any  very  great  importance.  It  must  be  confessed  that  it  will 
continue  to  be  used,  as  it  has  been  in  the  past,  practically  as  a  condimental  food 
substance  and  not  solely  to  satisfy  hunger  nor  provide  heat  and  energy  for  the 
body. 

Process  of  Floating. — Reference  has  been  made  to  the  practice  of  soaking 
shell  oysters  in  fresh  water  for  the  purpose  of  making  them  more  plump 
and  increasing  their  weight.  This,  in  the  language  of  the  fisherman,  is 
called  "floating,"  "drinking,"  or  "laying  out."  By  this  process  the  body  of 
the  oyster  affects  a  plumpness  and  largeness  which  materially  increases  its 
selling  qualities,  as  it  increases  its  weight  and  size  and,  therefore,  the  profits  of 
the  dealer.  The  principle  of  this  process  depends  upon  the  fact  that  when  a 
soft  substance  like  an  oyster,  containing  a  mineral  salt  in  its  composition,  is 
brought  in  contact  with  water,  a  process  of  diffusion  takes  place  which  is 
known  in  chemical  physics  as  osmosis,  whereby  water  passes  through  the  cell 
walls  and  enters  the  cells  of  the  oyster  and  the  mineral  substaTice  thereof 
is  forced  out  into  the  external  water.  Larger  volumes  of  water  pass  into 
the  cells  than  accompany  the  particles  of  mineral  matter  to  the  outside  of  the 
cells  and  the  result  is  a  swelling  of  the  oysters  and  consequent  increase  in  the 
size  and  weight  by  the  addition  of  pure  water,  but  at  the  expense  of  the 
natural  salt,  mostly  chlorid  of  sodium  or  common  salt,  which  the  oyster 
contains. 

The  U.  S.  Bureau  of  Fisheries  has  been  experimenting  to  show  the  change 
which  takes  place  with  the  following  results: — 


STATISTICS  OF  WEIGHTS, 

ETC., 

OF  SPECIMENS  OF  OYSTERS. 

James  River.* 

Potomac  River.* 

Constituents. 

From  beds. 

From  floats. 

From  beds. 

From  floats. 

Lab.   No.  82;   31 
oysters. 

Lab.   No.  83-,   34 
oysters. 

Lab.   No.  85;   35 
oysters. 

Lab.    No.  84;   41 
oysters. 

>Shell  contents : 

Flesh  (body) 

JLiquids  (liquor)  .... 

Grms. 
312.5 
181.5 

Lbs.  Oz. 

II.O 

6.4 

Grms. 
412.5 
208.0 

Lbs.   Oz. 
14-5 
7-3 

Grms. 
302.5 
282.0 

Lbs.  Oz. 
10.7 

lO.O 

Grms. 

415-5 
264.3 

Lbs.  Oz. 
14.7 
9-3 

Total 

494.0 

I        1.4 

620.5 

I        5-8 

584-5 

I     4.7 

679.8 

I        8.0 

Refuse : 
Shells 

2778.0 
21.0 

6        2.0. 
0.8 

2976.0 
17-5 

6        9.1 
0.6 

3017.0 
22.5 

6      10.4 
0.8 

3386.0 

15-2 

7        7.4 
0.5 

Losst 

Total 

2799.0 

6        2.8 

29935 

6       9.7 

3039-5 

6      11.2 

3401.2 

7        7-9 

Total    weight    of 
specimen    .   .   . 

3293.0 

7        4-2 

3614.0 

7      15-5 

3624.0 

7      15-9 

4081.0 

8      15.9 

*  Transplanted  to  beds  in  New  Haven  harbor,  Connecticut,  in  April,  and  taken  foi 
analysis  the  following  November. 

t  Loss  in  opening  and  weighing,  chiefly  water. 


COMPARATIVE  PERCENTAGE  COMPOSITION  OF  OYSTERS  BEFORE  AND 

AFTER  "FLOATING." 


James  River   Oysters 

Transplanted   to 

New  Haven. 

Potomac  River  Oysters 

Transplanted  to 

New  Haven. 

Constituents  of  Oysters. 

As  taken 
from  beds. 

As  taken 
from  floats. 

As  taken 
from  beds. 

As  taken 
from  floats. 

No.  82. 

No.  83. 

No.  85. 

No.  84. 

Jn  whole  specimen  : 
Shell  contents  : 
Flesh                                  

Percent. 
949 
5-51 

Percent. 
1 1. 41 
5-76 

Percent. 

8.35 

Percent. 
10.18 

6.48 

Total  shell  contents 

15.00 

17.17 

16.13 

16.66 

Refuse  : 
Shells    . 

84.36 
0.64 

^^%' 

83-25 
0.62 

82.97 

Loss  in  preparation  for  analysis 

0.37 

Total  refuse             

85.00 

82.83 

83.87 

83-34 

Total  constituents,  shell  contents,  and  refuse  . 

100.00 

100.00 

100.00 

100.00 

Injiesh  (,body)  : 

Water 

77-99 
22.01 

82.77 
17-23 

77.90 
22.10 

82.06 
17-94 

Total  flesh 

100.00 

100.00 

100.00 

100.00 

In  water-free  substance  : 

Nitrogen 

Protein  (nitrogen  X  6.25) 

1.70 
10.63 
2.61 
2.21 
6.56 

1.40 
8.79 
1.91 

1-65 
10.31 
2-33 
2.17 
7.29 

1-45 
9.09 

5-34  . 

Ash 

Carbohydrates,  etc.  (by  difference)     ...... 

Total  water-free  substance         .   . 

22.01 

17.23 

22.10 

17-94 

In  liquids  : 

Water 

1:3 

95-22 

4-78 

94.99 
5.01 

95-69 
431       • 

Water-free  substance               

Total  liquids 

100.00 

100.00 

100.00 

100.00 

In  water-free  substance : 

Nitrogen . 

0.31 
1.95 
0.04 
2.54 
0.73 

0.34 

2.oq 
0.13 
1.42 
I.14 

0.29 
1.81 
0.02 
2.47 
0.71 

0.33 
205 
0  01 

Fat  (ether  extract) 

Ash            

1. 19 
1.06 

Carbohydrates,  etc.  (by  difference) 

Total  water-free  substance 

5-26 

4-78 

5-01 

4-31 

In  total  shell  contents,  flesh,  and  liquids: 

Water .' 

Water-free  substance 

84.15 
■  15-85 

86.95 
13-05 

86.14 
13.86 

S:iJ 

Total  shell  contents 

100.00 

100.00 

100.00 

100.00 

In  water-free  substance : 
Nitrogen 

1.19 

2.32 
4-43 

1-05 
6-54 

1.50 
370 

0.99 
6.20 
1.21 
2.32 
4.13 

1.02 
6.^7 

Fat  (ether  extract)                                     

1.18 

Ash 

Carbohydrates,  etc.  (by  difference) 

Jil 

Total  water-free  substance 

15-85 

13-05 

13.86 

12.64 

In  whole  specimen  : 
Shell  contents : 

Water 

Water-free  substance                             

12.62 

2.38 

14-93 
2.24 

13-89 
2.24 

14.55 
2. II 

Total  shell  contents              

15.00 
85.00 

17.17 
82.83 

16.13 
83.87 

16.66 

Refuse 

83-34 

Total  shell  contents  and  refuse 

100.00 

100.00 

100.00 

100.00 

163 


164 


FISH   FOODS. 


Comparative  Percentage   Composition  of  Oysters 

INC." — {Continued.) 

Before  and  After 

"  Float- 

James  River  Oysters 

Transplanted  to 

New  Haven. 

Potomac  R  tver  Oysters 

Transplanted  to 

New  Haven. 

Constituents  of  Oysters. 

As  taken 
from  beds. 

As  taken 
from  floats. 

As  taken 
from  beds. 

As  taken 
from  floats. 

No.  82. 

No.  83. 

No.  85. 

No.  84. 

In  whole  specimen; 
Shell  contents  • 

Nitrogen 

Protein  (nitrogen  X  6.25) 

Percent. 

0.18 
1. 12 
0.25 

0.35 
0.66 

Percent. 

0.18 
1. 12 
0.22 
0.26 
0.64 

Percent. 

0.16 
I.oo 
0.20 

0.67 

Percent. 

0.17 
I  06 

Fat  (ether  extract) 

Ash 

Carbohydrates,  etc.  (by  difference)     ...... 

0.24 
0.61 

1262 

2.24 
14-93 

2.24 
13-89 

Water 

14-55 

Total  shell-contents 

15.00 

17.17 

16.13 

16  66 

Result  of  Treatment. — As  shown  by  the  data  the  first  result  is  one  which 
would  naturally  be  expected,  namely,  that  the  total  weight  of  the  oyster  thus 
inflated  with  water  is  increased  relatively  to  the  total  weight  of  the  shell 
since  no  change  takes  place  in  the  weight  of  the  shell  during  floating.  The 
gain  of  weight  in  the  oyster  is  due  to  the  absorption  of  the  water,  although 
there  is  a  loss  of  mineral  salt.  The  average  gain  of  the  oyster  was,  in  round 
numbers,  lo  percent.  The  danger  of  infecting  oysters  thus  treated  with 
any  germs,  which  may  be  present  in  the  water  or  ice  used,  should  also  be 
taken  into  consideration. 

In  respect  of  the  composition  of  the  oyster  itself  when  subjected  to  floating 
the  chief  change  is  in  the  increase  of  the  water  content.  As  has  already  been 
said  the  process  of  floating  is  fatal  to  the  flavor  and  palatability  of  the  product. 

Adulteration. — The  chief  adulterations  of  oysters  are  the  "floating"  above 
described  and  the  treatment  of  the  "shucked"  oysters  with  formaldehyde, 
boron  compounds,  and  other  preservatives  to  keep  them  from  spoiling.  These 
processes  are  thoroughly  reprehensible  and  are  rapidly  disappearing.  The 
consumer  who  lives  near  the  source  of  supply  should  never  eat  any  but  freshly- 
shelled  oysters  and  those  at  a  distance  confine  themselves  to  the  properly 
prepared  and  shipped  article.  The  chief  delight  of  the  epicure  is  the  fresh- 
ness, and  not  the  quantity  of  nourishment  of  this  justly  prized  bivalve. 

Average  Composition  of  Fried  Oysters: 

Water, 60.08  percen^ 

Solids, 39-92  " 

Nitrogen, 1.56  " 

Phosphoric  acid, 42  " 

Sulfur, 19  " 

Fat, 9-48 

Ash, 1.77  " 

Protein, 9.73  " 

Carbohydrates  by  diflference, 18.33  " 


ANIMAL  OILS.  1 6$ 

ANIMAL  OILS. 
The  same  distinction  is  made  between  oils  and  fats  from  animal  products 
as  has  been  made  for  the  vegetable  preparations  further  on.  An  animal 
fat  remains  solid  or  semisolid  at  the  ordinary  temperature  of  the  living  room. 
An  animal  oil,  on  the  other  hand,  is  one  which  at  ordinary  temperature  is 
a  liquid.  Animal  oils,  as  a  rule,  are  not  used  for  edible  purposes  directly, 
l)Ut  are  used  to  some  extent  in  cooking,  and  to  a  large  extent  as  medicinal 
food.  Inasmuch  as  these  oils  are  used  for  medicinal  food  purposes,  those 
which  are  most  important  in  this  use  may  be  very  properly  described  in  this 
manual.  As  these  oils  are  derived  both  from  sea  and  land  animals  they 
are  often  conveniently  divided  into  marine  animal  oils  and  terrestrial  animal 
oils..  There  is  also  a  marked  difference  as  a  rule  between  the  oils  of  marine 
origin  and  those  of  terrestrial  origin.  The  oils  of  marine  origin,  as  a  rule,  have 
a  very  high  iodin  number  while  the  animal  oils  of  terrestrial  origin  have 
an  iodin  number  not  much  greater  than  the  fats  from  w^hich  they  are  derived. 
This  distinction  corresponds  somewhat  closely  to  those  vegetable  oils  which 
belong  to  the  drying  and  non-drying  variety.  The  iodin  number  represents 
the  percentage  of  iodin  absorbed  by  a  unit  weight  of  substance.  If  one  gram 
of  an  oil  absorb  0.67  gram  of  iodin,  the  iodin  number  is  67.  The  marine  oils 
correspond  to  the  dry  vegetable  oils  and  the  terrestrial  oils  to  the  non-drying 
vegetable  oils.  While  this  difference  is  one  which  is  marked,  it  does  not  always 
exist  in  each  individual  case. 

Marine  Animal  Oils. 

The  marine  animal  oils  may  be  conveniently  divided  into  fish  oils,  liver 
oils,  and  blubber  oils.  Of  these  the  liver  oils  are  the  most  important  from 
an  edible  point  of  view  or  a  medicinal  edible  point  of  view.  The  fish  oil 
and  blubber  oil  are  used  chiefly  for  illuminating  and  other  technical  purposes. 

Fish  Oils. — These  are  obtained  by  rendering  from  all  parts  of  a  fish  where 
fat  exists.  The  herring,  sardine,  salmon,  and  the  menhaden  are  the  fish 
which  are  chiefly  used  for  getting  oil  of  this  kind.  The  fish  oils  have  very 
much  improved  in  quality  since  the  steamer  has  taken  the  place  of  the 
sail  boat  for  gathering  the  fish.  During  the  days  of  the  sail  boat  the  fish 
were  often  kept  for  ten  days  after  seining  before  they  were  brought  ashore. 
The  decomposition  which  took  place  would  naturally  affect  the  oil.  At  the 
present  day  the  steamers  fishing  close  to  the  shores  deliver  their  products 
much  more  frequently,  often  the  same  day  they  are  caught,  and  thus  a  better 
quality  of  oil  is  produced.  In  this  country  menhaden  is  the  chief  fish  used 
for  obtaining  oil.  The  scientific  name  of  menhaden  is  Brevoortia  tyrannus. 
These  fish  appear  in  enormous  quantities  around  the  Atlantic  coast  from 
May  until  November.     It  is  estimated  that  nearly  one-half  million  tons  have 


I66  FISH   FOODS. 

been  taken  of  these  fish  during  a  season.  Menhaden  oil  is  rarely  if  ever  used 
for  edible  purposes.  It  is  used  principally  in  the  leather  trade  and  sometimes 
in  the  adulteration  of  cod  liver  oil  made  in  Newfoundland. 

Sardine  Oil. — Sardine  oil  is  principally  prepared  in  Japan  from  the  Japan 
sardine  (Clupea  sardinus).  It  is  not  used  to  any  extent  for  edible  purposes. 
It  is  also  prepared  to  some  extent  in  the  boiling  of  sardines  in  France  pre- 
paratory to  packing  in  oil. 

Salmon  Oil. — This  oil  is  obtained  in  large  quantities  on  the  Pacific  coast. 
It  is  one  of  the  fish  oils  which  has  an  agreeable  odor  and  taste  and,  therefore, 
can  be  used  for  edible  purposes.  It  has  a  specific  gravity  at  15  degrees  of 
about  .926  and  its  iodin  number  is  about  160. 

Cod  Liver  Oil. — The  most  important  of  all  the  animal  oils  for  food  pur- 
poses is  the  oil  which  is  obtained  from  the  liver  of  the  cod  (Gadus  callarias). 
Cod  liver  oil  is  valuable  for  food  purposes  not  on  account  of  its  odor  and 
taste,  which  are  usually  quite  disagreeable,  but  by  reason  of  the  specific  effect 
which  it  is  often  said  to  exercise  in  cases  of  emaciation  and  general  disorder 
of  the  functional  activities  of  the  body.  It  is  a  food  or  medicine,  whichever 
it  may  be  best  called,  which  is  highly  prized  in  tuberculosis  and  similar  diseases. 
The  oil  is  chiefly  prepared  in  the  Loffoden  Islands.  Different  classes  of  oil 
are  prepared  which  are  differentiated  chiefly  by  their  color,  the  lighter  the 
color  the  higher  the  quality  of  the  oil.  The  chemical  composition  of  cod 
liver  oil  is  extremely  complex,  many  different  kinds  of  substances  having 
been  found  in  it  by  various  authorities.  The  probabflity  is  that  many  of 
these  supposed  substances  are  only  mixtures  of  others.  Yet  it  cannot  be 
denied  that  the  number  of  chemical  compounds  occurring  in  cod  liver  oil  is 
very  much  greater  than  that  which  occurs  in  ordinary  oils.  Both  the  medici- 
nal and  food  values  of  the  oil  are  often  attributed  to  these  bodies  which 
occur  in  minute  quantities. 

Properties. — Cod  liver  oil  at  15  degrees  has  a  specific  gravity  of  .922.  Its 
iodin  number  varies  very  greatly  but  is  always  high,  ranging  from  150  to 
180.     Its  refractive  index  is  also  very  high,  namely  1.47. 

An  important  constituent  of  cod  liver  oil  is  cholesterol.  Cod  liver  oil 
contains  naturally  a  small  quantity  of  iodin  and  this  natural  compound  of 
iodin  is  one  of  the  properties  to  which  much  of  its  medicinal  virtue  has  been 
attributed.  The  quantity  present  is  extremely  minute,  and  probably  never 
exceeds  .002  of  one  percent. 

Adulteration  of  Cod  Liver  Oil. — Owing  to  its  increasing  price  cod  liver  oil 
has  been  subjected  to  many  forms  of  adulteration.  The  chief  adulteration 
consists  in  the  admixture  of  fish  liver  oil  of  lower  quality  or  the  use  of  blubber 
oil.  Seal  and  whale  oils  have  been  used  very  extensively  in  the  adulteration 
of  cod  liver  oil.  Japan  fish  oil  and,  in  fact,  aU  other  fish  oils  which  are  of 
a  character  not  to  disguise  the  properties  of  cod  liver  oil  have  been  used. 


BLUBBER   OIL.  167 

It  is  evident  that  it  is  with  extreme  difficulty  that  the  presence  of  these  adul- 
terants can  be  detected,  especially  if  they  are  used  in  small  quantities.  The 
only  certain  method  of  guarantee  of  the  purity  of  a  cod  liver  oil  is  in  the  proper 
inspection  and  control  of  the  manufacturing  works.  The  livers  of  many 
other  kinds  of  fish  are  employed  in  the  manufacture  of  cod  liver  oil,  but  the 
other  varieties  have  little  value  as  compared  with  the  cod  liver  oil  itself  and 
they  are  probably  used  almost  exclusively  in  tlie  adulteration  of  the  genuine 
article.  The  Norwegian  cod  fish  has  been  said  to  give  a  much  better  oil  than 
those  coming  from  the  Atlantic  coast  of  America.  This  is  true  only  of  the 
low  grade  American  product ;  the  high  grade  is  as  good  as  the  Norwegian. 

Blubber  Oil. — Blubber  oil  includes  the  oils  made  from  seals,  whales, 
turtles,  etc.,  and  is  used  exclusively  for  technical  purposes,  imless  surreptitiously 
placed  in  cod  liver  oil  as  an  adulterant. 


PART  IV. 

MILK  AND  MILK  PRODUCTS  AND 
OLEOMARGARINE. 


MILK. 
Limitation  of  Name. — By  the  term  "milk,"  unless  qualified  in  some 
way,  is  meant  a  lacteal  secretion  of  the  healthy  cow,  free  of  colostrum  and  of 
standard  quality.  If  the  milk  of  other  mammals  is  meant  the  name  of  the 
class  of  animal  is  used  in  connection  with  the  term,  such  as  ewe's  milk,  goat's 
milk,  etc.  Milk  is  one  of  the  most  important  articles  of  commerce  and,  by 
reason  of  its  composition,  high  nutritive  character,  and  easy  digestibility,  it  is 
not  only  the  natural  food  of  infants  but  a  most  important  food  for  children 
and  adults.  It  is  also  an  indispensible  food  in  many,  if  not  most,  cases  of 
disease  where  nutrition  is  impaired.  In  some  cases  life  may  often  be  sustained 
over  a  critical  period  by  the  use  of  milk  as  a  food  where  other  forms  of  food 
would  fail  of  digestion  and  prove  injurious  instead  of  beneficial.  The  dis- 
cussion of  milk  as  infants'  and  invalids'  foods  is  found  in  Part  X. 

Average  Composition  of  Milk. — Perhaps  there  is  no  food  substance  which 
'has  been  subjected  to  so  many  and  such  severe  analytical  tests  as  milk.  Hun- 
dreds of  thousands  of  analyses  have  been  made  in  all  civilized  countries, 
not  only  of  the  milk  of  the  individual  cow  but  of  herds  of  greater  or  less  size. 

There  is  a  great  variation  in  the  composition  of  milk  of  different  breeds 
of  cattle  and  also  of  different  individuals  of  the  same  breed.  For  instance,  the 
Holstein  breed  of  cattle  affords  a  milk  with  a  very  low  content  of  fat,  some- 
times as  low  as  3.25  percent,  and  in  individual  cases  lower.  On  the  other  hand 
the  Jersey  breed  of  cattle  affords  a  milk  of  a  very  high  content  of  fat,  some- 
times reaching  as  high  as  6  percent,  and  in  individual  cases  ver^'  much  higher. 
The  content  of  the  nitrogenous  element  in  milk  is  more  stable  than  that  of 
fat  and  the  common  content  of  casein  in  milk  ranges  from  2 J  to  3  J  percent. 
The  sugar  in  the  milk  is  usually  the  complementary  substance  with  the  fat, 
diminishing  in  relative  proportions  as  the  fat  increases  and  vice  versa.  The 
average  content  of  sugar  in  cow's  milk  is  approximately  4  percent.  The 
content  of  mineral  substances  in  milk  is  also  quite  constant,  being  about  0.70. 
The  ash  contains  the  phosphoric  acid  which  is  one  of  the  essential  food  com- 
ponents of  milk.  A  milk  of  fair  average  quality  contains  12  percent  of 
solids  and  88  percent  of  water.     This  is  an  expression  for  milk  during  the 

169 


tyo 


MILK   AND   MILK   PRODUCTS   AND   OLEOMARGARINE. 


various  seasons  of  the  year  and  from  all  breeds  and  kinds  of  cows.  The 
influence  of  season  has  much  to  do  with  the  quantity  of  milk  produced.  It  is 
always  greater  in  the  spring  and  summer  months,  when  the  cows  are  turned 
out  to  pasture  and  the  growth  on  which  they  feed  is  unusually  succulent. 
The  increase  in  volume  is  not  attended  with  a  proportionate  increase  of  solids, 
and  thus  the  percentage  of  solids  in  spring  and  summer  milk  is  less  than  that 
in  the  winter  milk  unless  the  cows  are  particularly  well  fed  during  the  winter 
on  a  generous  diet,  including  large  quantities  of  roots. 

The  character  of  the  milk  is  greatly  influenced  by  the  environment  in 


Fig.  13.— Cow  Stauli:s,  Mapletown  Farm,  Sumner,  Washington. 


which  the  cow  lives.  The  stable  in  which  the  cow  is  kept  should  be  clean, 
well  ventilated,  and  protected  against  extreme  changes  in  temperature,  thus 
being  cooler  in  the  summer  than  the  hot  air  on  the  outside  and  much  warmer 
in  the  winter.  An  excellent  arrangement  of  the  stables  to  secure  cleanliness 
and  good  ventilation  is  shown  in  Fig.  13.  Cows  should  be  supplied  with  an 
abundant  quantity  of  pure  water  and  should  not  be  allowed  access  to  stagnant 
pools  when  pasturing  in  the  summer.  Every  animal  giving  milk  should  be 
examined  from  time  to  time  by  a  competent  veterinarian  to  determine,  by  the 
injection  of  serum  or  otherwise,  whether  or  not  the  animal  is  afflicted  with 
tuberculosis.  Every  animal  infected  with  tuberculosis  should  be  separated 
from  the  herd  and  destroyed.     Tuberculosis  is  an  infectious  disease  and  may 


PREPARATION   OF  MILK.  I71 

spread  from  a  single  cow  to  every  one  in  the  herd.  It  is  still  by  some  authori- 
ties claimed  that  there  is  no  authentic  case  of  transmission  of  bovine  tubercu- 
losis to  the  human  system.  Other  authorities  hold  that  such  transmission  is 
possible,  even  if  it  has  not  been  proven  in  a  particular  case.  Since  experts 
disagree  on  this  point  the  same  rule  is  applicable  here  as  in  other  cases  of  the 
same  kind,  namely,  where  experts  disagree  on  a  point  relating  to  the  pubhc 
health  the  benefit  of  the  doubt,  if  any,  should  be  given  to  the  public,  and  the 
advice  of  those  experts  followed  which  is  the  most  radical  respecting  the 
protection  of  health  from  infection  of  any  kind.  It  would  be  difficult  to  prove, 
for  example,  in  any  case  of  tuberculosis  in  man  that  it  had  been  contracted 
from  the  sputa  of  tuberculosed  patients,  yet  because  it  is  possible,  in  the 
opinion  of  many  experts,  that  such  infection  and  transmission  of  disease  can 
take  place,  it  is  the  part  of  wisdom  to  guard  against  it. 

It  is,  I  think,  a  statement  which  will  be  accepted  by  all  that  it  is  possible 
in  this  country  to  secure  and  keep  a  sufficient  number  of  healthy  cows  to  give 
the  milk  supply  of  the  nation.  Therefore,  it  is  the  duty  of  the  state,  either  by 
municipal,  state,  or  federal  inspection,  to  eliminate,  as  far  as  possible,  and,  if 
necessary,  at  the  expense  of  the  state,  every  diseased,  animal  from  the  dairy 
herd.  The  farmer  whose  herd  becomes  infected  through  no  fault  of  his  can 
justly  claim  a  compensation  for  the  destruction  of  his  animals  for  the  common 
good.  There  is,  perhaps,  no  more  important  point  connected  with  maintaining 
sanitary  conditions  than  the  proper  inspection  of  the  dairy,  whether  furnish- 
ing milk  for  family  use  or  for  sale.  It  is  the  plain  dut}^  of  every  municipality 
and  state  to  prohibit  the  sale  of  milk  to  its  citizens  from  dairies  which  are 
not  periodically  and  frequently  subjected  to  the  most  rigid  expert  inspection. 
Such  inspection  would  not  only  secure  the  health  of  the  animals  but  tend 
directly  toward  the  cleanliness  of  the  dairy.  Only  by  the  exercise  of  unusual 
care  is  it  possible  to  keep  milk  from  becoming  contaminated. 

Preparation  of  Milk. — Every  part  of  the  animal,  especially  the  udders, 
should  be  kept  scrupulously  clean  by  proper  currying  and  washing.  The 
milk  should  be  collected  in  vessels  with  as  small  an  orifice  as  possible.  As 
soon  as  drawn  the  milk  should  be  strained  and  artificially  cooled  to  a  tempera- 
ture of  at  least  50  degrees  F.,  if  not  lower.  A  convenient  apparatus  for 
cooling  the  milk  is  shown  in  Fig.  14.  In  this  condition,  without  being  exposed 
to  infection  and  being  protected  at  every  point  by  closed  vessels,  stoppered 
when  necessary  by  sterilized  cotton,  the  milk  is  conducted  into  sterilized 
bottles  and  again  stoppered  with  a  sterilized  cork  of  some  description.  The 
milk  is  kept  cold  until  delivered  to  the  consumer  and  should  be  kept  cold  by 
the  consumer  until  used.  By  following  these  precautions  it  is  possible  to 
deliver  a  pure,  wholesome,  unpasteiu-ized  milk  in  a  condition  which  remains 
practically  unchanged  for  even  a  longer  period  than  twenty -four  hours. 

Certified   Milk. — Dairies  which  are  inspected  either  by  operation  of  the 


172 


MILK   AND   MILK   PRODUCTS   AND   OLEOMARGARINE. 


law  or,  voluntarily,  by  a  competent  body  of  medical  and  scientific  experts 
duly  authorized  to  make  such  inspection  furnish  to  the  market  what  is  known 
as  certified  milk.  Each  bottle  of  this  milk  bears  the  stamp  of  certification 
and  this  stamp  may  be  used  from  the  time  of  one  inspection  until  a  certain 
date  specified  on  the  stamp  when  the  next  inspection  takes  place.  The  duty 
of  the  inspectors  is  to  see  that  diseased  animals  are  at  once  removed  frorn 
the  dairy,  that  the  sanitary  conditions  of  the  stable  are  perfect,  that  the  food  is 


Fig.  14.— Apparatus  for  Cooling  Milk. 


abundant  and  wholesome,  that  the  milking  process  is  conducted  according 
to  the  principles  above  outlined,  and  that  the  proper  precautions  are  taken 
to  prevent  infection  during  the  preparation  of  the  milk  for  the  market.  The 
milk  should  be  examined  chemically  and  bacteriologically  at  each  inspection, 
or  oftener,  to  see  that  it  is  of  a  standard  quality,  both  in  respect  of  the 
number  and  character  of  the  organisms  which  it  contains  and  of  its  chemical 
constituents.     Certified  milk  is,  of  course,  more  expensive  than  non-certified, 


PASTEURIZED   MILK. 


173 


inasmuch  as  the  dairy  is  necessarily  called  upon  to  bear  the  expense  of 
inspection.  However,  the  superior  quality  of  such  milk  and  its  certain  freedom 
from  infection  more  than  offsets  the  increased  price,  and  makes  certified  milk 
the  ideal  food  of  a  milk  character,  not  only  in  the  family,  but  especially  in 
the  hospitals,  orphan  asylums  and  other  public  institutions.  It  seems  quite 
certain  that  in  the  near  future  practically  all  the  milk  that  is  sold  upon  the 
market  of  the  country  will  be  of  a  certified  quality. 

Pasteurized  Milk. — When  milk  is  heated  to  a  temperature  of  about  140 
to  160  degrees  the  greater  part  of  the  living  organisms  contained  therein  are 
destroyed.  At  the  same  time  the  temperature  is  not  high  enough  to  give  to 
the  milk  that  peculiar  taste  which  it  acquires  when  boiled.  Such  pasteurized 
milk,  placed  in  sterilized  bottles,  stoppered  with  sterilized  stoppers  and  kept 
in  a  cool  place,  will  keep  many  days  and  even  weeks  without  apparent  deteriora- 
tion. Physicians  and  hygienists  are  quite  agreed  that  pasteurized  milk  is  not 
so  wholesome,  especially  for  children,  as  certified  milk  which  has  not  been 
subjected  to  a  heat  sufl&ciently  high  to  kill  the  organisms  contained  therein. 
The  natural  ferments  of  the  milk,  namely,  the  enzymes  which  produce  the 
lactic  fermentations,  promote  rather  than  interfere  with  the  digestion  of  the 
product.  The  killing  of  the  beneficial  organisms  of  the  milk  is  only  justified 
when  there  is  danger  of  pathological  germs  being  present.  Hence  the  pas- 
teurization of  milk  must  in  this  sense  be  regarded  as  a  substitute  for  inspection 
and  certification. 

There  may  arise  cases  where  pasteurizing  even  of  certified  milk  may  be  desir- 
able, namely,  when  from  necessity  it  must  be  kept  for  a  considerable  period 
before  use,  as  on  shipboard,  and  other  places  inaccessible  to  a  daily  supply  of 
fresh  milk.  Pasteurizing  is  also  justifiable  for  miscellaneous  milk  supplies, 
the  origin  of  which  is  unknown.  It  is  safer,  by  far  in  this  case,  to  pasteurize 
than  take  the  chance  of  consuming  pathological  germs.     (See  also  page  537.) 

Pasteurizing  of  Milk. — A  convenient  method  of  pasteurizing  milk  is 
recommended  by  the  Dairy  Division  of  the  Department  of  Agriculture,  which 
is  as  follows: 

Directions  for  the  Pasteurization  of  Milk* — The  pasteurization  of  milk 
for  children,  now  quite  extensively  practiced  in  order  to  destroy  the 
injurious  germs  which  it  may  contain,  can  be  satisfactorily  accomplished  with 
very  simple  apparatus.  The  vessel  containing  the  milk,  which  may  be  the 
bottle  from  which  it  is  to  be  used  or  any  other  suitable  vessel,  is  placed  inside 
of  a  larger  vessel  of  metal,  which  contains  water.  If  a  bottle,  it  is  plugged 
with  absorbent  cotton,  if  this  is  at  hand,  or  in  its  absence  other  clean  cotton 
will  answer.  A  small  fruit  jar  loosely  covered  may  be  used  instead  of  a  bottle. 
The  requirements  are  simply  that  the  interior  vessel  shall  be  raised  about  half 
an  inch  above  the  bottom  of  the  other,  and  that  the  water  shall  reach  nearly 

*  By  Dr.  De  Schweinitz. 


174  MILK   AND   MILK   PRODUCTS   AND    OLEOMARGARINE. 

or  quite  as  high  as  the  milk.  The  apparatus  is  then  heated  on  a  range  or 
stove  until  the  water  reaches  a  temperature  of  155  degrees  Fahrenheit,  when 
it  is  removed  from  the  heat  and  kept  tightly  covered  for  half  an  hour.  The 
milk  is  rapidly  cooled  without  removing  it  from  its  containers  and  kept  in  a 
cool  place.  It  may  be  used  any  time  within  twenty-four  hours.  A  temperature 
of  150  degrees  maintained  for  half  an  hour  is  sufficient  to  destroy  any  germs 
likely  to  be  present  in  the  milk,  in  cold  weather,  or  when  it  is  known  that  the 
milk  reaches  the  consumer  soon  after  milking,  and  it  is  generally  safe  to  adopt 
this  limit.  It  is  found  in  practice  that  raising  the  temperature  to  155  degrees 
and  then  allowing  the  milk  to  stand  in  the  heated  water  for  half  an  hour  insures 
the  proper  temperature  for  the  required  time.  If  the  temperature  is  raised 
above  155  degrees  the  taste  and  quality  of  the  milk  will  be  affected. 

Inasmuch  as  the  milk  furnished  to  consumers  in  large  cities  in  summer  con- 
tains at  the  time  of  delivery  an  immense  number  of  miscellaneous  bacteria, 
this  procedure  may  not  fully  meet  the  requirements  during  hot  weather,  not 
only  because  such  milk  will  not  remain  sweet  for  twenty-four  hours  unless 
kept  in  a  good  refrigerator,  but  also  because  the  bacteria  not  destroyed  by  the 
heating  may  at  times  produce  digestive  disturbances  in  the  very  young.  Under 
such  circumstances  it  is  best  to  keep  the  bottles  in  the  water  until  it  boils  or 
to  use  one  of  the  many  steamers  now  on  the  market.  After  the  bottles  have 
been  kept  at  the  boiling  point  for  three  to  five  minutes  (or  longer  if  they  are 
large)  they  should  be  cooled  as  promptly  as  possible  and  kept  in  a  refrigerator 
until  used. 

The  simplest  plan  is  to  take  a  tin  pail  and  invert  a  perforated  tin  pie-plate 
in  the  bottom,  or  have  made  for  it  a  removable  false  bottom  perforated  with 
holes  and  having  legs  half  an  inch  high  to  allow  circulation  of  the  water.  The 
milk-bottle  is  set  on  this  false  bottom,  and  sufficient  water  is  put  into  the  pail 
to  reach  the  level  of  the  surface  of  the  milk  in  the  bottle.  A  hole  may  be 
punched  in  the  cover  of  the  pail,  a  cork  inserted,  and  a  chemical  thermometer 
put  through  the  cork,  so  that  the  bulb  dips  into  the  water.  The  temperature 
can  thus  be  watched  without  removing  the  cover.  If  preferred,  an  ordinary 
dairy  thermometer*  may  be  used  and  the  temperature  read  from  time  to  time 
by  removing  the  lid.  This  is  very  easily  arranged,  and  is  just  as  satisfactory 
as  the  patented  apparatus  sold  for  the  same  purpose.  Any  other  simple 
method  of  procedure  will  give  the  same  result. 

Average  Content  of  Fat  in  American  Milk. — From  the  thousands  of 
analyses  of  American  milks  that  have  been  made  it  appears  that  the  average 
content  of  fat  therein  is  about  3.90  percent.  Of  the  different  breeds  of  cows  the 
Holsteins  produce  milk  with  the  least  content  of  fat  and  the  Jerseys  with  the 

*  Before  using  the  dairy  thermometer  it  is  best  to  have  it  tested,  as  it  may  be  unre- 
liable in  the  upper  parts  of  the  scale. 


CREAM.  175 

greatest.  It  is  not  unusual  to  find  in  the  milk  of  a  Jersey  cow  a  content  of 
6  or  7  percent  of  fat. 

Comparison  of  Cow's  Milk  with  Other  Varieties. — Human  milk  differs 
from  milk  chiefly  in  having  a  much  lower  content  of  casein  and  a  higher 
content  of  milk  sugar.  Goat's  milk  has  a  higher  content  of  casein  than  milk, 
somewhat  higher  content  of  fat,  and  slightly  less  sugar.  Ewe's  milk  is  very 
rich  both  in  protein  and  fat.  Mare's  has  a  low  casein  and  fat  content  and  is 
exceptionally  rich  in  sugar.  Ass's  milk  has  less  casein  and  protein  than  milk 
but  more  sugar.  For  additional  data  relating  to  miik  see  chapter  on  infants' 
foods. 

Cream. — When  milk  is  allowed  to  stand  for  some  hours  in  a  cool  place 
or  when  it  is  mechanically  treated  in  a  separator  the  fat  particles,  being  of  a 
lower  specific  gravity,  are  separated,  and  when  they  reach  a  certain  degree  of 
consistence  they  form  a  product  known  as  cream.  The  quantity  of  fat  in 
cream  varies  according  to  the  method  of  separation.  On  standing  for  a 
period  of  about  twelve  hours  in  a  cool  place  the  separated  cream  may  be 
removed  by  skimming  and  should  contain  at  least  18  percent  of  milk  fat. 
Under  the  action  of  the  separator,  cream  of  a  much  greater  content  of  fat  is 
usually  produced,  often  reaching  as  much  as  30  percent  or  more.  The 
separation  of  cream  mechanically  in  a  separator  is  preferable  to  the  method  of 
time  separation  by  gravity  alone.  The  cream  secured  by  the  separator  is 
very  much  fresher,  as  it  can  be  removed  as  soon  as  the  milk  is  drawn  and 
cooled.  Its  content  of  butter  fat  can  also  be  regulated  to  the  desired  amount 
and,  in  the  third  place,  a  more  complete  separation  is  secured  than  by  gravity. 
By  the  proper  manipulation  of  the  separator  almost  all  of  the  fat  in  milk  is 
readily  removed.  Cream  should  be  kept  under  the  same  conditions  as  has 
been  described  for  sanitary  milk.  When  placed  in  sterilized  containers,  prop- 
erly stoppered  and  kept  cool,  fresh  cream  will  keep  sweet  as  long  as  milk  under 
similar  circumstances. 

In  large  dairy  industries  the  separator  is  practically  the  only  method  now  em- 
ployed for  securing  cream  while  for  farm  use  the  gravity  method  of  standing  in 
a  cool  place  for  twelve  or  twenty-four  hours  is  the  commonly  practiced  method. 

Cream  is  used  on  the  table  with  fruit  and  cereal  foods  and  especially  in 
beverages  such  as  tea  and  coffee.  It  is  also  prescribed  by  physicians  for 
certain  diseases  and  derangement  of  the  digestive  organs  where  the  nitrogen 
content  of  milk  produces  irritation  and  fails  of  digestion.  Cream  is  not  a 
complete  food  in  the  sense  that  milk  is  inasmuch  as  the  other  constituents  of 
milk  are  less  in  proportion  as  the  percentage  of  fat  is  increased,  yet  cream  con- 
tains  at  least  a  part  of  all  the  food  elements  in  milk,  as,  for  example,  nitrog- 
enous constituents,  principally  casein,  milk  sugar,  and  mineral  matters. 

It  must  be  remembered  in  this  case  that  the  fat  is  the  variable  element  and  as 
that  is  increased  the  proportion  of  other  ingredients,  necessarily,  is  diminished. 
The  most  important  use  of  cream  is  in  the  manufacture  of  butter. 


176  MILK   AND    MILK   PRODUCTS    AND    OLEOMARGARINE. 

Standards  of  Cream. — The  composition  of  cream  varies  with  almost 
every  sample.  The  standards  for  cream  vary  in  different  states  and  cities. 
The  national  standard  requires  18  percent  of  fat. 

Skimmed  Milk. — The  residue  which  is  left  from  the  removal  of  cream  is 
known  as  skimmed  milk.  Skimmed  milk  contains  the  principle  part  of  the 
nitrogenous  constituents  of  milk,  the  greater  quantity  of  its  sugar  and  a  very 
large  quantity  of  its  mineral  matter.  It  is  still  a  very  valuable  food  product, 
lacking  only  the  element  of  fat.  When  eaten  with  nuts  or  other  oily  food 
skimmed  milk  would  complete  the  ration  and  make  a  well  balanced  food. 
The  chief  prejudice  against  skimmed  milk  is  that  it  has  been  so  often  sold  for 
whole  milk.  When  sold  and  consumed  under  its  own  name  it  is  not  a  fraudulent 
body  and  is  deserving  of  a  higher  place  in  the  dietary  than  has  been  ascribed 
to  it.  In  the  large  creanleries  of  the  country  the  skimmed  milk  is  usually  fed 
to  animals.  It  is  one  of  the  most  highly  esteemed  foods  for  pigs  and  poultry, 
and  is  largely  used  for  those  purposes. 

Composition  of  Skimmed  Milk. — Naturally  the  composition  of  skimmed 
milk  would  be  that  of  milk  corrected  for  the  abstraction  of  fat.  It  contains 
some  little  fat  when  prepared  by  the  gravity  method  and  only  a  very  small 
portion  when  separated  mechanically.  The  abstraction  of  the  fat  increases 
the  relative  proportions  of  sugar  and  casein. 

Curd  Test  for  Purity  of  Milk. — The  Wisconsin  curd  test  is  conducted  as 
follows:  I.  Sterilize  milk  containers  so  as  to  destroy  all  bacteria  in  vessels. 
This  step  is  very  important,  and  can  be  done  by  heating  cans  in  boiling  water 
or  steam  for  not  less  than  one-half  hour. 

2.  Place  about  one  pint  of  milk  in  covered  jar  and  heat  to  about  98  degrees  F. 
(Figs.  15  and  16). 

3.  Add  ten  drops  of  standard  rennet  extract  and  mix  thoroughly  with  the 
milk  to  quickly  coagulate. 

4.  After  coagulation,  cut  curd  fine  with  case  knife  to  facilitate  separation  of 
whey;  leave  curd  in  whey  one-half  hour  to  an  hour;  then  drain  off  whey  at 
frequent  intervals  until  curd  is  well  matted. 

5.  Incubate  curd  mass  at  98  to  102  degrees  F.  by  immersing  jar  in  warm 
water.     Keep  jars  covered  to  retain  odors. 

6.  After  6  to  9  hours  incubation,  open  jar  and  observe  odor;  examine  curds 
by  cutting  the  same  with  sharp  knife  and  observe  texture  as  to  presence  of  pin 
holes  or  gas  holes.     Observe  odor. 

f  7.  Very  bad  milks  will  betray  presence  of  gas-producing  bacteria  by  the 
spongy  texture  of  the  curd  and  will  have  an  off  flavor. 

8.  If  more  than  one  sample  is  tested  at  the  same  time,  dip  knife  and  ther- 
mometer in  hot  water  each  time  before  using. 

Normal  milk  contains  practically  no  organisms  but  the  straight  lactic 
acid  bacteria.  These  germs  produce  no  gas  and  no  bad  odors,  but  purely 
lactic  acid,  and  the  curd  formed  therefrom  is  such  as  is  represented  in  Fig.  17. 


CURD   TEST    FOR    PURITY   OF   MILK. 


177 


/        .     /      /    ' 


Fig.  15.— Improvised  Wisconsin  Curd  Test. 
C,  Can  used  to  hold  sample ;  P,  pipette  for  measuring  rennet ;  K,  knife^or  breaking  curd. 


Fig.  16.— a,  Milk  ;  B,  Broken  Curd  in  Whey;  C,  Matted  Curd. 


13 


178 


MILK   AND    MILK   PRODUCTS    AND    OLEOMARGARINE. 


Fig.  17.— Curd  from  a  Good  Milk.     Large,  Irregular  Holes  Mechanical. 


Fig.   t8. — Curd  from  a  Tainted  Milk.     Large,  Irregular  Holes  Mechanical;  Small  Pin 

HOLES  Due  to  Gas. 


Fig.  19.— Curd  from  Foul  Milk. 


KOUMISS.  179 

Milk  contaminated  by  the  introduction  of  dust,  dirt,  fecal  matter,  or  kept 
in  imperfectly  cleaned  cans  becomes  fouled  with  gas-producing  bacteria  that 
break  down  the  milk  sugar  and  so  produce  gases  and  usually  undesirable 
odors.  .  .  Therefore  milks  showing  the  presence  of  gas  or  bad  odors  in 
any  considerable  degree  are  milks  that  have  been  more  or  less  polluted  with 
extraneous  organisms  or  carelessly  handled,  and  as  a  consequence  such  milks 
show  a  type  of  curd  revealed  in  Figs.  17,  18,  and  19. 

Whey. — The  residue  left  from  milk  in  the  process  of  the  making  of  cheese 
is  known  as  whey.  Whey  consists  of  that  portion  of  milk  which  is  not  pre- 
cipitated by  the  rennet  and  which  separates  when  the  casein  of  milk  is  coagulated 
and  sets  in  the  process  of  cheese  making.  The  whey  contains  the  principal 
portion  of  the  water  in  milk,  the  most  of  the  milk  sugar  therein,  and  small 
quantities  of  butter  and  soluble  nitrogenous  portions  (albumin)  and  solid 
particles  which  remain  suspended  in  the  solution.  It  may,  therefore,  be 
properly  considered  as  milk  from  which  the  greater  part  of  the  nitrogenous 
portions  and  fat  particles  has  been  separated.  The  value  of  whey  as  a  food 
product  consists  chiefly  in  the  milk  sugar  which  it  contains.  It  is  not  very 
largely  used  for  human  food  but  is  valued  as  a  food  for  young  domesticated 
animals,  especially  pigs  and  poultry. 

Composition  of  Whey. — The  whey  resulting  from  the  manufacture  of  cheese 
contains  nearly  all  the  foods  of  the  whole  milk  with  the  exception  of  the  casein 
and  fat.  It  is  composed  of  from  6  to  8  percent  of  solids  consisting  chiefly 
of  milk  sugar,  some  albumin,  a  little  fat,  and  about  0.6  percent  of  mineral 
matter. 

Koumiss. — Koumiss  originated  in  Asia  Minor  in  the  production  of  a 
fermented  drink  from  mare's  milk,  which  is  richer  in  milk  sugar  than  the 
lactic  secretions  of  most  other  mammals.  By  the  fermentation  of  the  milk 
sugar  mare's  milk  is  converted  into  a  fermented  beverage  containing  a 
small  percentage  of  alcohol.  In  this  country  koumiss  is  made  almost  ex- 
clusively from  cow's  milk  and  by  special  fermentation  at  a  low  temperature. 
It  is  a  beverage  valued  especially  by  convalescents  and  invalids  and  frequently 
is  capable  of  nourishing  the  body  in  diseases  which  affect  the  digestive  organs 
when  other  foods  fail  of  assimilation.  It  is  also  a  cooling  and  delicious  bever- 
age for  those  in  health  when  properly  prepared  and  stored. 

Modified  Koumiss  or  Kephir. — Koumiss  made  from  cow's  milk  with  the 
previous  addition  of  milk  or  cane  sugar  to  increase  the  alcoholic  content 
cannot  be  regarded  as  a  natural  product  but  rather  one  to  which  the  term 
"modified"  may  be  applied.  The  greater  part  of  koumiss  made  in  the 
United  States  from  cow's  milk  is  of  this  modified  variety.  Cow's  milk  contains 
on  an  average  about  4  or  5  percent  of  sugar  and  does  not  yield  a  fermented 
beverage  of  a  sufficient  alcoholic  content  without  reducing  the  actual  sugar 
content  of  the  beverage  below  the  point  of  palatability.     Cane  sugar  is  usually 


l8o  MILK   AND   MILK   PRODUCTS   AND   OLEOMARGARINE. 

employed  as  the  modifying  agent.  While  modified  koumiss  cannot  be  re- 
garded as  of  equal  value  with  the  natural  article  made  from  mare's  milk  it 
is  a  palatable  and  wholesome  beverage  when  produced  and  stored  under 
proper  conditions.  The  quantity  of  alcohol  produced  in  any  case  is  not 
very  great  and  the  change  in  composition  which  renders  koumiss  so  easil}^ 
assimilable  in  many  cases  cannot  be  due  alone  to  the  alcohol  formed  but  to 
the  fermentative  changes  produced  by  enzymic  action  which  takes  place  in 
the  other  constituents  of  koumiss,  especially  casein  during  the  process  of  fer- 
mentation. 

Koumiss  or  kephir,  which  is  the  name  applied  to  koumiss  made  from 
cow's  milk,  is  also  prepared  with  the  addition  of  honey,  in  the  place  of  sugar, 
and  small  quantities  of  wheat  flour,  not  exceeding  20  parts  to  1500  parts  of 
other  constituents.  Koumiss  is  sometimes  artificially  fortified  by  the  addition 
of  small  quantities  of  alcohol,  but  this  practice  must  be  regarded  as  extremely 
reprehensible.  The  alcohol  of  koumiss  is  incidental  to  its  fermentation  and 
should  not  be  increased  beyond  the  normal  amount.  One  of  the  important 
points  in  the  making  of  koumiss  is  the  control  of  the  temperature  which, 
during  fermentation,  ought  not  to  rise  above  50  degrees  in  order  to  get  the 
best  results.  Koumiss  may  be  made  in  the  bottle  in  which  it  is  kept,  in  fact, 
it  is  best  made  so,  and  its  fermentation  then  resembles  that  of  champagne. 
During  the  process  of  fermentation  the  bottle  shoilld  be  shaken  at  least  once 
a  day  in  order  that  the  part  which  coagulates  cannot  be  unevenly  distributed 
throughout  the  mass.  The  bottle  should  be  strong  enough  to  resist  the 
pressure  produced  by  the  carbon  dioxid  which  is  formed  and  the  cork  should 
be  securely  tied  in.  As  in  the  case  of  champagne  it  is  best  to  place  the  bottle 
with  the  cork  down.  Before  using,  the  bottle  containing  the  koumiss  should 
be  well  shaken  in  order  to  thoroughly  mix  the  contents  which  form  a  creamy,, 
foamy  mass  extremely  palatable,  highly  nutritious,  and  valuable  not  only 
as  a  beverage  but  in  many  cases  of  disease  and  disordered  digestion  as  a  food. 
In  fact  the  value  of  koumiss  for  medicinal  purposes,  that  is  for  medicinal 
food,  is  not  thoroughly  appreciated  by  the  medical  profession.  This  may 
be  due  to  the  fact  that  the  art  of  making  koumiss  is  not  generally  known,  and 
while  the  general  principles  upon  which  its  manufacture  is  based  have  been  set 
forth  it  requires  an  expert  to  make  a  palatable  and  useful  article  ("British 
Dairy  Farming"  by  Jas.  Long).  It  is  worthy  of  suggestion  now  that  the  use 
of  horses  for  draft  purposes  has  practically  been  superseded  by  the  automobile 
and  the  trolley  that  the  production  of  real  koumiss  from  mare's  milk  might 
become  a  very  useful  field  of  industry  in  the  United  States.  It  is  perfectly 
certain  that  the  genuine  article  must  possess  properties  which  are  not  wholly 
found  in  the  imitations  of  koumiss  which  are  so  common  in  this  country.  It  is 
well  understood  by  physicians  that  a  natural  product  produced  from  natural 
material  is  always  superior  in  character  both  as  a  food  and  medicine  to  the 


BUTTERMILK.  l8l 

synthetic  or  artificial  product.  Whenever,  therefore,  a  fermented  beverage 
produced  from  natural  sources  is  contaminated  by  artificial  products  the 
resulting  compound  is  not  so  useful  nor  digestible.  For  instance,  wine  which 
is  made  partially  from  sugar  and  beer  made  partially  from  dextrose,  although 
they  may  be  healthful  and  wholesome  beverages,  are  inferior  in  quality  and 
character  to  the  real  product  made  from  grape  juice  or  barley  malt. 

Buttermilk. — The  residue  left  in  the  churn  in  the  manufacture  of  butter  i? 
termed  buttermilk.  There  are  two  distinct  varieties  of  buttermilk,  namely 
that  resulting  from  the  churning  of  unsoured  cream  and  that  remaining- 
from  the  churning  of  soured  and  ripened  cream.  The  first  kind  of  buttermilk 
does  not  differ  in  its  characteristic  essentials  from  skimmed  milk  and  therefore 
is  not  considered  here.  The  second  class  of  buttermilkr  is  far  more  common 
and  is  a  beverage  of  pleasing  acid  taste.  WTien  made  from  properly  ripened 
cream  it  is  wholesome  and  delicious,  especially  in  summer  time.  Buttermilk 
usually  contains  small  particles  of  butter  which  have  escaped  aggregation  dur- 
ing the  final  process  of  churning.  In  well  prepared  buttermilk,  however,  these 
particles  of  butter  are  not  very  numerous  and  they  add  nothing  to  the  palata- 
bility,  although  they  do  add  something  to  the  nutritive  properties  of  the  bever- 
age. It  does  not  differ  greatly,  therefore,  in  its  chemical  properties  from 
skimmed  milk,  although  there  is  a  slight  difference  in  the  relative  percentages 
of  the  milk  solids  in  cream  as  compared  with  the  same  constituents  in  v/hole 
milk.     The  composition  of  buttermilk  is  shown  in  the  following  table: 

COMPOSITION  OF  BUTTERMILK. 

From  Sweet  From  Sour 

Cream.  Cream. 

Percent.  Percent. 

Water, 89.74  9o-93 

Fat, '. 1. 21  0.31 

Milk  sugar, 4.98  4.58 

Protein, 3.28  3.37 

Ash, 0.79  0.81 

Acidity,- 0.80 

There  is  another  beverage  sold  under  the  name  of  buttermilk  which  is 
produced  by  the  artificial  souring  of  skimmed  milk  with  the  aid  of  appropriate 
ferments,  chiefly  those  producing  lactic  acid.  This  preparation  is  simply 
artificially  soured  skim  milk,  and  has  no  claim  whatever  to  the  name  butter- 
milk. 

Bonnyclabber. — Bonnyclabber  is  a  term  applied  to  milk  which  has  become 
soured  by  lactic  fermentation,  producing  a  gelatinous  coagulation  of  casein 
which  is  sufficiently  firm  at  times  to  prevent  the  liquid  from  being  poured. 
Clabber  may  be  regarded  as  a  natural  cheese  curd  except  that  the  fat  is  chiefly 
on  top.  It  is  a  beverage  or  food  of  a  very  agreeable  taste  to  most  persons  and 
is  often  eaten  with  sugar.     In  the  summer  it  is  often  formed  during  hot  murky 


l82  MILK   AND   MILK   PRODUCTS   AND   OLEOMARGARINE. 

weather,  especially  of  that  character  which  produces  thunder  storms.  For 
this  reason  it  is  a  common  supposition  that  thunder  or  lightning  sours  milk." 
The  thunder  and  lightning,  however,  have  nothing  to  do  with  this  process. 
The  condition  of  the  atmosphere  which  produces  an  environment  favorable 
to  electrical  disturbances  of  this  kind  also  favors  in  the  highest  degree  the 
growth  of  the  organisms  which  produce  the  lactic  ferments.  Hence  thunder 
storms  and  the  rapid  souring  of  milk  are  frequently  coincident  leading  to 
the  popular  impression  as  above  mentioned.  Inasmuch  as  the  souring  of 
milk  usually  takes  place  after  the  cream  has  risen  the  composition  of  clabber 
is  practically  that  of  skimmed  milk  modified  by  the  lactic  fermentation  which 
has  taken  place. 

BUTTER. 

When  cream,  especially  cream  in  which  incipient  lactic  fermentation  has 
been  set  up,  is  subjected  to  agitation  in  a  churn  under  proper  conditions  of 
temperature  the  particles  of  butter  therein  contained  are  collected  into  masses 
so  that  the  butter  can  be  separated  from  the  residual  liquid.  This  process  is 
technically  called  churning.  The  domestic  churn  in  its  simplest  form  is 
perhaps  well  known  to  almost  everyone,  especially  those  who  have  lived 
in  the  country.  In  the  domestic  manufacture  of  butter  the  cream  is  collected 
and  set  aside  until  sour,  that  is,  until  lactic  fermentation  has  set  up.  When 
this  is  sufficiently  advanced  the  cream  is  placed  in  a  churn,  the  simplest  form 
of  which  is  a  wooden,  cylindrical  vessel  of  appropriate  size,  being  much 
longer  than  its  horizontal  diameter.  The  churn  is  provided  with  a  dasher, 
namely  a  perforated  wooden  disk  with  a  handle  which  passes  through  a  hole 
in  the  cover.  When  the  churn  is  charged  the  butter  is  produced  by  agitation 
with  the  dasher.  In  winter  time  warm  water  is  added  to  the  mixture  in  order 
to  raise  the  temperature  to  the  proper  gathering  point  of  butter,  namely 
65  to  70  degrees  F.  For  the  same  reason  cold  water  is  added  in  the  summer 
time.  The  art  of  the  dairy  maid  is  shown  in  the  proper  regulation  of  the 
temperature  to  secure  the  best  results.  When  the  cream  is  properly  ripened 
and  the  temperature  is  suitable  the  gathering  of  butter  will  be  accomplished 
in  from  twelve  to  thirty  minutes.  In  unfavorable  conditions  the  duration  of 
churning  may  be  for  a  much  longer  period. 

In  dairies  and  large  establishments  churning  is  accomplished  by  machinery 
with  very  different  mechanical  apphances,  but  the  principle  which  underlies  the 
process  is  the  same  as  that  outlined  above.  The  accompanying  figures 
illustrate  the  process  of  churning  by  mechanical  means  in  a  modern  dairy 
(Figs.  20  and  21). 

Treatment  cf  Butter. — The  crude  butter  secured  by  churning  is  sub- 
jected to  washing  and  seasoning  processes  in  order  to  prepare  it  for  the  market. 
The  washing  or  working  of  butter  is  accomplished  by  means  of  water.     The 


SALTING    BUTTER. 


183 


object  of  this  "working"  is  to  separate  from  the  crude  butter  as  much  of  the 
curd  and  other  non-fatty  constituents  of  the  cream  as  can  be  conveniently 
removed.  The  removal  of  these  particles  not  only  makes  a  butter  of  a 
higher  grade  but  also  one  of  better  keeping  properties.  The  working  of  butter 
also  has  much  to  do  with  its  grain  or  texture,  which  is  one  of  the  character- 
istics to  which  special  attention  must  be  paid.  The  best  grade  of  butter  is 
that  which  receives  no  treatment  other  than  the  washing  and  working  process 
to  which  attention  has  been  called.     This  kind  of  butter  is  known  as  natural 


Fig.  20.— Power  Churn  Ready  for  Use.— {Courtesy  of  the  Bureau  of  Animal  Industry.') 


or  unsalted  or  uncolored. butter,  that  is,  a  fresh,  sweet  product  of  an  agreeable 
aroma,  palatable,  of  fine  texture  and  grain,  and  is  the  best  product  of  its 
kind  for  human  consumption.  It  also  brings  the  highest  price  on  the  market 
and,  by  reason  of  its  method  of  preparation,  the  consumer  can  usually  be 
assured  that  it  is  fresh  in  character. 

Salting  Butter. — In  the  United  States,  especially,  consumers  of  butter 
generally  require  that  it  shall  be  salted.  For  this  purpose  fine  grades  of 
dairy  salt  are  used  as  free  as  possible  from  impurities  and  consisting  of  fine 
particles  or  crystals  which  rapidly  dissolve  in  the  residual  moisture  of  butter. 


i84 


MILK   AND   MILK   PRODUCTS   AND   OLEOMARGARINE. 


This  promotes  a  uniform  distribution  of  the  saU  ir;  the  form  of  brine  through- 
out the  mass  of  butter.  The  existence  in  butter  of  undissolved  particles  of 
salt  is  highly  prejudicial  to  its  taste  and  character.  The  quantity  of  salt  used 
in  butter  is  determined  by  the  taste  of  the  consumer.  The  more  salt  the 
butter  contains  the  less  value  it  has  as  butter  and  hence  the  quantity  should  be 
limited  to  the  smallest  possible  amount  demanded  by  the  consumer's  taste. 
Often  butters  are  found  in  commerce  which  are  so  full  of  salt  as  to  be  v^hoUy 
unpalatable  and  there  is  a  tendency  on  the  part  of  the  greedy  manufacturer 
to  add  excessive  quantities  of  salt  because  it  is  very  much  cheaper  than  the 


Fig.  21.— Power  Chirn,  Opet^.— {Courtesy  of  the  Bureau  of  Animal  Industry .) 


butter  itself  and  thus  he  hopes  to  add  to  the  profit  of  the  mdustry.  On  the 
contrary  this  practice  usually  results  in  loss,  since  such  highly  salted  butter 
naturally  brings  the  lowest  price.  The  amount  of  salt  which  is  used  in  butter 
should  not  exceed  two  percent. 

It  is  a  common  supposition  that  salt  in  butter  is  a  preservative.  This  is 
true  when  used  in  large  quantities,  that  is,  in  quantities  which  render  the 
butter  somewhat  unpalatable.  The  very  small  quantity  of  salt  used  purely 
for  condimental  purposes  cannot  be  regarded  as  aiding  in  any  material  way 
the  preservation  of  the  product. 


COLORING   BUTTER.  185 

Coloring  Butter. — Unfortunately  the  practice  of  artificially  coloring 
butter  is  very  prevalent  in  the  United  States.  Practically  all  the  butter  found 
upon  the  market,  even  in  the  spring  and  summer,  is  more  or  less  artificially 
colored,  often  with  coal  tar  (anihn)  dyes  which,  to  say  the  least  harm  of  them 
possible,  are  open  to  suspicion  in  respect  of  wholesomeness.  The  practice  of 
coloring  butter  produced  in  winter  may  be  regarded  as  universal,  though  none 
the  less  reprehensible  on  that  account.  The  object  of  coloring  butter  is, 
undoubtedly,  to  make  it  appear  in  the  eyes  of  the  consumer  better  than  it 
really  is,  and  to  this  extent  can  only  be  regarded  as  an  attempt  to  deceive. 
If  cows  are  properly  fed  during  the  winter  months  with  wholesome,  nutritious 
food  to  which  a  small  proportion  of  roots  such  as  carrots  or  ruta  bagas  are  added 
or  with  yellow  maize  and  clover  hay,  even  in  winter  time  the  butter  produced 
will  have  an  attractive  light  amber  tint  which  appeals  strongly  to  the  aesthetic 
sense  of  the  consumer.  The  natural  tint  of  butter  is  as  much  more  attractive 
than  the  artificial  as  any  natural  color  is  superior  to  the  artificial.  There  is 
the  same  difference  between  the  natural  tint  of  butter  and  the  artificial  as  there 
is  between  the  natural  rose  of  the  cheek  and  its  painted  substitute.  It  is 
claimed,  and  perhaps  justly,  that  the  use  of  certain  vegetable  colors,  such  as 
annotto,  does  not  introduce  any  unwholesome  substance  into  the  product. 
Admitting  this,  we  must  next  ask  whether  it  deceives  the  consumer.  If  so,  it  is 
difficult  to  understand  upon  what  ethical  principal  any  plea  for  the  artificial 
coloring  of  butter  can  rest.  If  it  is  admitted  that  there  is  no  valid  reason  why 
butter  should  be  colored  other  than  the  artificial  coloring  of  foods  in  general, 
which  is  a  practice  so  reprehensible  that  it  is  almost  universally  denounced, 
its  practice  cannot  be  easily  defended.  The  dairymen  of  our  country  are 
honest  and  honorable  and  evidently  do  not  clearly  see  the  false  position  in 
which  the  practice  of  coloring  butter  puts  them.  When  the  dairymen  of  our 
country  understand  that  the  naturally  colored  products  will  bring  the  highest 
price  on  the  market  and  appeal  niore  strongly  to  the  confidence  of  the  con- 
sumer it  is  believed  the  artificial  coloring  in  butter  will  be  relegated  to  the 
scrap  pile  of  useless  processes.  It  cannot  be  claimed  in  any  sense  that 
coloring  of  butter  artificially  ever  adds  anything  to  its  value  as  a  nutritive 
substance. 

One  of  the  claims  for  justifying  the  coloring  of  butter  is  that  it 
distinguishes  it  from  oleomargarine.  This,  however,  is  not  the  case  since, 
under  the  law,  oleomargarine  may  be  colored  upon  the  payment  of  a  tax  of 
ten  cents  per  pound.  The  consumer  has  at  his  disposition  a  complete  pro- 
tection against  fraud  in  the  use  of  oleomargarine  by  the  operation  of  state  and 
federal  laws,  irrespective  of  the  tint  of  the  product.  Oleomargarine  and  butter 
are  distinguished  from  each  other  by  their  natural  colors  and  also  by  their 
chemical  and  physical  properties  and,  therefore,  there  can  be  no  justification 
for  the  coloring  of  butter  on  the  plea  that  it  distinguishes  it  from  oleomargarine. 


l86  MILK   AND   MILK   PRODUCTS   AND   OLEOMARGARINE. 

Thus,  from  every  point  of  view  it  is  evident  that  the  artificial  coloring  of  butter 
is  undesirable.  It  interferes  with  the  right  of  the  consumer,  w^ho  should  know 
the  exact  character  of  the  product  he  buys,  and  it  stands  in  the  way  of  the 
prosperity  of  the  manufacturer  by  keeping  upon  the  market  a  cheaper 
product  which  tends  to  decrease  the  price  even  of  that  of  belter  quality. 

Standard  Butter. — According  to  the  standard  established  by  authority 
of  Congress  butter  must  not  contain  more  than  i6  percent  of  water  and  not 
less  than  82.5  percent  of  butter  fat. 

Renovated  Butter. — The  law  of  Congress  which  controls  the  manufacture 
of  renovated  butter  is  executed  jointly  by  the  Treasury  and  Agricultural 
Departments.  The  quantity  of  renovated  butter  produced  during  the  year 
ending  June  30,  1905,  was  60,290,421  pounds. 

Adulterated  Butter. — The  quantity  of  adulterated  butter  which  was 
produced  under  the  authority  of  the  Act  regulating  the  manufacture  of 
oleomargarine  and  butter  and  on  which  is  laid  a  tax  of  10  cents  per  pound 
during  the  fiscal  year  ending  June  30,  1905,  was  3,671  pounds.  These  data 
show  that  the  tax  of  10  cents  per  pound  laid  upon  adulierated  butter  has 
practically  destroyed  the  manufacture  of  that  article.  Normal  butter  has 
from  12  to  14  percent  of  water.  It  is  sometimes  rechurned  with  water  to 
raise  the  water  content  to  16  percent.  Such  a  practice  results  in  adulteration 
whether  the  content  of  water  exceeds  16  percent  or  not.  ^ 

Influence  of  Food  upon  Butter.— The  character  of  butter  is  very  easily 
affected  by  the  nature  of  the  food  consumed  by  the  cow.  Butter  has  the 
faculty  of  absorbing  very  readily  odors  of  all  kinds.  Foods,  therefore,  which 
have  characteristic  odors  impart  them  to  the  butter.  A  most  striking  instance 
of  this  is  in  the  eating  of  wild  garlic.  In  this  case  both  the  milk  and  the  butter 
are  affected  to  such  a  degree  as  to  be  in  many  cases  unpalatable.  Hence  foods 
or  substances  in  foods  which  are  aromatic  or  odoriferous  are  likely  to  impart 
their  peculiar  odor  to  the  milk,  cream,  and  butter.  Of  ail  the  constituents 
of  milk  the  fat  appears  to  have  the  highest  faculty  of  absorbing  these  objec- 
tionable odors.  Therefore,  the  feeding  of  distillery  slops  is  also  apt  to  impart 
an  unpleasant  odor  to  milk  and  butter,  whereas  if  these  slops  be  dried  and  their 
volatile  aromatic  principle  expelled,  but  little  trouble  is  experienced  in  their 
use.  The  physical  characteristics  of  butter  are  also  changed  in  a  marked 
degree  by  the  character  of  the  food.  Butter  fat,  as  has  alreadv  been  indicated, 
is  distinguished  from  other  animal  fats  by  its  content  of  soluble  and  volatile 
acids  of  which  butyric  is  the  chief.  There  are  certain  kmds  of  foods  which 
decrease  or  tend  to  decrease  the  content  of  butyric  acid  in  butter. 

Influence  on  Melting  Point.— The  character  of  the  food  also  has  a  marked 
influence  upon  the  melting  point  of  butter.  The  author  showed  many  years 
ago  that  the  use  of  cottonseed  meal  as  food  for  cows  tends  to  raise  the  melting 
point  of  butter.     This  was  regarded  as  an  index  of  some  value  for  the  southern 


OLEOMARGARINE. 


.87 


portion  of  the  country,  where  a  high  temperature  obtains  over  a  period  of 
six  or  seven  months  of  the  year.  If  the  melting  point  of  butter,  which  when 
normal  is  about  t,^  degrees  C.  (91°  F.),  could  be  increased  to  35  or  36  degrees 
C.  (95°  F.),  it  would  be  of  immense  advantage  in  these  warm  climates  and, 
in  fact,  in  all  parts  of  the  country  during  the  months  of  July,  August,  and 
September.  There  is  no  apparent  tendency  to  increase  the  melting  point 
of  butter  by  feeding  other  oil  cakes. 

Transmission  of  Other  Principles  in  the  Food  to  the  Butter. — Experi- 
ence has  shown  that  when  cow^s  are  fed  cottonseed  meal  or  its  products 
the  quality  of  cottonseed  oil  which  responds  to  the  color  test  known  as  the 
Halphen  test,  namely,  the  production  of  a  red  color  with  carbon  disulfid 
and  amyl  alcohol,  is  transmitted  also  to  the  butter.  In  some  cases  this  re- 
action is  extremely  faint  while  in  others  it  is  displayed  with  an  intensity 
which  is  claimed  by  some  to  be  equal  to  that  of  the  admixture  of  5  percent 
of  cottonseed  oil  with  the  butter.  The  use  of  cottonseed  meal,  on  the  con- 
trary, does  not  seem  to  notably  affect  either  the  content  of  volatile  acid  in 
the  butter  or  its  refractometer  reading.  (Experimental  Station  Record, 
Volume  25,  page  716.) 

OLEOMARGARINE. 

Oleomargarine  is  the  name  applied  to  any  fatty  substance  which  is  prepared 
to  be  used  in  the  same  manner  as  butter.  Oleomargarine  is  defined  by  Act 
of  Congress  as  follows: 

An  Act  defining  butter,  also  imposing  a  tax  upon  and  regulating  the  manu- 
facture, sale,  importation,  and  exportation  of  oleomargarine.  (Approved 
August  2,  1886.) 

"That  for  the  purposes  of  this  act  certain  manufactured  substances, 
certain  extracts,  and  certain  mixtures  and  compounds,  including  such  mixtures 
and  compounds  with  butter,  shall  be  known  and  designated  as  "oleomarga- 
rine," namely:  All  substances  heretofore  known  as  oleomargarine,  oleo, 
oleomargarine  oil,  butterine,  lardine,  suine,  and  neutral;  all  mixtures  and 
compounds  of  oleomargarine,  oleo,  oleomargarine  oil,  butterine,  lardine, 
suine,  and  neutral;  all  lard  extracts  and  tallow  extracts;  and  all  mixtures  and 
compounds  of  tallow,  beef  fat,  suet,  lard,  lard  oil,  vegetable  oil,  annotto,  and 
other  coloring  matter,  intestinal  fat,  and  offal  fat  made  in  imitation  or  sem- 
blance of  butter,  or,  when  so  made,  calculated  or  intended  to  be  sold  as  butter 
or  for  butter." 

The  manufacture  of  oleomargarine  can  only  take  place  in  the  United  States 
under  the  supervision  of  officials  of  the  Internal  Revenue.  All  oleomargarine 
which  is  artificially  colored  a  yellow  or  yellowish  tint  in  semblance  of  natural 
butter  pays  an  internal  revenue  tax  of  10  cents  per  pound.  Oleomargarine 
uncolored  pays  a  revenue  tax  of  one-fourth  cent  per  pound.     Oleomargarine 


l88  MILK   AND   MILK   PRODUCTS   AND   OLEOMARGARINE. 

when  made  under  proper  sanitary  conditions  from  sanitary  raw  materials 
is  a  wholesome  and  nutritious  article  of  diet  and  usually  can  be  sold  at  a 
smaller  price  than  butter.  It  is  especially  a  food  product  which  commends 
itself  to  those  who  are  under  the  necessity  of  practising  strict  economy  in  the 
cost  of  food  in  the  family.  The  principal  objection,  and  in  fact  the  only 
valid  objection,  to  its  use  is  found  in  the  frauds  which  have  been  committed 
in  its  manufacture  and  sale.  There  has  been  a  constant  disposition  on  the 
part  of  dishonest  manufacturers  and  dealers,  since  the  time  when  oleomar- 
garine became  a  commercial  commodity,  to  sell  it  as  butter.  Although  the 
penalties  of  national  and  state  laws  are  very  severe  in  this  respect  the  practice 
is  continued.  The  opportunity  for  gain  is  so  great  that  the  cupidity  of  the 
manufacturer  overcomes  his  fear  of  punishment  and  disgrace.  With  a 
more  rigid  national  and  state  inspection,  it  is  reasonable  to  hope  that  this 
fraudulent  use  of  oleomargarine  can  be  avoided  and  the  pure,  unadulterated 
article  under  its  own  name  be  supplied  to  those  who  prefer  it  either  on  account 
of  its  properties  or  its  price. 

Materials  Used  in  the  Manufacture  of  Oleomargarine. — Neutral 
Lard. — One  of  the  principal  basic  components  of  oleomargarine  is  neutral 
lard  or  lard  stearin,  the  properties  of  which  have  already  been  described. 
Beef  fat  stearin  is  another  basic  ingredient  of  oleomargarine  and  is  the 
stearin  derived  from  tallow  or  tallow  itself.  Beef  fat  has  a  higher  melting 
point  than  lard  and  beef  fat  stearin  a  still  higher  melting  point  than  the 
tallow.  Hence  it  forms  an  ideal  ingredient  with  which  to  mix  the  oily  com- 
ponents which  enter  so  largely  into  the  manufacture  of  oleomargarine.  The 
beef  fat  or  beef  fat  stearin  is  easily  distinguished  by  means  of  the  microscope. 
It  forms  beautiful  radiated  fan-like  crystals,  the  characteristic  appearance  of 
which  is  shown  in  Fig.  9,  page  67. 

Cottonseed  Oil  and  Cottonseed  Oil  Stearin. — These  are  also  important, 
ingredients  of  oleomargarine  affording  the  oily  or  more  liquid  constituents 
which,  when  mixed  with  the  lard  and  stearin  above  mentioned,  form  a  com- 
pound the  melting  point  of  which  is  slightly  above  that  of  butter  and  sufficient 
to  maintain  it  in  an  unmelted  state  even  in  warm  weather.  The  quantities 
in  which  these  different  ingredients  are  used  vary  greatly  in  different  manu- 
facturing establishments  and  depend  largely  upon  the  location  where  the 
oleomargarine  is  to  be  used.  When  manufactured  for  tropical  or  subtropical 
regions  larger  quantities  of  stearin  are  employed  than  when  used  in  temperate 
zones  or  for  winter  consumption,  in  which  case  larger  quantities  of  cottonseed 
oil  and  cottonseed  oil  stearin  are  employed  with  the  mixture.  After  the 
fats  are  mixed  it  is  usually  the  practice  to  churn  them  with  milk  in  order  to 
give  a  flavor  of  butter  to  the  product.  In  some  cases  the  yolk  of  eggs  is  mixed 
with  oleomargarine,  as  it  is  claimed  that  they  impart  thereto  a  firmer  and 
more  homogeneous  structure  which  renders  the  mass  better,  especially  for 


ADULTERATION   OF   OLEOMARGARINE.  189 

cooking  purposes.  All  the  ingredients  which  are  used  in  the  manufacture 
of  oleomargarine  are  made  known  and  recorded  in  the  books  of  the  Commis- 
sioner of  Internal  Revenue  and  thus  it  is  a  product  which  it  may  be  said  is 
strictly  under  government  supervision. 

Description  of  Process  of  Manufacture. — The  fat  is  taken  from  the 
cattle  in  the  process  of  slaughtering,  and  after  thorough  washing  is  placed  in 
a  bath  of  clean,  cold  water,  and  surrounded  with  ice,  where  it  is  allowed  to 
remain  until  all  animal  heat  has  been  removed.  It  is  then  cut  into  small 
pieces  by  machinery  and  cooked  at  a  temperature  of  about  150  degrees  until 
the  fat,  in  liquid  form,  has  separated  from  the  fibrine  or  tissue,  then  settled 
until  it  is  perfectly  clear.  Then  it  is  drawn  into  graining  vats  and  allowed 
to  stand  a  day,  when  it  is  ready  for  the  presses.  The  pressing  extracts  the 
stearin,  leaving  the  remaining  product,  which  is  commercially  known  as 
oleo  oil,  which,  when  churned  with  cream  or  milk  or  both  and  with  or  with- 
out a  proportion  of  creamery  butter,  the  whole  being  properly  salted,  gives 
the  well-known  food-product,  oleomargarine. 

Adulteration  of  Oleomargarine. — Since  the  coloring  of  oleomargarine 
is  permitted  upon  the  payment  of  a  tax,  oleomargarine  which  is  colored  can- 
not be  said  to  be  adulterated  when  the  tax  has  been  paid,  although  if  coloring 
were  not  a  legalized  operation  it  would  be  an  adulteration.  Yellow  oleomar- 
garine is  an  imitation  of  natural  butter  and  its  manufacture  should  be  pro- 
hibited unless  the  product  is  marked  "  imitation."  The  character  of  the  color- 
ing materials  used  is  not  prescribed  by  the  Commissioner  of  Internal  Revenue 
but  as  a  rule  the  coal  tar  dyes  are  preferred  in  the  coloring  of  oleomargarine 
to  the  vegetable  coloring  matter  such  as  annotto  and  saffron.  The  remarks 
which  have  been  made  in  connection  with  the  use  of  poisonous  materials  in 
other  products  apply  to  oleomargarine. 

Adulteration  with  Egg  Yolks. — An  adulteration  which  has  been  practiced 
in  this  country  is  the  admixture  of  preserved  egg  yolks.  Usually  these  yolks 
are  secured  in  China,  broken,  and  placed-  in  vessels  and  preserved  with 
borax  or  boric  acid  or  salt.  These  eggs  are  generally  collected  during  the 
early  spring  and  summer  months  and  are  not  sent  to  the  United  States  until 
the  fall  or  winter.  The  importation  of  such  articles  is  now  prohibited  under 
the  food  laws  of  the  country  so  that  the  adulterations  with  the  imported 
article  is  no  longer  to  be  feared.  It  is  possible  to  preserve  domestic  eggs  in 
the  same  way,  and  the  use  of  them  in  this  manner  is  regarded  as  an  adultera- 
tion, since  such  preserved  egg  products  cannot  be  regarded  as  suitable  for 
human  food. 

Adulteration  with  Preservatives. — Fortunately  preservatives  are  not  used 
to  any  extent  in  the  manufacture  of  oleomargarine  when  intended  for  domestic 
use.  The  most  suitable  preservative  in  such  a  case  as  this  would  be  borax  or 
boric  acid.     It  is  not  believed  that  these  preservatives  are  used  to  any  extent 


190  MILK   AND   MILK   PRODUCTS   AND   OLEOMARGARINE. 

when  the  product  is  intended  for  domestic  consumption.     Whether  or  not 
preservatives  are  used  in  the  product  sent  abroad  I  am  unable  to  say. 

Production  of  Oleomargarine. — According  to  the  report  of  the  Com- 
missioner of  Internal  Revenue  the  quantity  of  oleomargarine  taxed  at  10 
cents  a  pound  produced  in  the  United  States  for  the  fiscal  year  ending  June 
30,  1905,  was  5,584,684  pounds,  and  for  1910,  3,491,978  pounds.  The 
quantity  produced  in  1910  taxed  at  one-fourth  cent  a  pound  was  85,164,655 
pounds. 

COMPOSITION  OF  OLEOMARGARINE. 
Specific  Gravi-     ■ivatc-ij  Insoluble         Sol.  Acid  by      Sol.  Acid  by         c..-  ATUTrvrTMnTnc 

TYAT40°C.  ^^ATER.  ^^^^  WASHING  OuT.      DISTILLATION.  ^^^^'  ALBUMINOIDS. 

.90490  9.34  93.59  0.12  0.25  3.64  0.35 

From  the  above  data  it  is  seen  that  the  objections  to  the  use  of  oleomargarine 
are  more  on  the  grounds  of  fraud  and  deception  than  in  regard  to  nutritive  and 
dietetic  value.  The  components  used  in  the  manufacture  of  oleomargarine, 
when  properly  made,  are  all  wholesome  and  digestible  materials  such  as  are 
consumed  in  eating  various  food  products.  It  does  not  appear,  therefore, 
that  any  valid  objection  can  be  made  against  the  use  of  oleomargarine  from 
from  a  physiological  or  hygienic  standpoint. 


CHEESE. 

Historical. — The  preparation  of  cheese  is  one  of  the  oldest  of  the  technical 
processes.  It  appears  that  it  was  known  during  the  time  of  King  David, 
at  least  a  thousand  years  before  Christ,  and  the  Greeks  were  acquainted  with 
it  before  the  writings  of  Homer.  Aristotle  and  Hippocrates  describe  the 
curdling  of  milk  which  at  that  time  appears  to  have  been  accomplished  by 
the  use  of  the  juice  of  the  fig.  The  use  of  cheese  was  very  common  in  Rome 
in  the  earlier  historical  days  but  the  most  of  it  was  imported  from  the  North. 
Caesar  speaks  of  the  preparation  of  cheese  among  the  German  tribes. 
Cheese  must,  therefore,  be  regarded  as  one  of  the  very  oldest  forms  of  prepared 
food  used  by  man.  It  probably  is  almost,  if  not  quite,  as  old  as  wine.  These 
historical  facts  are  interesting  in  showing  how  from  the  earliest  times  man 
has  made  use  of  the  natural  ferments  to  prepare  food  from  the  raw  material. 
Attention  must  be  called  in  this  connection  to  the  fact  that  many  people 
claim  that  such  foods  as  these  are  not  natural  foods  but  wholly  artificial.  The 
fallacy  of  such  a  claim  is  not  difficult  to  show.  An  artificial  food  is  one  which 
is  prepared  out  of  materials  which,  themselves,  are  not  edible  food  products 
or,  at  least,  are  not  digestible  or  of  a  character  which  does  not  naturally  occur 
by   ordinary   processes.     Artificial   foods,    therefore,    are   purely   synthetic, 


CHEESE.  ^— — -^  j^j 


that  is,  made  up  from  the  elemental  substances,  or  they  are  mixtures  or  com- 
pounds. On  the  contrary  a  food  like  cheese  or  wine  is  not  a  mixture  or  com- 
pound but  a  natural  product  from  materials  which  themselves  are  food  prod- 
ucts. Milk  is  the  raw  material  of  cheese  as  the  must  of  the  grape  is  of  wine. 
Both  milk  and  must  are  rich  and  nutritious  foods.  The  changes  which  each 
undergoes  are  in  many  respects  the  same.  The  must  of  wine  undergoes  an 
alcoholic  fermentation  and  the  milk  sugar  of  cheese  is  subjected  to  a  lactic 
fermentation  and  its  casein  to  a  proteolytic  change  which  materially  alters 
its  character. 

Cheese  products  are  a  ver\^  important  part  of  food  materials  of  the  dairy. 
The  term  cheese  is  applied  to  the  solid  product  produced  from  milk  by  coagu- 
lation of  the  casein  with  rennet  or  lactic  acid  and  subjecting  the  solid  product 
thus  produced  to  a  process  of  fermentation  and  ripening  by  the  addition  of 
appropriate  seed  material,  seasoning,  and  storage  at  convenient  temperature 
for  var}^ing  periods  of  time.  In  the  precipitation  of  the  casein  of  milk  the 
fat  particles  become  mechanically  entangled  and  form  a  part  of  the  precipitate. 
There  is  a  certain  quantity  of  other  milk  constituents  incorporated  in  the 
form  of  water,  milk  sugar,  and  mineral  matter  in  the  precipitated  mass.  The 
greater  part  of  the  other  bodies  which  the  milk  contains,  consisting  of  the  milk 
sugar  and  a  considerable  portion  of  the  soluble  mineral  matter,  are  separated 
in  the  form  of  whey.  The  composition  of  fresh  cheese  is  that  of  that  part  of 
the  milk  which  is  precipitated  and  which  is  entangled  mechanically  in  the 
precipitated  matter.  The  ripened  cheese  is  changed  in  its  chemical  constit- 
uents mostly  as  the  result  of  fermentative  action  upon  its  nitrogenous  con- 
stituents, that  is,  the  casein,  albumin,  etc.,  contained  therein.  The  ferments 
tend  to  change  the  casein  into  a  more  soluble  form  of  protein,  while  at  the 
same  time  they  develop  a  flavor  and  aroma  in  a  way  agreeable  to  the  nostril 
and  palate.  Various  forms  of  moulds  and  other  organisms  grow  on  and  in 
cheeses  which  influence  their  palatability  and  character.  The  final  product 
of  the  ripened  cheese  varies  not  only  with  the  nature  of  the  original  material 
as  determined  by  the  milk  itself  but  with  the  character  of  the  preparation 
and  the  nature  of  the  organisms  and  ferments  which  are  active  during  the 
ripening  period,  and  also  with  the  time  and  temperature  of  storage. 

Kinds  of  Cheese. — It  is  not  necessary-  and  perhaps  it  would  be  impossible 
to  attempt  an  enumeration  of  all  the  various  kinds  of  cheese  which  are  offered 
on  the  market.  The  first  classification  of  cheese  depends  upon  the  character 
of  the  milk  used.  The  term  "cheese"  in  this  country  naturally  refers  to  a 
product  made  from  cow's  milk  since  that  is  the  principal  milk  used  in  the 
United  States  for  cheese  making.  The  term  is  used  in  this  manual  in  that 
sense  and  when  there  is  no  qualifying  word  employed  it  is  always  understood 
that  the  product  in  question  is  made  from  the  cow's  milk.  This  implies  that 
the  milk  is  at  least  a  standard  milk,  that  is,  a  whole  milk,  unskimmed  and 


192  MILK   AND   MILK   PRODUCTS   AND   OLEOMARGARINE. 

containing  not  less  than  3.25  percent  of  butter  'fat.  According  to  the  defini- 
tion fixed  by  the  Congress  of  the  United  States  the  term  cheese  is  appHed  not 
only  to  this  product  but  also  to  one  containing  a  larger  percentage  of  fat  than 
this.  The  term  cheese  applies  both  to  cheese  made  from  milk  and  cheese 
made  partially  from  milk  and  partially  from  cream.  The  term  "full  cream 
cheese"  is  also  often  used  in  the  trade  but  is  likely  to  be  misleading  and 
deceptive.  The  real  significance  of  the  term  full  cream  cheese  is  that  it  is 
made  of  whole  milk  or  milk  unskimmed  which  contains  its  full  complement  of 
cream.  The  term  "cream  cheese"  is  also  often  used  to  indicate  a  cheese  made 
partially  of  milk  and  cream.  It  is  evident  that  the  term  cream  cheese  in 
this  sense  is  misleading,  since  it  can  be  properly  applied  only  to  a  cheese  made 
from  cream  alone.  Such  cheeses  are  made  but,  inasmuch  as  cream  must 
have  not  less  than  18  percent  of  fat  in  order  to  be  called  cream  according 
to  the  United  States  standard,  the  cheeses  made  from  such  a  source  are  too 
oily  and  fatty  for  ordinary  consumption. 

Cheese  Made  from  Goat's  Milk. —  Goat's  milk  is  also  frequently  used 
in  making  cheese.  It  is  extensively  employed  in  France  and  Switzerland 
for  cheese  making  and  also  in  other  parts  of  Europe,  and  to  a  limited  extent 
in  this  country.  Some  of  the  varieties  of  cheese  which  are  most  highly  prized 
are  made  from  goat's  milk,  such  as  Roquefort. 

Adulteration  and  Misbranding  of  Cheese. — The  most  common  form 
of  adulteration  or  sophistication  of  cheese  is  the  misbranding  thereof  in  re- 
spect of  the  country  where  made  or  in  respect  of  character.  This  is  a  form  of 
deception  which  has  long  been  established  in  the  trade  and  one  which  cannot 
be  condoned  or  excused.  There  are  certain  varieties  of  cheese  whose  names 
should  be  respected  and  in  fact,  in  the  case  of  all  varieties  that  have  an  estab- 
lished character  and  reputation,  their  name  should  not  be  applied  to  other  ar- 
ticles made  in  imitation  thereof.  In  this  country  there  is  a  national  law  which 
prohibits  the  marking  of  a  food  or  dairy  product  falsely  as  to  the  state  or 
territory  where  made.  For  instance,  a  cheese  made  in  Ohio  cannot  be  marked 
New  York  cheese  and  peaches  grown  in  Delaware  cannot  be  marked  Cali- 
fornia peaches,  maple  sirup  made  in  Indiana  cannot  be  labeled  Vermont 
maple  sirup,  etc.  The  ethical  principle  underlying  this  law  is  one  which  will 
meet  the  approbation  of  every  well  meaning  man  and  therefore  the  extending 
of  this  principle  to  other  forms  of  misbranding  is  an  easy  step.  If  it  is  a 
violation  of  the  law  to  mark  a  cheese  made  in  Ohio  as  made  in  New  York  it 
is  certainly  a  violation  of  the  ethical  principle  underlying  that  law  to  name  a 
cheese  made  in  Connecticut,  Camembert.  Unhappily,  however,  there  are 
cheeses  made  in  the  United  States  to  which  foreign  names  are  given,  the 
universal  excuse  being  that  they  are  cheeses  of  the  same  type.  In  many 
cases  this  excuse  is  not  a  valid  one  and  in  no  case  is  it  an  accepted  one.  To 
name  a  cheese  made  from  cow's  milk  the  same  as  that  made  from  ewe's  milk 


COLORING   CHEESE.  1 93 

is  a  distinct  misbranding  in  every  sense  of  the  term.  There  should  be  no 
difficulty  in  established  varieties  of  cheese  made  in  this  country  having  names 
which  are  not  deceptive  and  not  intended  to  mislead  the  consumer  as  to  the 
state,  territory,  or  country  where  made.  In  one  sense  all  cheese  may  be  said 
to  be  of  the  same  type,  but  because  the  taste  and  odor  of  a  cheese  made  in  the 
United  States  imitates  to  some  extent  that  of  a  cheese  made  in  France  is  no 
excuse  for  giving  the  French  name  to  the  American  product.  A  further 
illustration  of  this  principle  is  found  in  the  following:  The  term  Roquefort, 
for  instance,  is  not  properly  applied  to  any  cheese  product  except  that  which 
is  made  at  or  in  the  vicinity  of  Roquefort.  In  no  other  part  of  France  can 
cheese  be  made  bearing  the  name  of  Roquefort.  The  use  of  the  term  Roque- 
fort, therefore,  in  any  way  upon  American  cheese  is  a  misbranding  and  an 
attempt  to  deceive  which  usually  is  successful.  There  is  not  so  great  an 
objection  to  the  term  Swiss  cheese  as  to  Roquefort,  but  there  is  the  same 
kind  of  an  objection.  The  cheese  which  bears  the  name  of  Schweitzer-Kase 
is  very  extensively  manufactured  in  Germany  and  sold  under  that  name.  A 
similar  cheese  is  also  extensively  made  in  this  country  and  sold  under  the  name 
of  Schweitzer-Kase.  In  this  case  there  is  no  particular  location  or  place  which 
originated  the  name  and  has  the  sole  right  to  use  the  name  Sw^iss  cheese.  It  is 
the  name  of  a  whole  country  and  not  of  a  location,  and  yet  it  is  evident  that 
Swiss  cheese  properly  can  only  be  made  in  Switzerland  and  not  in  Germany 
or  in  the  United  States.  Any  hard,  tough  cheese  in  which  a  large  number  of 
holes  is  found  and  which  on  cutting  makes  a  flexible,  semi-leathery  shce  has 
to  a  certain  extent  the  appearance  and  perhaps  the  taste  and  flavor  of  genuine 
Swiss  cheese. 

It  should  not  be  difficult  to  find  a  market  for  all  good  cheese  made  in  this 
country,  under  appropriate  American  names  indicating  their  origin.  If  the 
term  Swiss  cheese  is  at  all  allowable  on  a  package  it  should  be  placed  as  a 
minor  part  of  the  label  and  with  the  statement  that  it  is  of  that  type.  Evea 
this  transgression  is  perhaps  difficult  of  excuse. 

Artificial  Coloring. — Next  to  misbranding  and  misnaming  of  cheeses^ 
perhaps  the  most  common  adulteration  is  that  of  artificial  coloring.  The 
public  taste  has  been  led  in  the  matter  of  cheeses,  especially  of  American 
origin,  to  look  for  a  deep  yellow  color.  This  is  also  associated  with  the  idea 
of  the  use  of  a  large  quantity  of  rich,  naturally  yellow-colored  cream.  The 
addition  of  an  artificial  color  to  a  cheese  never  adds  anything  to  its  value, 
and  to  the  really  aesthetic  eye  detracts  much  from  its  appearance.  The 
presence  of  this  rich  artificial  tint  is  calculated  in  many  instances  to  excite  a 
suspicion  in  regard  to  the  character  of  the  cheese  and  thus  interferes  with  its 
proper  gustation.  There  is  another  more  serious  objection  than  the  one 
just  mentioned,  namely,  that  it  is  possible  from  skimmed  milk  to  make  a 
highly  colored  cheese  which  would  appear  to  the  consumer  to  be  made  of 
14 


194  MILK   AND    MILK    PRODUCTS   AND    OLEOMARGARINE. 

whole  milk  or  of  milk  and  cream,  and  thus  a  deliberate  deception  is  perpetrated. 
The  consumer  of  cheese  should  demand  that  artificial  coloring  of  all  kinds 
be  omitted  from  cheese  products. 

Moreover,  these  colors  may  of  themselves  be  deleterious  in  character  and 
if  so  they  are  forbidden  by  law.  By  reason  of  the  generally  deleterious  quali- 
ties of  coal-tar  dyes  they  should  be  rigidly  excluded  from  cheese.  There  is  a 
growing  demand  in  the  United  States  for  uncolored  dairy  products.  The 
coal  tar  dyes  are  cheaper  and  produce  faster  and  more  natural  looking  tints 
than  the  vegetable  colors  such  as  annotto  and  saffron,  and  hence,  until  pro- 
hibited by  law,  they  were  almost  universally  employed.  All  of  these  dyes  in  a 
concentrated  form  are  highly  poisonous  and  injurious  and  several  instances 
are  on  record  of  death,  especially  in  the  case  of  young  children,  from 
eating  concentrated  colors.  The  fact  that  a  poison  of  this  kind  is  diluted 
by  the  cheese  is  no  excuse  for  its  use.  The  only  protection  which  the  con- 
sumer has,  which  is  reliable  in  all  cases,  is  the  prohibition  of  coloring  matter  in 
cheese. 

By  Act  of  Congress  of  June  6,  1896,  coloring  matter  is  permitted  to  be  used 
in  cheese  in  the  United  States  and  doubtless  it  will  continue  to  be  used  under 
this  authority  until  that  portion  of  the  Act  is  repealed  or  until  the  consumer  de- 
mands an  uncolored  article.  The  pure,  natural  color  of  the  cheese  is  uni- 
versally acknowledged  to  be  best,  most  palatable,  and  most  desirable. 

Preservatives. — Fortunately  there  is  httle  to  be  said  in  regard  to  pre- 
servatives in  cheese  because  they  are  almost  unknown.  The  addition  of  a 
preservative  to  a  cheese  at  the  time  of  its  production  would  so  seriously  inter- 
fere with  the  ripening  process  as  to  defeat  the  purpose  of  storage  altogether. 
Hence  in  so  far  as  preservatives  are  concerned  there  is  little  danger  of  adul- 
teration. 

Impure  Raw  Materials. — If  cheese  be  made  of  pure,  wholesome  material, 
no  inspection  of  factories  is  necessary.  But  it  is  entirely  possible  through 
carelessness,  ignorance,  or  design  to  use  in  the  making  of  cheese  milk  which 
may  itself  be  infected.  Cheese  made  from  such  milk  of  course  would  carry 
the  infection  of  the  milk.  This  is  a  sort  of  adulteration  which  can  only  be  ex- 
cluded by  careful  sanitary  inspection  of  cheese  factories.  Such  an  inspec- 
tion has  already  been  partially  instituted  by  federal,  state  and  municipal 
authorities. 

Filled  Cheese. — Formerly  there  was  a  very  considerable  adulteration  of 
cheese  by  manufacturing  it  from  skimmed  milk  and  supplying  from  an  artifi- 
cial source  the  necessary  fat.  Cottonseed  oil,  lard,  and  other  edible  oils  are 
used  for  this  purpose. 

Composition  oj  Filled  Cheese  (Circular  No.  1 1,  Bureau  of  Animal  Industry).-— 
Neutral  lard  is  the  principal  fat  which  is  substituted  for  milk  fat  in  filled  cheese. 
It  is  used  to  the  extent  of  two  or  three  pounds  for  every  100  pounds  of  skimmed 


COTTAGE  CHEESE.  1 95 

milk.  The  principal  objection  to  a  filled  cheese  is  not  on  account  of  its 
containing  lard,  which  in  itself  is  not  unwholesome.  But  lard  is  an  entirely- 
different  fat  from  milk  fat,  and  differs  in  the  character  of  the  fermentation 
which  takes  place.  The  characteristic  flavors  and  odors  which  are  contributed 
by  the  milk  fat  in  the  cheese  are  entirely  wanting,  and  the  cheese  is  devoid  of 
aroma  and  flavor  and  is  nothing  more  than  a  mixture  of  casein  with  lard. 
Filled  cheese  is  such  a  poor  imitation  of  the  genuine  article  that  it  can  never 
have  any  very  great  vogue,  and  especially  under  the  present  law  which  requires 
it  to  be  labeled  and  the  payment  of  a  tax. 

A  filled  cheese  which  is  on  the  market  not  properly  stamped  and  duty- 
paid  in  harmony  with  this  act  of  Congress  is  adulterated,  and  they  who 
make  and  sell  it  are  amenable  to  the  law.  The  annual:  report  of  the  Com- 
missioner of  Internal  Revenue  for  the  year  ending  June  30,  19 10,  shows 
that  receipts  of  $2,847.33  were  obtained  by  the  tax  on  filled  cheese  during 
that  year.  The  amount  made  is,  therefore,  insignificant  from  a  commercial 
point  of  view. 

From  the  above  data  it  is  seen  that  the  manufacture  and  sale  of  filled  cheese 
in  the  United  States  is  almost  a  thing  of  the  past  and  this  form  of  adulteration, 
assuming  that  the  law  is  thoroughly  executed,  is  not  now  likely  to  be  often 
met  with. 

Cottage  Cheese. — Cottage  cheese  is  a  term  applied  to  a  product  which 
is  usually  only  a  raw  material  of  cheese.  It  is  the  fresh,  precipitated,  and 
unripe  milk  product,  above  described  as  used  in  cheese  making.  It  is  a 
highly  nutritious  and  very  palatable  product,  usually  prepared  at  home  and 
not  suitable  for  keeping  or  transportation.  It  is  often  made  from  sour  milk 
in  which  the  casein  is  coagulated  by  the  natural  development  of  lactic  acid. 
The  sour  milk  is  placed  in  a  cloth  bag  and  the  whey  allowed  to  escape  by  grav- 
itation. The  final  portion  of  the  whey  may  be  forced  out  by  pressure.  The 
residue,  when  properly  seasoned  with  salt  or  in  any  way  to  suit  the  taste  of 
the  consumer,  is  very  palatable.  Cream  is  often  added  to  this  residue  which 
increases  the  normal  amount  of  fat  which  it  contains. 

COMPARATIVE  COMPOSITION  OF  AMERICAN  AND  EDAM  CHEESE. 
The  chemical  composition  of  some  of  the  principal  varieties  of  cheese  are 
shown  in  the  following  table: 

Water.  Ash.  Fat.  Protein. 

Percent.  Percent.  Percent.  Percent. 

American  cheese, 27.5  4.1  32.5  28.38 

Edam  cheese, 36-34  4.24  3i-i7  22.28 

The  data  show  that  cheese  is  essentially  a  nitrogenous  and  fat  food,  con- 
taining only  small  quantities  of  carbohydrates,  and  therefore  it  is  not  a  com- 
plete ration.     It  is  a  ration,  however,  which  is  complementary  to  a  highly 


196  MILK   AND   MILK   PRODUCTS   AND   OLEOMARGARINE. 

starchy  diet  such  as  rice  or  maize  bread  or  potatoes.  Bread  and  cheese  or 
potatoes  and  cheese  or  rice  and  cheese,  therefore,  make  a  well  balanced  diet, 
highly  nutritious,  easily  digestible,  and  quite  palatable. 

Manufacture  of  American  Cheeses. — The  large  cheeses  which  are 
principally  found  upon  the  American  market  may  be  said,  in  general,  to 
resemble  the  Cheddar  type,  although  the  calling  of  these  cheeses  by  the  name 
*' Cheddar"  is  misleading,  and  to  that  extent  a  misbranding  of  the  product. 

There  are  two  common  methods  of  making  these  cheeses  which  are  in 
vogue  in  the  United  States,  namely,  the  "stirred  curd"  or  ''granular"  method 
and,  second,  the  Cheddar  method.  (Bulletin  104,  Department  of  Agriculture 
of  Pennsylvania,  1902.)  The  latter  is  the  one  more  extensively  used.  The 
second  product  does  not  differ  essentially  in  character  from  the  first,  though 
the  latter  method,  it  is  claimed,  gives  a  more  solid  cheese  and  one  of  more 
uniform  character  and  with  a  slightly  less  content  of  moisture.  Since  the 
Cheddar  method  has  practically  come  into  sole  use,  displacing  the  first  method, 
a  description  of  the  Cheddar  method  alone  will  be  sufficient  to  illustrate  the 
method  of  making  large  cheeses  which  are  now  so  common  on  the  American 
market  and  which  have  such  a  well  merited  reputation.  The  process  is 
divided  into  eight  parts:  First,  coagulating  the  milk;  second,  cutting  the  curd; 
third,  heating  the  curd;  fourth,  removing  the  whey;  fifth,  cheddaring  the 
curd;  sixth,  milling  the  curd;  seventh,  salting  and  pressing  the  curd;  eighth, 
curing  the  cheese. 

Rennet. — As  has  been  said  in  the  description  of  cheese  making,  the  material 
which  is  most  useful  in  the  precipitation  of  the  curd  is  rennet.  The  rennet 
is  the  secretion  of  the  stomach  of  various  animals,  that  of  the  calf  being  most 
highly  priced  for  cheese  making.  The  fourth  stomach  of  the  animal  is  the  one 
which  is  used  in  the  manufacture  of  rennet.  The  aqueous  extract  made 
from  these  stomachs  contains  a  ferment  which  has  the  property  of  coagulating 
casein  in  a  very  high  degree.  One  part  of  good  rennet  preparation  from 
healthy  stomachs  of  calves  will  coagulate  1000  parts  of  milk.  In  former  days 
rennet  was  freshly  made  and  used  at  the  factories.  At  the  present  time  it 
is  largely  prepared  on  a  commercial  scale  and  sold  to  the  cheese  maker.  It  is 
highly  important  that  the  rennet  used  in  cheese  making  should  be  of  the  best 
quality,  as  an  inferior  grade  gives  a  bad  taste  and  color  to  the  cheese.  Just 
as  in  the  manufacture  of  fermented  beverages  and  making  of  bread  the  char- 
acter of  the  yeast  is  a  dominant  factor  in  the  nature  of  the  finished  product, 
so  it  is  even  to  a  greater  degree  in  the  case  of  rennet.  Those  who  purchase 
the  rennet  already  made  should  therefore  be  certain  it  is  of  a  quality  to  give 
the  desired  character  to  the  cheese.  The  greater  the  amount  of  milk  fat 
in  milk  the  larger  the  proportion  of  rennet,  since  the  milk  fat  protects  to  some 
extent  the  casein  from  the  action  of  the  ferment.  Experience  has  shown 
also  that  during  the  summer  the  rennet  acts  more  readily  upon  the  milk^ 


MANUFACTURE   OF  AMERICAN  CHEESES.  I97 

probably  due  to  the  higher  temperature.  Care  should  be  taken  to  avoid  the 
use  of  any  excess  of  rennet,  since  anything  more  than  the  amount  necessary 
to  conduct  the  coagulation  is  apt  to  add  an  unpleasant  flavor  to  the  cheese. 
The  curd  also  in  such  cases  is  less  cohesive  and  makes  a  tougher  and  drier 
product  which  does  not  lend  itself  so  readily  to  the  ripening  process.  For 
this  reason  the  rennet  which  is  to  be  used  should  always  be  tested  in  small 
quantities  of  milk  beforehand  in  order  that  the  proper  proportion  may  be 
definitely  known  and  the  process  on  a  large  scale  may  be  conducted  with  cer- 
tainty and  not  by  guess.    (''British  Dairy  Farming,"  by  Jas.  Long.) 

Rennet  is  sometimes  treated  with  borax  to  preserve  it  during  transit.  In 
such  cases  the  borax  may  not  all  be  removed  by  the  whey  and  is  consequently 
found  in  ripened  cheese.     Its  introduction  in  this  way  should  be  avoided. 

Coagulating  the  Milk  by  Rennet  Extract. — This  process  is  often  termed  by 
the  cheese  makers  "setting  the  milk  with  rennet."  The  milk  which  is  used 
for  the  purpose  of  cheese  making  should  be,  in  the  technical  language  of  the 
cheese  maker,  "ripe,"  that  is,  containing  a  sufficient  quantity  of  lactic  acid. 
The  principal  method  of  producing  the  proper  amount  of  lactic  acid  in  milk 
is  by  keeping  it  warm,  namely,  at  a  temperature  of  about  84  degrees.  At  this 
temperature  the  most  favorable  conditions  exist  in  milk  for  the  rapid  growth 
of  the  lactic  acid  ferments.  If  the  natural  ferments  which  produce  lactic 
acid  are  not  in  sufl&cient  quantity  in  the  original  milk  it  is  better,  rather  than  to 
wait  too  long  a  time,  to  start  the  development  of  the  lactic  acid  by  adding 
an  artificial  ferment.  Lactic  ferments  are  specially  prepared  for  this  purpose, 
or  some  previously  ripened  milk  may  be  added  to  the  mass.  This  is  called  a 
"starter."  From  two  to  five  pounds  of  "starter"  are  usually  required  for 
each  one  hundred  pounds  of  milk.  The  degree  of  ripening  is  ascertained 
by  measuring  the  quantity  of  lactic  acid  present.  The  acid  condition  of  the 
milk  is  tested  by  means  of  a  rennet  preparation  and  if  the  milk  will  coagu- 
late, when  thus  tested,  in  about  one  minute  or  a  little  more  it  is  an  indication 
that  a  sufficient  amount  of  acid  has  been  developed  to  add  the  rennet  for  the 
proper  coagulation  of  the  milk.  It  is  important  to  have  the  milk  in  just  the 
right  condition  in  order  that  the  proper  operations  in  cheese  making  may 
go  on  uniformly.  Care  must  be  taken,  however,  not  to  have  too  much  lactic 
acid  in  the  milk.  For  instance,  0.2  of  one  percent  is  too  great,  and  such 
a  milk  is  very  liable  to  give  trouble  in  subsequent  operations.  In  the  curding 
of  milk  by  rennet  the  temperature  should  be  kept  between  82  and  86  degrees. 
The  amount  of  rennet  extract,  of  course,  varies  with  its  character  and  strength, 
and  this  is  best  determined  by  the  cheese  maker's  experimenting  in  order 
that  the  proper  quantity  to  be  added  to  the  great  mass  of  milk  may  be  known 
beforehand.  A  sufficient  quantity  of  rennet  extract  should  be  used  to  curdle 
the  milk  in  fifteen  or  twenty  minutes  for  a  quick-curing  cheese,  and  in  thirty 
to  forty  minutes  for  a  slow-curing  cheese.     The  rennet  extracts  in  common  use 


198  MILK   AND   MILK   PRODUCTS   AND   OLEOMARGARINE. 

are  added  at  the  rate  of  from  one-half  to  five  ounces  for  1000  pounds  of  milk. 
Before  adding,  the  extract  should  be  diluted  with  from  20  to  40  times  its 
volume  of  water  at  a  temperature  of  from  85  to  90  degrees.  The  rennet  thus 
diluted  acts  with  uniformity  on  the  milk,  preventing  the  production  of  curd 
of  a  lumpy  character.  Previous  to  adding  the  rennet  extract  the  mass  of 
milk  is  thoroughly  stirred  in  order  to  mix  the  fat  therewith  and  the  dilute 
rennet  added  evenly  and  slowly  with  constant  stirring  which  is  continued  for 
several  minutes.  A  gentle  stirring  of  the  surface  of  the  milk  should  be  con- 
tinued until  the  curd  is  at  least  half  formed,  in  order  that  the  fat  may  not 
separate.  After  the  stirring  is  finished,  a  cloth  is  placed  over  the  top  of  the 
vat  to  keep  the  surface  of  the  milk  from  cooling,  and  the  milk  is  then  left 
undisturbed  until  the  coagulation  is  complete.  The  coagulation  goes  on 
gradually  until  the  whole  mass  of  milk  is  one  solid  coagulum  produced  by  the 
changing  of  casein  into  paracasein. 

Cutting  the  Curd. — In  order  that  the  whey  may  be  separated  it  is  necessary 
that  the  curd  be  cut  into  pieces.  The  smaller  the  pieces  of  curd,  the  more 
rapidly  will  the  whey  escape.  As  soon  as  the  curd  is  formed  it  shows  a  ten- 
dency to  contract  and  this  tends  to  force  out  the  whey.  By  cutting  the  extent 
of  the  surface  from  which  the  whey  can  exude  is  amplified  and  the  rapidity 
of  the  process  is  enormously  increased.  The  time  for  cutting  the  curd  is  a 
point  of  great  importance  and  is  determined  by  the  skill  and  experience  of 
the  cheese  maker.  If  the  curd  is  cut  when  it  is  too  soft  there  may  be  a  large 
loss  of  fat  and  a  decreased  yield  of  cheese.  If  the  curd  is  too  hard  the  whey 
is  more  difficultly  removed  and  the  quality  of  the  cheeses  is  not  so  fine.  The 
following  test  is  used  to  determine  when  the  curd  is  in  the  right  condition  to 
cut.  The  end  of  the  index  finger  is  inserted  obliquely  into  the  curd  half  an 
inch  or  more  and  then  slowly  raised  toward  the  surface.  If  the  curd  breaks 
apart  with  a  clean  fracture  without  leaving  any  particles  on  the  finger  and  the 
whey  which  exudes  from  the  broken  surface  is  clear  and  not  milky  it  shows 
the  proper  time  has  come  for  cutting.  Specially  devised  knives  are  used  for 
cutting  the  curd,  which  leave  it  in  small  cubes  of  about  one-half  inch  surface. 
Skill  in  the  use  of  the  cutting  knife  is  important  and  can  only  be  acquired 
by  proper  experience. 

Heating  the  Curd. — As  soon  as  the  curd  is  cut  the  whey  begins  to  go  out 
of  it  and  the  curd  settles  to  the  bottom  of  the  vat,  the  whey  being  of  a  higher 
specific  gravity  than  the  curd.  After  the  pieces  of  curd  sink  to  the  bottom 
the  surface  easily  reunites  and,  when  broken  apart,  additional  fat  is  lost.  As 
soon,  therefore,  as  the  curd  is  cut  the  whole  mass  is  kept  in  gentle  motion  by 
hand  stirring  or  with  a  wire  basket  designed  for  the  purpose,  care  being  taken 
to  avoid  breaking  or  comminuting  the  cubes.  When  properly  stirred  the 
A^hey  appears  clear  and  is  free  of  small  particles  of  curd. 

The  curd  contracts  and  hardens  during  this  process,  and  soon  reaches  a 


MANUFACTURE   OF   AMERICAN  CHEESES.  1 99 

condition  when  the  surface  does  not  adhere  so  readily.  The  vat  should  be 
kept  warm  during  the  process  of  separation  of  the  whey,  the  temperature 
being  raised  to  about  90  degrees  and  finally,  toward  the  last,  to  98  degrees, 
about  blood  heat. 

Separating  the  Curd. — The  precipitated  curd  is  left  in  contact  with  the  whey 
for  some  time,  and  during  this  period  some  of  the  lactic  acid  in  the  whey 
unites  with  the  paracasein.  The  setting  of  the  curd  is  finished  when  a  small 
mass  which  has  been  squeezed  in  the  hand  to  remove  the  whey  is  pijessed 
against  a  bar  of  iron  heated  to  little  short  of  redness,  and  it  is  found  that  there 
is  left,  adhering  to  the  iron,  fine  silky  threads.  These  threads  are  formed 
by  the  compound  of  lactic  acid  and  paracasein,  and  the  more  of  this  compound 
there  is  the  longer  will  the  strings  be.  When  the  curd  sliows  by  the  hot  iron 
test  strings  one-eighth  inch  long  it  is  an  index  that  the  time  has  arrived  for  the 
separation  of  the  curd  from  the  whey. 

Gathering  the  Curd. — After  the  whey  is  removed  the  cubes  of  curd  are  left 
in  the  bottom  of  the  vat  until  they  mat  or  pack  together,  a  process  which  is 
technically  known  as  cheddaring.  The  curd  is  sometimes  removed  from 
the  vat  and  placed  on  a  special  apparatus  for  this  purpose  called  a  curd-sink. 
When  the  curd  has  matted  together,  forming  a  solid  mass,  it  is  cut  into  blocks 
8X8X12  inches.  These  blocks  are  turned  in  the  vat  in  order  to  facilitate 
the  removal  of  more  whey.  The  blocks  of  curd  are  carefully  placed  one 
over  the  other  until  they  form  a  large  mass. 

The  process  of  solidifying  or  cheddaring  accomplishes  two  purposes: 

First,  the  whey  is  expelled  to  a  considerable  extent  and,  second,  the  lactic 
acid  unites  with  more  of  the  curd,  changing  not  only  its  chemical  composition 
but  also  its  physical  state  from  a  spongy,  tough,  rubber-like  consistence, 
with  a  high  water  content,  to  a  mass  having  a  smooth,  velvety  appearance 
and  feeling,  and  a  soft,  somewhat  plastic  consistency. 

Milling  the  Curd. — This  process  consists  in  cutting  the  lumps  of  curd  into 
small  pieces  in  order  to  introduce  the  salt  and  to  handle  it  more  readily  when 
it  is  to  be  placed  in  hoops  for  pressing.  This  process  is  conducted  in  special 
mills  which  avoid,  in  so  far  as  possible,  the  loss  of  fat. 

Salting  and  Pressing. — Salt  is  added  for  several  purposes,  chiefly  for  flavor- 
ing, but  it  also  has  other  uses.  It  aids  in  removing  the  whey, — it  hardens 
the  curd  and  it  checks  or  retards  the  formation  of  lactic  acid.  Excessive 
salting,  however,  is  injurious.  From  2^  to  3  pounds  of  salt  should  be  added 
to  the  curd  made  from  1000  pounds  of  milk.  Before  putting  in  the  press  the 
curd  is  cooled  to  a  temperature  of  about  80  degrees,  and  after  putting  into  the 
mold  it  is  subjected  to  pressure  to  give  it  a  proper  form,  rather  than  to  remove 
the  whey  which  is  practically  all  gone  by  this  time.  If  the  whey  has  not  been 
properly  removed  before  the  cheese  goes  into  the  press  it  is  almost  impossible 
to  get  it  out  then.     The  pressure  should  be  uniform  and  continued  for  at 


2CX>  MILK   AND   MILK   PRODUCTS   AND   OLEOMARGARINE. 

least  twenty-four  hours.  If  a  screw  is  used  the  pressure  should  be  light  at 
first  and  gradually  increased.  After  the  cheese  has  been  in  the  press  about 
an  hour  it  is  removed,  turned,  a  cloth  adjusted  about  it,  and  the  entire  surface 
wiped  carefully  with  a  cloth  wrung  out  of  hot  water. 

The  sizes  in  which  American  cheeses  are  made  depends  largely  upon  the 
market,  the  more  common  size  being  15  inches  in  diameter,  and  the  cheese 
weighs  from  60  to  65  pounds.  There  is  also  a  very  large  manufacture  of 
cheeses  seven  inches  in  diameter,  known  as  ''Young  Americas"  and  weighing 
only  from  8  to  10  pounds. 

Curing. — The  higher  the  temperature  to  which  cheese  is  exposed  in  curing 
the  more  rapidly  the  curing  process  takes  place,  but  the  poorer  the  quality 
of  the  cheese.  Experience  has  shown  that  a  low  temperature,  55  degrees  F. 
or  even  less,  gives  much  better  results,  although  it  requires  a  greater  length 
of  time.  If  cured  at  a  higher  temperature  the  fat  is  apt  to  exude,  and  will  not 
be  evenly  distributed  in  the  cheese.  It  is,  therefore,  more  profitable,  as-  well 
as  better  for  the  consumer,  to  cure  at  low  temperatures,  producing  a  supe- 
rior quality  with  less  loss  of  moisture  and  a  cheese  which  sells  for  a  better 
price. 

Moisture  in  the  Curing  Cellar. — The  cellar  in  which  the  curing  takes  place 
should  contain  air  with  a  proper  degree  of  moisture.  The  relative  percentage 
of  moisture  in  the  air  as  compared  with  the  total  amount  which  it  can  hold 
should  be  from  65  to  75.  This  is  determined  by  placing  in  the  curing  room 
a  hygrometer  which  registers  the  degree  of  saturation. 

Qualities  of  American  Cheese. — The  quality  of  cheeses  is  judged  by  (i) 
flavor,  (2)  body,  (3)  texture,  (4)  color,  and  (5)  general  appearance.  In  regard 
to  flavor  it  is  impossible  to  describe  what  is  meant.  Only  the  connoisseur 
can  determine  properly  whether  a  cheese  has  a  flavor  which  is  sound,  healthy, 
and  indicative  of  the  highest  quality.  The  cheese  flavor  should  be  free  from 
any  admixture  of  other  flavors.  Cheese  resembles  butter  in  this  respect,  that 
it  absorbs  and  then  gives  off  foreign  flavors  with  great  facility.  Therefore 
in  the  whole  process  of  cheese  making  care  must  be  exercised  to  exclude 
every  odor  or  flavor  of  an  undesirable  character  from  the  cheese  house. 

Flavor. — Under  flavor  one  may  also  describe  taste,  which  should  be  of  that 
biting,  incisive  character  due  to  proper  development  of  ripening  and  its 
attendant  bacterial  and  enzymic  products.  The  various  foreign  flavors  in 
cheese  may  be  due  to  the  odor  of  cows  or  the  stable  or  may  suggest  "rotten 
eggs, "  or  it  may  be  the  flavor  of  rancid  butter  due  to  the  decomposition  of 
butter  fat  in  the  cheese. 

Body. — This  is  also  a  term  which  it  is  difficult  to  define.  An  American 
cheese  is  said  to  have  a  perfect  body  when  it  is  solid,  firm,  and  smooth  in 
substance.  This  quality  is  ascertained  by  pressing  the  cheese  between  the 
fingers.     When  it  does  not  press  down  evenly  between  the  finger  and  thumb 


PHILADELPHIA    CREAM    CHEESE.  201 

it  is  said  technically  to  be  ''corky."  It  is  smooth  when  it  feels  like  velvet 
and  is  not  harsh  or  gritty. 

Texture. — The  term  texture  applied  to  American  cheese  refers  mainly  to 
its  compactness.  It  is  nearly  related  to  body.  The  texture  may  be  fine 
and  close  or  porous.  The  texture  is  perfect  when  a  cut  surface  of  the  inside 
of  the  cheese  presents  to  the  eye  a  solid,  compact,  continuous  appearance, 
free  from  breaks,  holes,  or  lumps.  Cheese  should  not  show  any  visible  or 
separated  moisture  or  fat.  The  texture  of  American  cheese  should  be 
smooth,  free  from  breaks,  and  fairly  hard.  The  bandage  should  be 
smooth  and  neat,  extending  over  the  edge  on  each  end  of  the  cheese  about 
two  inches. 

Color. — A  true  and  unadulterated  cheese  should  have  only  the  color  of  the 
milk  from  which  it  is  made,  and  any  other  color  incident  to  ripening  which 
is  usually  green.  Unfortunately  cheeses  of  American  origin  are  often  arti- 
ficially'  colored.  An  over-deep  yellowish  or  reddish  tint,  therefore,  should 
be  regarded  as  a  mark  of  inferiority.  Artificially  colored  cheese  should 
not  rank  as  high  on  the  market  as  that  of  a  natural  tint,  which  is  much 
more  pleasing  to  the  eye  and  much  less  objectionable  to  the  aesthetic  taste. 
Color  is  often  added  to  conceal  inferiority  in  the  milk  used. 

The  sides  of  the  cheese  should  be  straight  and  of  uniform  height  all  around. 

The  following  scale  of  points  is  used  in  judging  cheese,  according  to  the 
above  qualities:  Flavor,  45  to  50;  texture,  30  to  35;  color,  10  to  15; 
general  appearance,  5  to  15. 

Cream  Cheese. — This  is  a  soft  cheese  which  is  rapidly  growing  in 
popularity.  It  is  made  from  rich  milk  or  milk  and .  cream  mixed  together. 
It  resembles  in  general  Neufchatel,  but  it  is  richer  in  butter  fat  and 
is  put  up  in  a  different  form.  The  temperature  of  the  room  in  which  the 
cheese  is  made  is  quite  important.  It  should  be  kept  as  nearly  as  possible 
at  75  degrees.  The  milk  is  first  warmed  to  70  degrees  and  run  through  a 
separator  by  means  of  which  the  cream  is  taken  out,  together  with  one-half 
the  volume  of  milk.  This  makes  either  dilute  cream  or  very  rich  milk,  as 
you  may  choose  to  call  it.  The  cream  is  heated  to  84  degrees  and  about  four 
or  five  ounces  of  rennet  extract  added  per  thousand  pounds.  The  rennet  is 
carefully  and  gradually  stirred  into  the  mixture,  using  about  fifteen  minutes 
for  the  addition.  The  mass  is  then  allowed  to  remain  at  rest  until  whey  is 
seen  around  the  sides.  The  whey  is  then  removed  by  draining,  the  resulting 
curd  pressed  and  mixed  with  about  3  percent  of  salt.  The  cheese  is 
not  subjected  to  a  curing  process.  It  is  molded  into  rolls  from  3  to  4  inches  in 
length,  wrapped  in  thin  paper  and  tinfoil,  and  in  this  condition  packed  for 
shipment. 

Manufacture  of  Foreign  Types  of  Cheese  in  the  United  States. — The 
improvement  of  cheeses  made  in  the  United  States  by  securing  different  forms 


202  MILK   AND   MILK   PRODUCTS   AND   OLEOMARGARINE. 

of  ferments  and  utilizing  the  best  method  of  setting,  pressing  the  curd,  and 
ripening  used  in  other  countries  is  worthy  of  all  encouragement.  Unfor- 
tunately a  disposition  has  arisen  in  our  courttry  of  giving  the  names  of  foreign 
varieties  to  the  domestic  articles.  Many  fancy  domestic  cheeses  are  sold 
under  strictly  foreign  names  such  as  Cheddar,  Stilton,  Cheshire,  Schweitzer, 
Limburger,  Camembert,  Brie,  Roquefort,  etc.  In  fact  there  seems  to  be  no 
limitation  upon  the  adoption  of  a  name  already  identified  with  a  distinct 
type  and  locality.  Such  a  tendency  is  greatly  to  be  regretted  and  perhaps  it 
is  only  necessary  to  point  out  to  our  people  the  ethical  offense  which  they 
are  committing  by  such  practices  to  secure  their  discontinuance.  It  is,  how- 
ever, a  perfectly  legitimate  undertaking  to  import  the  ferments  which  produce 
the  famous  cheeses  of  the  world  and  utilize  them  to  the  fullest  extent  in  cheeses 
of  American  origin.  This,  however,  should  be  done  in  such  a  way  as  to  care- 
fully avoid  applying  the  name  of  the  original  article  to  the  domestic  product. 
Perhaps  it  would  be  no  ethical  offense  or  not  a  very  great  one  to  place  upon 
the  labels  of  the  cheese  products  a  statement  that  they  are  of  the  same  type 
as  the  foreign  product  they  imitate.  This,  however,  should  be  an  explanatory 
phrase  and  not  a  part  of  the  label  which  attracts  principal  attention.  It  is 
far  better  that  a  manufacturer  should  adopt  some  local  name  which  would 
become  identified  with  his  product,  and  thus  become  a  valuable  trade-mark. 
The  attempt  to  pass  domestic  cheese  under  foreign  names  is  an  offense 
against  good  ethics  and  also  against  the  law.  It  is  nothing  more  nor  less 
than  misbranding,  and  cannot  be  justified  even  in  the  absence  of  a  law  for- 
bidding it. 

Success  with  Foreign  Ferments. — Considerable  success  has  attended  the 
introduction  of  the  foreign  processes  into  the  United  States,  together  with  the 
ferments  which  produce  the  cheeses  abroad.  The  environment,  however, 
cannot  be  imported  and  therefore  the  ferments  may  rapidly  assimilate  differ- 
ent properties  under  changed  conditions,  and  the  continued  importation  of 
fresh  ferments  may  be  necessary  to  preserve  the  type  of  cheese.  Some  of 
the  principal  types  of  foreign  cheeses  made  in  the  United  States  are  those 
which  are  mentioned  above.  A  particularly  excellent  study  has  been  made 
of  the  process  of  making  a  Camembert  type  of  cheese  in  this  country.  (Bu- 
reau of  Animal  Industry,  Bulletin  71,  1905.)  This  particular  cheese  is  a 
type  of  Camembert  which  is  made  at  the  Storrs  Agricultural  Experiment 
Station  of  Connecticut.  For  these  experiments  a  cheese  maker  familiar 
with  the  Camembert  manufacture  in  France  was  secured.  The  method  of 
making  the  cheese  and  also  of  separating  the  curd  and  ripening  was  as  nearly 
as  possible  like  that  used  in  France.  The  style  of  the  packages  was  the  same, 
so  that  from  external  appearances  it  would  be  quite  difficult  to  distinguish 
them  from  the  genuine  Camembert  cheese  of  France.  The  success  attend- 
ing these  experiments  shows  that  it  is  possible  to  improve  domestic  cheeses 


PRINCIPAL   CHEESES   OF   ENGLAND.  203 

by  scientific  effort  in  the  direction  of  using  the  proper  ferments.  These  soft 
cheeses  made  in  Connecticut  were  of  good  quahty  and  had  something  of 
the  flavor  and  type  of  the  Camembert  itself,  though  it  was  not  difficult  for 
even  a  novice  to  distinguish  the  two  varieties  from  one  another. 

These  studies  above  referred  to  have  resulted  in  a  marked  degree  of  prog- 
ress in  the  knowledge  of  the  real  changes  which  take  place  in  the  ripening  of 
cheeses.  The  officials  in  charge  of  the  work  differ  somewhat  with  the  author 
in  respect  to  the  character  of  the  product,  claiming  that  the  making  of  Cam- 
embert cheese  is  not  dependent  upon  uniform  conditions  obtained  only  in 
certain  locahties  but  rather  on  securing  the  proper  cultures  and  conditions 
w^hich  are  possible  almost  anywhere.  The  fact  of  the  case  is  that  the  cheeses 
made  at  the  Connecticut  station  are  probably  made  under  much  more  scien- 
tific conditions  and  much  more  rigid  control  than  the  real  Camembert  cheese 
made  in  France.  The  success  which  attended  these  efforts  is  only  a  proof  of 
the  statement  made  above  that  the  introduction  of  these  processes  for  making 
fancy  cheeses  in  this  country  will  doubtless  result  in  the  development  of 
types  of  American  origin  of  peculiar  flavor  and  quality.  Such  cheeses  when 
properly  named  and  not  confused  with  those  of  foreign  origin  will  become 
quite  as  familiar  and  well  known,  both  at  home  and  abroad.  (Bureau  of 
Animal  Industry,  Bulletin  82,   1906.) 

Sage  Cheese. — The  consumption  of  the  variety  of  cheese  known  as  sage 
cheese  is  not  very  large  at  the  present  time  in  the  United  States  and  is  re- 
stricted to  certain  localities,  yet  it  is  rapidly  growing  in  favor.  Consumers 
who  are  accustomed  to  it  are  willing  to  pay  a  larger  price  for  it  than  for  ordinary 
cheese.  Sage  cheese  is  made  exactly  in  the  same  manner  as  that  described  for 
the  manufacture  of  Cheddar.  The  flavor  of  sage  is  imparted  in  three  different 
ways,  first,  by  adding  the  sage  extract  or  tea  to  the  milk;  second,  by  adding 
the  extract  to  the  curd  before  salting;  third,  by  adding  the  sage  leaves  to  the 
curd  before  salting.  The  latter  method  is  found  to  be  the  most  satisfactory 
requiring  the  least  amount  of  sage  to  give  any  definite  flavor.  Three  ounces  of 
sage  leaves  are  found  to  be  sufficient  to  flavor  the  curd  from  1000  pounds  of 
milk.  The  stems  and  impurities  of  the  sage  leaves  are  carefully  removed 
and  the  leaves  ground  to  a  fine  powder  before  mixing  with  the  curd  (Michi- 
gan Board  of  Agriculture,  1904). 

Principal  Cheeses  of  England. — The  principal  English  cheeses  are 
Stilton,  Cheshire,  Cheddar,  double  and  single,  Gloucester,  Derby,  and  Leices- 
ter. According  to  Dr.  Voelcker,  the  finest  flavored  cheese  is  Cheshire,  which 
differs  from  any  other  in  being  made  from  milk  which  is  perfectly  sweet, 
and  some  authors  think  its  peculiar  aroma  is  due  to  this  fact.  On  the 
contrary,  the  more  general  opinion  is  that  the  best  cheeses  are  made  from 
milk  slightly  sour  rather  than  that  which  is  perfectly  sweet. 

Cheshire  cheese  is  manufactured  by  mixing  the  evening  milk,  which  is 


204  MILK   AND   MILK   PRODUCTS    AND   OLEOMARGARINE. 

kept  cool  over  night,  with  the  morning  milk,  and  then  warming  the  mixture 
until  the  temperature  is  about  90  degrees.  The  proper  quantity  of  rennet  is 
added  and  when  the  cheese  is  to  be  extremely  yellow  also  some  annotto. 
After  thoroughly  mixing,  the  mass  is  left  for  nearly  an  hour,  by  which  time 
the  coagulation  is  completed.  The  next  operation  is  the  breaking  down  or 
cutting  up  of  the  fresh  curd,  and  this  is  an  important  process.  Upon  the 
care  which  is  exercised  in  doing  this  depends  in  a  large  measure  the  richness 
and  quality  of  the  finished  product.  When  properly  manipulated  the  whey 
which  is  separated  will  be  of  a  greenish  color  and  clear,  while  the  proper 
combination  of  milk  fat  and  casein  which  is  secured  in  separating  the  whey 
will  make  a  cheese  of  first  class  quality.  The  curd  is  so  dense  as  to  naturally 
separate  from  the  whey  by  deposition,  and  the  latter  is  thus  drawn  off  by  a 
stopcock  properly  placed  in  the  vat.  The  curd  is  then  placed  upon  a  cloth 
stretched  over  lattice  work  in  order  that  the  separation  of  the  whey  may  be 
complete.  Finally  before  passing  to  the  cheese  house  the  curd  is  treated  with 
eight  ounces  of  salt  to  twenty  pounds  of  curd.  After  the  cheese  is  molded  it 
is  placed  in  a  warm  room  for  one  or  two  days,  and  then  taken  to  the  press 
house  where  it  is  subjected  to  the  usual  pressure.  The  pressing  process  is 
continued  by  wrapping  the  cheese  in  dry  cloths  and  subjecting  to  new  pressure 
every  day  for  five  or  six  days.  The  cheese  is  then  removed  to  the  ripening 
cellar  where  it  is  turned  two  or  three  times  a  week.  It  is  ripe  and  ready  for 
consumption  in  less  than  one  year.  There  are  a  great  many  variations  from 
this  method  of  making  Cheshire  cheese,  but  they  all  follow  the  same  general 
plan. 

Manufacture  oj  Cheddar  Cheese. — The  Cheddar  cheese  is  made  in  various 
parts  of  England  though  chiefly  in  Somerset,  the  period  of  manufacture 
extending  from  April  to  November.  Cheddar  cheeses  are  made  in  large 
sizes  varying  from  60  to  100  pounds  each.  The  temperature  of  precipitation 
for  Cheddar  cheese  is  somewhat  less  than  for  the  Cheshire  cheese,  being 
about  80  degrees.  Rennet  is  used  solely  in  the  coagulation,  lactic  acid  not 
being  liked  for  that  purpose.  In  the  making  of  Cheddar  often  some  of 
the  fat  escapes  in  the  whey  and  this  is  afterwards  collected  and  made  into 
butter.    Two  pounds  of  salt  to  100  pounds  of  curd  are  used. 

Derby  cheese  is  a  name  applied  to  cheese  made  in  Derby.  The  Cheddar 
system  of  making  it  is  usually  employed. 

Gloster  cheeses  are  made  on  the  same  plan  as  that  of  the  Derby  and  do  not 
need  any  further  description. 

Leicester  cheese  is  a  variety  of  cheese  which  is  very  popular  and  made 
chiefly  in  the  county  of  Leicester.  The  coagulation  of  Leicester  cheese  is  made 
at  a  little  lower  temperature  than  that  previously  described,  varying  from  76  to 
84  degrees.  The  curd  is  allowed  to  stand  for  about  one-half  hour  before  it 
is  broken  up  and  the  whey  separated.     The  best  manufacturers  of  cheese 


PRINCIPAL   CHEESES   OF   ENGLAND.  205 

disapprove  of  the  use  of  artificial  coloring  and  it  may  be  said  that  eventually 
it  is  pretty  certain  that  all  cheese  makers  will  come  to  the  same  conclusion. 
The  use  of  coloring  matter  in  cheese,  even  of  annotto,  adds  nothing  to  its 
richness,  and  tends  to  deceive  the  customer  into  thinking  that  the  milk  em- 
ployed was  richer  in  cream  than  it  really  was.  The  Leicester  cheeses  are 
small  in  size  compared  with  Cheddar.  About  eleven  pounds  of  milk  are  used 
to  make  an  ordinary  cheese. 

Stilton  cheese  is  probably  the  most  familiar  and  highly  prized  of  all  English 
varieties.  It  is  not  always  to  be  obtained,  and  many  imitations  of  Stilton 
are  made  and  bear  its  name.  The  name  it  bears  is  from  the  name  of  the  town 
where  it  was  first,  and  is  now,  made.  It  is  a  cheese  which  has  been  known  for 
about  a  century  and  a  quarter.  It  is  principally  made  between  March  and 
September  and  solely  from  the  milk  of  cows  fed  on  natural  pasture,  that  is, 
for  the  finest  variety.  The  use  of  artificial  food  for  the  cows  is  at  once  detected 
in  a  change  for  the  worse  in  the  character  of  the  cheese.  At  first  the  rennet 
employed  was  made  from  the  stomachs  of  lambs  instead  of  cows  and  in  the 
olden  times  the  cheeses  were  not  considered  to  be  sufficiently  mellow  and  ripe 
until  they  were  two  years  old  and  exhibited  spots  of  green  in  the  interior. 

The  most  approved  modern  process  of  manufacture  is  mixing  the  morning 
and  evening  milk  and  bringing  it  to  a  temperature  of  79  degrees.  Rennet  is 
then  added  and  the  mass  allowed  to  stand  for  about  an  hour  and  a  half.  The 
curd  is  removed  into  cloths  set  in  frames  for  the  purpose  of  allowing  the  whey 
to  separate.  Usually  about  an  hour  is  allowed  for  the  natural  separation. 
The  cloths  are  then  tightened  and  drawn  closer  in  order  to  produce  a  slight 
pressure  and  placed  in  a  cheese  tub,  several  of  them  together,  where  they  are 
allowed  to  remain  for  twelve  hours.  Usually  a  longer  time  is  allowed  before 
the  curd  is  cut  up.  The  salt  is  added  in  proportion  of  one  pound  to  60  pounds 
of  fresh  curd.  The  curd  is  then  placed  in  tin  cylinders  with  perforated  sides, 
the  cylinder  being  1 2  inches  deep  and  1 2  inches  in  diameter,  and  put  in  a  room 
at  about  65  degrees  to  favor  the  separation  of  the  whey  which  requires  from 
six  to  seven  days.  The  cheeses  are  then  removed  from  the  cylinders,  brought 
into  proper  shape  by  a  knife  and  wrapped  with  strong  cotton  cloth  and  allowed 
to  remain  for  twelve  days  longer  when  they  are  removed  to  the  drying  room 
and  kept  at  65  degrees.  During  this  process  the  original  curd  placed  in  the 
cell  loses  about  one-half  its  weight  so  that  ten  pounds  of  curd  in  the  end  make 
five  pounds  of  cheese.  A  very  common  method  also  is  to  make  cheese  twice 
a  day  from  morning  milk  and  evening  milk  separately.  Extra  cream  is  often 
added  in  making  Stilton  cheese,  only  whole  milk  or  milk  and  added  cream 
being  used.  The  principal  point  to  be  considered  with  curing  is  the  regulation 
of  the  temperature. 

Other  varieties  of  cheese  which  are  known  in  England  are  mostly  named 
from  the  localities  where  they  are^  produced  and  partake  in  general  of  the 


2o6  MILK  AND   MILK   PRODUCTS   AND   OLEOMARGARINE. 

character  of  cheeses  already  described.  These  are  Lancastershire,  Wensley- 
dale,  skimmed  milk  cheese,  butter  milk  cheese,  potato  cheese,  and  various 
forms  of  soft  cheese  or  those  used  without  being  allowed  to  ripen  for  any 
length  of  time. 

Varieties  of  Cheese  Made  in  France. — There  is  a  general  idea  that 
France  is  pre-eminently  a  cheese  making  country  and  this  is  true  in  so  far  as  the 
making  of  certain  brands  of  cheese  which  have  international  reputations  is 
concerned.  France,  however,  according  to  statistics,  imports  a  larger  quantity 
of  cheese  than  she  exports  though  probably  the  value  of  her  exports  is  greater 
than  the  imports  because  of  the  high  character  and  price  of  the  exported 
articles. 

Manufacture  of  Camemhert. — The  first  cheese  of  this  variety  was  made 
in  1 79 1  by  Marie  Fontaine  on  a  farm  in  the  community  of  Camembert,  near 
Vimontiers.  The  period  of  manufacture  of  Camembert  cheese  extends 
from  March  to  September.  It  is  made  from  whole  cow's  milk  from  which 
none  of  the  cream  has  been  extracted.  The  rennet  is  added  at  the  temperature 
at  which  the  milk  comes  from  the  cow  as  nearly  as  possible  and  the  milk  is 
artificially  heated,  the  morning  and  evening  milk  being  mixed,  to  this  tem- 
perature. After  the  addition  of  rennet  the  milk  is  gently  stirred  for  two  or 
three  minutes,  a  wooden  cover  placed  over  the  pan,  and  left  for  five  or  six 
hours.  The  curd  is  sufficiently  set  when  touched  with  the  finger  it  does  not 
adhere  thereto.  The  curd  is  removed  from  the  pan  by  a  spoon  and  put  into 
cylindrical  metal  molds  open  at  the  end  and  from  these  molds  the  whey  is 
allowed  to  escape.  It  requires  about  two  liters  of  milk  to  make  one  cheese. 
The  whey  is  allowed  to  drain  for  about  two  days.  After  that  time  the  mold 
is  turned,  a  little  fine  white  salt  placed  upon  the  top  and  allowed  to  drain  for 
another  day.  After  about  48  hours 'the  cheeses  are  taken  from  the  molds 
and  salted.  They  are  then  placed  in  the  drying  room  upon  racks  covered 
with  straw.  The  drying  room  must  be  well  ventilated  and  the  air  which  is 
blown  in  for  ventilation  must  be  strained  to  be  free  of  dust  and  insects.  Care 
is  taken  also  to  exclude  the  sunlight,  as  this  is  very  injurious  to  the  proper 
development  and  ripening  of  cheese.  The  cheese  remains  in  the  dryer  from 
20  to  25  days.  The  ripening  cellar  is  the  next  point  to  which  the  cheese  is 
removed,  and  this  cellar  is  kept  as  nearly  as  possible  at  50  degrees  F.  The 
cheeses  remain  in  the  ripening  cellar  about  30  days,  during  which  time  they  are 
frequently  turned  and  carefully  watched.  The  progress  of  the  fermentation 
which  takes  place  in  the  cheese  is  indicated  by  its  appearance.  In  modem 
times  the  manufacture  of  Camembert  cheese  is  continued  practically  through- 
out the  whole  year,  but  the  artificially  ripened  cheese,  that  is,  made  during  the 
winter  by  the  aid  of  artificial  heat,  does  not  compare  in  quality  with  the 
product  which  is  naturally  ripened  during  the  summer  months.     The  manu- 


VARIETIES    OF   CHEESE   MADE   IN   FRANCE.  207 

facture  of  Camembert  cheese  has  extended  to  a  considerable  distance  from 
the  original  village,  but  it  is  all  made  in  that  part  of  France. 

Emmenthaler  Cheese. — Emmenthaler  cheese  is  a  variety  of  Swiss  cheese  of 
the  same  type  as  Gruyere.  It  is  sometimes  called  the  "cart-wheel"  cheese 
on  account  of  its  immense  size.  These  cheeses  are  sometimes  three  or  four 
feet  in  diameter  and  of  a  disk-like  shape,  something  like  a  wooden  wheel 
sawed  out  of  a  round  tree.  It  is  a  cheese  which  was  originally  made  in  Switzer- 
land, although  the  manufacture  of  it  has  spread  over  into  that  part  of  France 
bordering  Switzerland.  It  has  the  general  character  of  Swiss  cheese  in 
texture,  also  in  composition  and  nutritive  value. 

Brie  Cheese. — This  is  one  of  the  most  famous  of  French  cheeses.  It  is 
made  in  the  form  of  a  round  flat  mass  about  i6  inches  in  diameter  for  the 
grande  Brie  and  12  inches  in  diameter  for  the  petite  Brie.  The  thickness 
of  the  cheese  is  about  one  inch.  The  method  of  preparation  is  not  very  greatly 
different  from  that  of  cheeses  in  general.  During  the  curing  process,  as  in 
the  case  of  Camembert,  mould  develops,  especially  on  the  outside  of  the  cheese, 
and  the  change  which  goes  on  in  the  interior  breaks  down  the  casein,  forming 
a  creamy  mass  of  a  strong,  piquant  flavor.  The  mould  which  grows  upon 
the  outside  of  Brie  cheese  gives  it  a  strong  odor  which  reminds  one  of  decom- 
position. Brie  cheese  might  be  said  to  resemble  in  general  properties  the 
Camembert  variety  of  cheese. 

Roquefort  cheese  is  a  very  popular  cheese  made  in  France  from  sheep's 
milk.  When  properly  ripened  it  shows  a  green  mould.  It  is  made  in  a  par- 
ticular way  at  Roquefort,  and  according  to  Konig  has  the  following 
composition: 

Water, 3685  percent 

Fat, 30.61 

Proteids, 25.25        " 

Lactic  acid, i  .90        " 

Ash, 5.39 

Port  Du  Saint. — This  variety  of  cheese  has  a  most  deserving  popularity, 
not  only  upon  the  Continent  but  in  the  United  States.  It  is,  however,  not  so 
generally  known  in  this  country  as  the  Roquefort  and  Camembert  varieties. 
It  was  long  manufactured  by  a  secret  process  by  the  Trappist  monks  of 
Bricquebec  in  the  Department  of  Manche. 

The  secret  of  the  manufacture  of  this  variety  of  cheese  is  guarded  with  the 
same  jealousy  by  the  monks  as  is  the  secret  of  making  the  chartreuse  liqueur. 
Port  Du  Salut  is  always  put  up  in  very  small  packages  of  cylindrical  form, 
flat,  and  about  one  inch  in  thickness.  The  cheese  has  a  number  of  holes,  in 
which  it  resembles  the  Swiss  cheese.  Its  flesh,  however,  is  mellow,  and  does 
not  have  the  toughness  nor  solidity  which  characterizes  the  flesh  of  Swiss 
cheese.  Although  the  monks'  secret  has  been  well  guarded  the  general  method 
of  its  manufacture  has  been  described  ("  Cheese  and  Cheese  Making,"  by  Jas. 


2o8  MILK   AND   MILK   PRODUCTS   AND   OLEOMARGARINE. 

Long  and  John  Benson).  The  milk  is  brought  to  a  temperature  of  86  degrees 
F.,  and  is  treated  with  rennet  in  such  a  way  as  to  separate  the  curd  in  about 
one-half  hour.  The  separation  of  whey  is  secured  in  the  usual  manner^ 
first,  by  allowing  broken  curd  to  stand,  and  afterwards  by  pressure.  A 
peculiar  form  of  pressure  is  said  to  be  used  by  the  monks, — a  number  of 
screws  are  placed  side  by  side  on  a  beam  and  a  number  of  cheeses  may  be 
pressed  at  the  same  time.  The  pressure  is  applied  solely  by  the  hands  and 
so  is  not  very  severe.  After  pressure  the  cheeses  are  placed  in  a  ripening 
cellar,  which  is  kept  at  about  54  degrees  F.  Care  is  taken  in  the  ripening  that 
the  cheese  does  not  become  too  dry. 

Pont  VEveque  cheese  is  well  known  upon  the  Continent,  especially  in 
France  where  it  is  made.  It  takes  its  name  from  the  village  where  the  manu- 
facture is  carried  on,  which  is  not  very  far  from  Havre.  The  cheese  is  usually 
put  up  in  a  square  or  oblong  package  about  one  inch  in  thickness  and  of  a 
size  weighing  about  one  pound.  It  has  a  tough  crust  and  may  be  kept  for 
some  time  after  it  is  ripe  with  safety.  The  milk  is  set  at  a  temperature  of 
88  degrees  and  a  sufficient  amount  of  rennet  added  to  produce  precipitation 
of  the  curd  in  about  fifteen  minutes. 

When  the  curd  is  stiff  enough  to  be  cut  and  removed  it  is  placed  upon  a  mat 
made  of  rye  straw  through  which  the  whey  is  allowed  to  filter.  As  the  whey 
runs  off  the  curd  becomes  tougher  and  the  mat  is  brought  together  in  such 
a  way  as  to  exert  gentle  pressure.  This  separation  of  the  whey  is  continued 
until  the  curd  can  be  placed  in  metal  molds  which  vary  in  size  according  to 
the  size  of  the  intended  cheeses.  The  cheese  is  ripened  at  a  temperature  of 
about  58  degrees  in  a  humid  cellar  so  as  not  to  lose  too  much  water. 

Gervais  cheese  belongs  strictly  to  the  family  of  fancy  cheese,  being  made 
of  a  mixture  of  milk  and  cream.  It  is  produced  in  large  quantities  in  France 
and  finds  almost  an  exclusive  domestic  market.  It  is  named  for  its  manu- 
facturer, M.  Gervais.  The  mixture  is  set  at  a  very  low  temperature,  about 
65  degrees.  The  rennet  which  is  used  is  diluted  with  water  and  added  in 
small  quantities  so  that  the  curd  does  not  separate  for  eight  or  ten  hours.  The 
whey  is  separated  in  a  cloth  bag  and  under  very  gentle  pressure.  The 
cheeses  are  usually  sold  in  only  a  partially  ripe  state  and  the  cheese 
combines  the  flavor  of  both  cheese  and  cream. 

Bondon  cheese  is  another  cheese  which  is  made  largely  in  the  region  of 
Rouen.  The  size  of  the  cheese  is  usually  very  small,  from  seven  to  nine  being 
made  from  a  gallon  of  milk.  The  method  of  manufacture  is  more  like  that 
of  Gervais  and  differs  from  it  chiefly  in  being  made  solely  from  milk  instead 
of  a  mixture  of  milk  and  cream. 

Limburger  Cheese. — Limburger  cheese  is  one  of  the  most  famous  of  the 
different  varieties  of  foreign  cheese,  chiefly  because  of  its  bad  odor.  This 
odor  is  due  to  specific  forms  of  ferments  introduced  during  the  ripening 


LIMBURGER   CHEESE.  209 

process.  Generally  Limburger  cheese  is  made  from  pure  milk,  but  occasion- 
ally skimmed  or  partially  skimmed  milk  is  used.  The  milk  is  set  at  rather 
a  high  temperature,  from  92  to  100  degrees.  After  the  coagulation  has  taken 
place  the  curd  is  broken  into  pieces  the  size  of  a  hen's  egg  and  allowed  to  settle 
to  the  bottom  of  the  kettle  as  the  whey  separates.  In  England  a  copper  kettle 
is  usually  employed  for  the  testing  vessel.  After  the  whey  has  separated  the 
curd  is  taken  out  and  placed  in  rectangular  molds  with  perforated  bottoms, 
then  laid  on  tables  so  that  the  remaining  portion  of  the  whey  may  drain  off. 
The  molds  are  turned  from  time  to  time  to  promote  the  separation  of  the  whey 
and  to  make  the  cheeses  keep  their  form.  The  cheeses  are  next  placed  in 
rows  on  a  flat  table  with  thin  pieces  of  boards  between  them  and  subjected  to 
light  pressure.  During  this  time  they  are  salted  by  applying  salt  externally 
and  rubbing  the  surface  at  frequent  intervals  for  three  or  four  days.  The 
salt  dissolves  and  permeates  the  mass.  During  the  salting  and  pressing 
the  cheeses  are  kept  at  a  uniform  temperature  of  about  60  degrees.  The 
curing  takes  place  in  cellars,  well  ventilated  but  very  moist,  at  a  temperature 
of  about  60  degrees.  As  the  cheeses  ripen  they  grow  soft.  The  curd  takes 
on  its  characteristic  greasy  appearance  at  the  time  of  the  ripening,  becoming, 
at  first,  a  yellow  and  then  a  reddish  yellow.  The  softening  begins  on  the 
outside  and  proceeds  toward  the  center  and  the  cheese  is  considered  to  be 
marketable  when  one-fourth  of  it  has  taken  on  its  characteristic  texture. 
The  softening  of  Limburger  cheese  is  due  to  a  ferment  which  breaks  dow^n  into 
a  soft  mass  the  casein  or  paracasein  of  which  the  cheese  is  largely  composed. 
By  using  the  same  kind  of  ferments  and  by  following  the  same  process,  imita- 
tions of  Limburger  cheese  are  made  in  .the  United  States  and  other  countries. 
These  imitations,  however,  never  equal  the  original  in  the  character  of  the 
product  nor  in  flavor  or  taste,  and  should  not  bear  the  name  of  the  real  article. 

COMPOSITION  OF  LIMBURGER  CHEESE. 

Water, 35.7   percent 

Fat, 34.2 

Casein  products, , 24.2         " 

Milk  sugar  and  undetermined, 3.0  " 

Ash,...l 2.9 

Limburger  cheese  was  first  made  in  the  Province  of  Liittick  in  Belgium.. 
It  has,  however,  come  to  be  considered  chiefly  as  of  German  production.. 
The  chief  cause  of  the  putrefactive  fermentation  which  takes  place  in  Limbur- 
ger cheese  is  the  extremely  moist  condition  in  w^hich  it  is  kept.  For  this 
purpose  the  atmosphere  of  the  ripening  cellar  should  be  almost  saturated 
with  aqueous  vapor,  containing  at  least  95  percent  of  its  maximurn  degree 
of  saturation.  This  moist  atmosphere,  together  with  the  low  temperature- 
at  which  the  curing  takes  place,  keeps  the  cheese  soft  and  promotes  the  putri^ 
factive  ferments.  Under  these  conditions  the  surface  soon  begins  to  get 
IS 


2IO  MILK  AND   MILK  PRODUCTS   AND   OLEOMARGARINE. 

shiny  and  soft  and  changes  from  white  to  a  reddish  yellow.  This  change 
makes  its  way  to  the  center,  converting  the  harsh  curd  to  a  soft  condition. 
The  time  required  for  this  softening  of  the  cheese  is  from  four  to  six  weeks. 
("Cheese  Making,"  by  John  W.  Decker.) 

Edam  Cheese. — Edam  cheese  is  one  of  the  most  famous  of  the  cheeses  of 
Holland.  It  is  made  at  the  town  of  Edam,  situated  on  the  Zuyder  Zee,  about 
twelve  miles  northeast  of  Amsterdam.  The  milk  from  which  Edam  cheese 
is  made  should  be  properly  acidified  as  has  already  been  described.  The 
coagulation  takes  place  and  the  curd  is  separated  by  much  the  same  method 
as  is  used  in  the  manufacture  of  Cheddar  cheese.  The  curd  is  held  for  a  time 
in  the  vat  in  a  granular  condition  in  order  to  develop  greater  acidity  and  until 
it  w^ill  string  one-half  inch  or  one  inch  on  the  hot  iron  already  described.  It  is 
then  ready  for  the  mold.  The  molds  are  of  such  a  character  as  to  give  the 
cheese  a  spherical  shape  about  six  inches  in  diameter.  Each  cheese  weighs 
about  four  pounds.  It  has  a  perfectly  solid  texture  and  its  flavor  is  something 
like  that  of  old  Cheddar,  except  that  it  is  a  little  more  salty  and  somewhat 
harder.  It  is  cured  at  a  temperature  of  about  60  degrees  and  at  a  humidity 
of  about  80  degrees.  The  curing  period  is  somewhat  longer  than  for  most 
cheeses,  lasting  about  eight  or  ten  months  and  even  a  year.  A  slow  curing 
is  particularly  necessary  in  the  production  of  Edam  cheese. 

Coating  with  Parafjine. — In  the  curing  of  cheese  sometimes  it  is  coated 
with  paraffine  to  avoid  loss  of  weight.  Coating  with  paraffine  does  not  neces- 
sarily interfere  with  the  character  of  the  cheese,  though  it  is  probable  that  it 
must  interfere  in  some  way  with  the  normal  ferments.  Paraffine  is  wholly 
indigestible  and  may  produce  injurious  effects  if  swallowed  with  the  cheese. 
("Farmers'  Bulletins,"  Nos.  186-190.) 

Fancy  Cheeses. — There  is  a  large  number  of  cheeses  made  in'which  cream 
enters  as  a  prominent  part.  It  is  difficult  to  give  these  any  particular  name 
and  the  term  "  fancy  cheese  "  has  been  applied  to  this  form  of  cheese  as  a  whole. 
They  are  usually  put  up  in  small  packages  or  little  pots  and  thus  form  an 
article  of  diet  quite  distinct  from  the  large  press  cheese  of  commerce.  In  fact 
they  are  intended  more  for  condimental  purposes  and  to  be  eaten  in  something 
of  the  same  manner  as  but.ter  rather  than  cheese.  These  cheeses  usually 
are  sold  for  a  much  higher  price  and,  therefore,  can  be  regarded  more  as  a 
luxury  than  as  a  regular  article  of  diet. 

It  might  be  well  to  mention  some  of  the  more  particular  varieties  of  these 
fancy  cheeses. 

Gruyhe. — Gruyere  is  a  cheese  made  in  Switzerland,  where  it  is  much  prized 
and  from  where  it  is  sent  to  the  various  parts  of  the  world.  It  is  a  pressed 
cheese  of  a  somewhat  larger  size  than  the  fancy  cheeses  already  described, 
and  it  is  difficult  to  say  whether  or  not  it  should  find  a  place  among  them. 

Parmesan. — Parmesan  is  a  variety  of  cheese  made  in  Italy.     It  is  about 


BACTERIAL   ACTIVITY    IN    CHEESE.  211 

the  same  size  as  Gruyere  and  thus  has  an  intermediate  place  between  the 
large  pressed  cheeses  of  commerce  and  the  fancy  cheeses  above  mentioned. 

Gorgonzola  is  an  Italian  cheese  mottled  by  a  chromogenic  penicillium  much 
like  Roquefort.  It  is  in  one  sense  a  fancy  cheese  and  yet  is  made  in  such 
quantities  as  to  belong  rather  to  the  commercial  varieties.  It  is  manufactured 
chiefly  in  Lombardy. 

Bacterial  Activity  in  Cheese. — Modern  science  has  led  to  the  conclusion 
that  the  ripening  of  cheese  is  due  principally  to  bacterial  activity.  The 
changes  which  take  place  in  the  chemical  and  physical  properties  of  cheese 
materials,  the  flavor  and  aroma  which  are  developed,  the  production  of  mould 
and  other  growths  are  marks  of  the  activity  of  organisms  of  different  character, 
living  and  unorganized.  Due  credit  must  be  given  to  the  enzymic  (unorganized) 
action  in  these  processes  and  the  enzymes  are  not  regarded  as  living  organisms 
but,  on  the  other  hand,  as  catalytic  agents  inducing  chemical  changes  similar 
to  those  produced  in  starch  by  the  action  of  diastase.  The  peculiar  flavors 
of  cheeses  which  are  found  in  different  kinds  have  been  ascribed  in  late  years 
almost  exclusively  to  the  character  of  bacterial  activity.  This  assumption 
is  perhaps  correct,  but  it  must  not  be  forgotten  in  this  connection  that  the 
same  species  of  bacteria,  in  changed  environments,  does  not  always  produce 
the  same  results.  The  activities  of  bacteria  are  peculiarly  sensitive  to  the 
environment,  such  as  change  of  temperature,  physical  conditions  of  different 
kinds,  locality,  and  other  factors  of  a  complex  nature,  making  up  the  total 
conditions  in  which  the  organisms  live.  For  this  reason  the  attempts  to 
produce  peculiar  cheeses  which  belong  in  particular  localities  in  other  locali- 
ties have  not  been  gustatorily  even  if  technically  successful.  It  is  true  that 
cheeses  may  be  made  of  the  types  mentioned,  having  some  of  the  general  char- 
acteristics but  lacking  that  indescribable  something  which  after  all  gives 
true  character.  Just  as  it  is  impossible  to  make  a  Rhine  wine  in  California 
or  a  Bordeaux  wine  in  New  York  so  is  it  impossible  to  make  a  Cheddar  cheese 
in  Ohio  or  a  Camembert  cheese  in  Connecticut. 

Number  of  Bacteria. — The  number  of  bacteria,  per  gram,  which  appear  in 
cheese  varies  according  to  the  age  of  the  cheese,  conditions  under  which  it  is 
made,  temperature,  etc.  The  usual  number  of  bacteria  in  one  gram  of 
cheese  varies  from  five  hundred  thousand  to  nearly  one  hundred  million 
(21st  Annual  Report  of  the  Wisconsin  Agricultural  Experiment  Station). 

Aging  does  not  seem  to  increase  the  number  of  organisms,  since  it  has  been 
found  by  some  observers  that  the  maximum  number  present  in  cheese  is 
found  at  the  time  it  is  taken  from  the  press.  It  is  difficult  also  to  properly 
sample  a  cheese  for  the  number  of  bacteria,  since  they  are  unequally  distributed 
in  different  parts  thereof,  and  the  trier,  by  means  of  which  the  sample  is  secured, 
may  show  largely  differing  numbers  in  different  parts  of  the  same  cheese. 
During  the  process  of  curing,  especially  if  the  curing  be  at  a  high  temperature, 


212  MILK    AND    MILK    PRODUCTS    AND    OLEOMARGARINE. 

the  number  of  organisms  decreases.  At  first  the  decrea,se  is  very  rapid  and 
then  becomes  slower  as  the  cheese  becomes  riper.  The  decrease  in  the 
number  of  bacteria  when  the  temperature  of  curing  is  raised  is  somewhat 
contrary  to  expectations.  It  has  been  found  that  when  a  cheese  is  taken  from 
cold  storage,  say  at  24  degrees  F.,  and  placed  in  a  temperature  of  60  degrees 
F.,  the  decline  in  the  number  of  bacteria  is  always  greater  than  when  the 
cheese  is  retained  at  the  lower  temperature.  This  may  be  due  to  the  fact 
that  bacteria  which  have  been  developed  at  a  low  temperature  may  lose 
their  vitality  at  a  higher  one.  Furthermore,  the  development  of  flavor  does 
not  seem  to  depend  upon  the  number  of  organisms  since  the  peculiar 
flavor  of  cheese  is  more  rapidly  developed  at  the  higher  temperature,  pro- 
vided it  be  not  too  high,  although  this  be  attended  with  a  diminution  in 
the  number  of  organisms.  Evidently  the  conditions  which  favor  the  meta- 
bolic activities  of  organisms  also  favor  their  destruction,  since  when  they  have 
performed  their  functions  they  undergo  natural  disintegration.  The  character 
of  cheese  is  such  that  when  it  is  once  formed  there  is  no  more  opportunity 
given  for  a  rapid  proliferation  of  the  organisms. 

It  may  be  found,  however,  that  the  development  of  bacterial  life  is  not  the 
sole  or  perhaps  not  the  dominant  factor  in  the  development  of  flavors  and 
aromas  in  cheeses  but  that  this  process  is  due  very  largely  to  the  enzymic 
activities  obtained  from  the  rennet  and  which  pre-exist  in  the  milk. 

Chemical  Changes  Which  Take  Place  During  the  Ripening  of  the 
Cheese. — Loss  of  Weight. — During  the  process  of  ripening  of  cheese  there 
is  considerable  loss  of  weight,  amounting  to  from  1 5  to  20  percent  of  the  total 
weight  of  the  fresh  product.  This  loss  is  due  chiefly  to  the  evaporation  of 
water,  while  in  the  fermentation  which  takes  place  volatile  bodies  are  formed 
which  also  escape  with  the  water.  For  instance,  any  free  gas,  either  carbon 
dioxid,  hydrogen,  or  nitrogen,  which  is  produced  will  escape,  likewise  any 
alcohol  which  is  formed  will  at  least  partially  volatilize.  There  may  be 
also  a  slight  loss  due  to  mechanical  attrition,  but  that  is  not  of  any  consequence. 
Owing  to  the  loss  of  water  some  of  the  constituents  which  may  diminish  in 
actual  quantity  have  their  percentages  proportionately  increased.  These 
changes  are  illustrated  by  the  following  analytical  data: 

Water.  Protein.  Fat.  Milk  Sugar.  Ash. 

Fresh  cheese, 40.42  24.80  28  1.65  5.43 

In  the  dry  substance, 41.62  46.99  ----  .- 

Same  cheese  one  year  old, 33-12  27.35  3i-7o  2.96  4.87 

In  the  dry  substance, 40.89  47.40  ....  .... 

The  quantity  of  water  which  is  lost  in  part  depends  upon  the  temperature 
of  the  store  house  and  the  dryness  of  the  air.  The  loss  of  water  should  not 
be  too  great,  otherwise  the  cheese  would  be  dry  and  the  ripening  process  would 
not  go  on  in  a  proper  manner.     In  some  of  the  processes  which  take  place 


CHEMICAL  CHANGES   IN   RIPENING   OF   CHEESE.  213 

during  the  ripening  of  cheese  water  is  formed.  If,  therefore,  there  is  no  loss 
of  weight  during  the  process  of  ripening,  the  ripened  cheese  would  have  more 
water  than  the  fresh  cheese  and  this  would  impair  the  quality  of  the  product. 
The  loss  of  a  certain  part  of  water,  namely,  from  15  to  20  percent  must  be 
regarded  as  an  advantage  in  the  production  of  cheese. 

Changes  in  the  Protein. — The  most  important  chemical  changes,  from  a 
digestive  point  of  view,  which  take  place  in  the  cheese  are  those  which  the 
protein  undergoes.  This  protein  substance  consists  chiefly  of  casein  and 
undergoes  profound  alteration  due  to  enzymic  action  during  the  process  of 
ripening.  The  casein  which  when  dry  naturally  forms  a  leathery,  tough 
material  changes  into  a  more  soluble  and  softer  product,  and  during  this 
change  there  are  produced  aromas  and  flavors  which  add  much  to  the  value 
of  the  cheese  for  edible  purposes. 

The  character  of  the  coagulation  of  the  cheese  originally  has  much  to  do 
with  the  general  changes  which  the  product  undergoes  during  fermentation." 
The  cheese  makers  for  this  reason  must  pay  special  attention  to  the  rennet 
which  they  employ  in  the  production  of  the  precipitate.  One  of  the  most 
important  of  the  changes  which  the  casein  undergoes  is  that  which  results 
in  the  production  of  ammonia.  This  indicates  a  complete  decomposition  of 
the  protein  substance,  at  least  in  part,  so  that  the  total  amount  of  protein 
which  is  lost  as  such  may  reach  as  high  as  25  or  30  percent  of  that  present 
in  the  original  cheese.  There  are  also  produced  notable  quantities  of  lucin 
and  other  nitrogenous  compounds  soluble  in  alcohol.  In  general  it  may 
be  said  that  the  changes  in  the  nitrogen  constituents  of  cheese  are  extremely 
helpful  to  digestion.  Not  only  is  the  protein  of  ripened  cheese  more  soluble 
but  even  the  parts  which  remain  unchanged  as  far  as  the  protein  constituent 
is  concerned  are  so  affected  by  the  action  of  fermentation  as  to  render  them 
more  readily  subject  to  the  action  of  the  digestive  ferments  in  the  alimentary 
canal.  There  is  a  popular  superstition  that  the  use  of  cheese  at  the  end  of  a 
meal  helps  to  digest  the  other  food  which  has  given  rise  to  the  adage- "  Cheese, 
thou  mighty  elf,  digesting  all  things  but  thyself."  There  is  a  base  of  scientific 
truth  in  this  expression  since  in  ripe  cheese  the  enzymes  remain  still  in  an 
active  form  and  when  taken  into  the  stomach  must  necessarily  exercise  an 
influence  of  considerable  magnitude  upon  the  process  of  digestion.  The 
custom,  therefore,  which  is  so  universal,  of  finishing  a  dinner  with  a  bit  of 
cheese  is  evidently  based  upon  sound  physiological  as  well  as  gastronomicai 
principles. 

Changes  in  the  Fat. — The  chemical  changes  which  fhe  fat  undergoes  in  the 
process  of  ripening  the  cheese  are  also  of  considerable  importance.  It  is 
claimed  by  some  authors  that  additional  fat  is  produced  from  the  casein 
during  the  process  of  ripening,  which  is  the  cause  of  the  lardy  appearance  of 
some  cheeses.     Many  observers  have  found  in  ripened  cheese  a  larger  per- 


214  MILK   AND   MILK   PRODUCTS   AND   OLEOMARGARINE. 

centage  of  fat  than  that  which  was  noticed  in  the  fresh  cheese.  This 
apparent  increase,  however,  may  be  due  to  analytical  error,  since  in  the  fresh 
cheese  the  fat  becomes  entangled  with  highly  insoluble  caseous  matter  and  is 
difficult  of  extraction,  whereas  after  the  ripening  of  the  cheese  and  degra- 
dation and  breaking  up  of  the  caseous  tissues  the  fat  is  much  more  readily 
extracted.  While  it  is  not  impossible  that  fat  should  be  formed  by  the  fer- 
mentation of  the  casein  it  does  not  seem  that  it  is  probable. 

In  examinations  which  were  made  of  fresh  and  ripened  cheese  of  the  variety 
known  as  Roquefort  there  was  found  in  the  dry  substance  of  the  fresh  cheese 
40.80  percent  of  protein  and  53.91  percent  of  fat.  In  the  same  cheese 
after  it  was  quite  old  there  was  found  in  the  dry  substance  37.78  percent  of 
protein  and  56.14  percent  of  fat.  These  data  serve  to  bear  out  the  theory 
that  fat  is  formed'  from  the  protein.  On  the  contrary,  it  must  be  remembered 
that  in  the  fermentation  of  the  protein  a  number  of  volatile  bodies  are  formed, 
'especially  ammonia,  and  thus  the  diminution  in  the  percentage  of  protein  is 
probably  due  to  the  loss  of  volatile  bodies,  and  the  increase  in  the  quantity  of 
fat  is  therefore  a  relative  one,  probably,  and  not  absolute.  There  is  no  doubt, 
however,  of  the  fact  that  the  quantity  or  character  of  the  iFat  does  change 
considerably  during  the  process  of  ripening.  There  is  no  reason  for  supposing 
that  the  fat  alone  of  all  the  contents  of  cheese  escapes  enzymic  action.  It 
is  profoundly  changed  in  its  character  by  the  fermentations  to  which  it  is 
subjected,  and  this  change,  while  it  unsuits  the  fat  for  butter,  may  probably 
make  it  more  palatable  and  desirable  in  cheese. 

Digestibility  of  Cheese. — Reference  has  already  been  made  to  the  fact 
that  in  the  ripening  of  cheese  the  protein  of  the  milk,  consisting  principally 
of  casein,  undergoes  certain  changes  which  apparently,  at  least,  increase  its 
digestibility.  I  use  the  word  "apparent"  because  the  flavor  and  aromas 
which  are  produced  in  the  ripening  of  a  cheese  act  as  condimental  substances 
and  thus  naturally  excite  the  glands  which  secrete  the  digestive  enzymes  to 
greater  activity.  Therefore  the  increased  digestibility  may  be  due  in  part 
to  the  increased  activity  of  the  digestive  ferments  as  above  described  rather 
than  to  the  changes  in  the  casein  itself.  It  must  be  admitted,  however,  that 
these  changes  during  ripening  tend  to  make  the  casein  more  granular,  softer, 
and  to  convert  it  into  compounds  more  easily  acted  upon,  and  are  thus  favor- 
able to  increased  digestibility.  Experimental  studies  have  shown  that  in  a 
well  ripened  American  cheese  of  the  Cheddar  type  93  percent  of  the  protein 
present  in  the  cheese  and  95  percent  of  the  fat  are  digested.  Artificial 
digestion  experiments  have  also  shown  that  the  pancreas  ferments  have 
much  more  effect  upon  cheese  digestion  than  the  peptic,  showing  that  the 
cheese  is  acted  upon  more  in  the  small  intestines,  perhaps,  than  in  the  stomach. 
Attention  must  also  be  paid  to  idiosyncrasies  in  these  cases,  as  there  are  many 
people  who  find  it  impossible  to  digest  cheese  in  any  form.     The  eating  of 


PREPARATIONS   OF   CASEIN.  215 

larger  quantities  than  are  necessary  also  tends  to  derange  the  digestive  organs. 
A  well  ripened  cheese,  therefore,  should  be  eaten  rather  as  a  condimental 
substance  than  as  an  actual  food  product,  though  its  value  as  a  food  fs  fully 
attested.     ("Farmers'  Bulletin,"  No.  162.) 

Effect  of  Cold  Storage  on  the  Curing  of  Cheese. — Attention  has  been 
called,  in  the  description  of  different  methods  of  making  varieties  of  cheeses, 
to  the  ordinary  temperature  at  which  cheeses  are  cured.  In  European  coun- 
tries these  temperatures  are  maintained  without  the  use  of  artificial  means. 
In  the  United  States  it  is  difficult  to  maintain  a  very  low  temperature  in  summer 
time  without  the  use  of  artificial  refrigerators.  Experimental  studies  have 
determined  that  when  the  temperature  of  ripening  or  storage  is  reduced  to  a 
considerable  extent  below  that  usually  specified  for  the  standard  varieties  of 
cheese  the  quality  of  the  cheese  is  preserved  although  the  time  of  ripening  is 
very  much  prolonged.  The  artificial  curing  of  cheese  has  been  secured  at  as 
low  a  temperature  as  40  degrees.  There  is  also  less  loss  of  weight  in  cheese 
cured  at  this  low  temperature.  It  is  evident  that  in  the  curing  of  cheese  the 
temperature  should  not  be  reduced  below  a  point  which  prevents  proper 
enzymic  activity.  After  the  cheese  is  ripened  the  temperature  of  storage  may 
be  reduced  to  the  freezing  point  or  even  lower. 

Preparations  of  Casein. — Properly  in  connection  with  cheese  prepa- 
rations may  be  mentioned  those  products  which  are  of  a  food  value,  procured 
from  casein  itself.  The  precipitated  casein  is  prepared  for  the  market  by  wash- 
ing, drying,  and  grinding  to  a  fine  powder,  and  is  then  sometimes  called  protein 
flour.  Sanose  is  a  mixture  consisting  of  about  80  percent  of  casein  and  20 
percent  of  the  protein  derived  from  the  white  of  egg.  The  addition  of  the 
white  of  egg  enables  the  casein  to  remain  in  suspension  when  mixed  with 
water  and  thus  causes  the  preparation  to  resemble  milk.  Casein  preparations 
of  this  form  are  practically  insoluble  in  water  and,  therefore,  perhaps  are  not 
the  best  forms  of  nitrogenous  food  for  invalids.  To  avoid  this  insolubility  the 
casein  has  been  combined  with  alkalies  and  the  preparations  are  known  as  niitrose 
and  eiicasein.  Plasma  is  also  a  preparation  of  casein  with  alkalies  which  are 
added  insufficient  quantities  to  give  7  percent  of  ash.  These  caseinates,  as  they 
are  sometimes  called,  that  is,  combinations  of  casein  with  alkalies,  are  soluble 
in  water  and  are  found  to  be  to  a  certain  extent  digestible  and  nutritive  prepara- 
tions. Casumen  and  sanatogen  are  other  preparations  of  casein  with  alkalies  or 
glycero-phosphate.  Wonderful  claims  are  made  by  manufacturers  concerning 
the  digestibility  and  nutritive  properties  of  these  preparations.  It  is  doubtful, 
however,  if  they  have  much  greater  value,  if  any,  than  natural  casein  in  the 
form  of  milk  or  as  ripened  in  cheese.  Preparations  of  this  kind  usually  appeal 
strongly  to  those  who  suffer  from  digestive  disorders  and  therefore  high- 
sounding  names,  which  are  given  to  practically  the  same  preparations,  lead  the 


2l6  MILK   AND   MILK   PRODUCTS   AND   OLEOMARGARINE. 

seeker  after  health  often  to  try  the  same  substance  under  a  dozen  different 
appellations.  These  remarks  are  not  made  for  the  purpose  of  decrying  in 
any  way  the  merits  which  these  preparations  may  have  but  only  to  illustrate 
a  very  marked  tendency  on  the  part  of  many  people  to  attribute  extreme 
virtues  to  ordinary  food  substances  which  are  sold  under  attractive  and  some- 
times deceptive  names  and  whose  properties  and  virtues  are  advertised  in 
an  expert  manner.  Because  a  food  substance  consists  almost  wholly  of  pure 
protein  is  no  indication  whatever  of 'its  exceptionally  high  food  value.  Protein 
is  only  one  form  of  food  and  a  concentrated  ration  of  protein  in  any  of  these 
forms  is  just  as  likely  to  do  harm  as  good.  For  emergency  rations,  for  economy 
in  transportation,  and  for  certain  diseased  conditions  of  the  digestive  organs 
these  preparations  are  undoubtedly  valuable,  but  they  have  little  claim  upon 
the  general  public  in  a  state  of  health  as  staple  articles  of  diet.  They  are 
much  more  nutritive  than  the  extracts  of  beef  and  other  meats  which  have 
obtained  a  vogue  wholly  out  of  proportion  to  their  dietetic  or  medicinal  value. 
("Foods  and  Principles  of  Dietetics,"  by  Robert  Hutchinson.) 

Cheese  Compounds. — The  trade  in  manipulated  cheese  is  one  of  some 
magnitude.  The  cured  cheese  of  commerce  is  reduced  to  the  state  of  a 
paste,  mixed  with  butter  sometimes  and  also  regrettably  with  a  preservative, 
usually  borax,  packed  in  small  vessels,  and  sold  under  some  distinctive 
or  proprietary  name.  When  not  chemically  preserved  there  is  no  objection 
from  a  sanitary  point  of  view  to  such  a  product.  It  is  in  a  form  convenient 
for  use,  easily  transportable,  and  well  suited  to  use  at  a  picnic  or  during  travel. 
Many  people  are  fond  of  these  preparations,  preferring  them  even  to  the 
natural  cheese.  The  price  of  such  products,  however,  is  usually  much  greater 
than  that  of  the  natural  cheese,  and  for  this  reason  they  are  not  likely  to  come 
into  general  use. 

Consumption  of  Cheese. — Cheese  is  by  no  means  as  generally  consumed 
in  the  United  States  as  it  is  in  many  European  countries.  No  matter  how 
poor  the  peasant  may  be  in  Europe  cheese  is  not  unknown  to  his  diet.  When 
not  used  directly  as  a  food  its  condimental  properties  are  utilized.  It  is  grated 
into  the  soup  or  used  to  season  the  macaroni  or  to  add  zest  to  the  simple  dessert. 
Its  condimental  value  should  be  better  understood  among  our  people  and  it 
may  be  used  with  great  economy  in  the  replacement  of  meat  in  many  cases.  The 
more  general  teaching  of  scientific  dairying  in  the  agricultural  schools  of  our 
country  ought  to  improve  the  character  of  our  product  and  increase  its  con- 
sumption. One  of  the  obstacles  which  has  impeded  the  growth  of  cheese- 
eating  in  the  United  States  is  the  lack  of  knowledge  among  our  farmers  of  the 
proper  methods  of  cheesemaking  in  a  small  way.  The  establishment  of  the 
neighborhood  cheese  factory  has  already  led  to  a  marked  increase  of  the  area 
in  which  cheese  is  made. 


PART  V. 

CEREAL  FOODS. 


BARLEY  (Genus  Hordeum). 

In  the  United  States  barley  is  not  used  to  any  extent  as  human  food.  It 
has  all  the  nutritive  properties  of  the  common  cereals  and  may  be  considered 
as  a  food,  product,  although  its  chief  use  is  in  the  making  of  fermented  bev- 
erages which  will  be  described  in  full  in  the  second  volume. 

Barley  is  cultivated  chiefly  in  the  northern  and  western  portions  of  the 
United  States  and  is  similar  to  the  oat  in  this  respect,  that  when  the  grain  is 
threshed  by  the  ordinary  process  the  first  layer  of  chaff  is  not  separated,  and, 
therefore,  it  goes  into  the  market  unhulled.  There  are  varieties  of  naked 
barley  which  are  not  much  cultivated.  The  cultivated  varieties  {Hordeum 
sativum  Pers.)  belong  practically  to  one  species,  although  there  are  very  many 
different  varieties  grown. 

The  character  of  barley  best  suited  to  malting  will  be  discussed  in  the 
second  volume. 

Acreage  and  Yield  of  Barley. — The  area  planted  to  barley  in  the  United 
States  and  other  statistical  data  relating  thereto  for  the  year  1909  are  as 
follows: 

Acreage, 7,011,000 

Yield  per  acre, 24.3  bushels 

Total  production, 170,284,000  " 

Price  per  bushel, 55.2  cents"^ 

Value  of  crop, 93>97 1,000    dollars 

Composition  of  a  Typical  Unhulled  Barley. — From  a  comparative 
study  of  a  number  of  samples  of  American  barley  the  following  numbers  are 
regarded  as  typical  of  the  composition  of  the  unhulled  barley  grown  in  the 
United  States: 

Weight  of  100  kernels, 4-53  grams 

Moisture, 10.85  percent 

Protein, 11.00       " 

Ether  extract, 2.25       " 

Crude  fiber, 3-85       " 

Ash, 2.50      « 

Starch  and  sugar,  etc., ^9-55       " 

217 


2l8 


CEREAL   FOODS. 


The  important  points  brought  out  in  the  above  data  are  that  the  percentage 
of  fiber  in  the  unhulled  barley  is  less  than  one-half  that  of  the  unhuUed 
oat,  as  stated  further  on,  while  the  percentage  of  ether  extract  is  only  about 
one-half  that  of  the  unhulled  oat,  and  the  protein  is  also  decidedly  less  than 
in  the  whole  oat. 

As  has  been  stated,  barley  is  not  very  generally  used  in  this  country  for 
human  food,  but  is  used  in  this  and  other  countries  as  an  ingredient  of  soup. 


Fig.  22.— Barley  Starch.     X  200.— {Bureau  of  Chemistry.) 


Protein  of  Barley. — The  following  protein  compounds  are  found  in  bar- 
ley in  proportionate  weight  to  the  total  weight  of  the  seed: 

Leucosin, 0.30  percent 

Hordein, 4.00        " 

Edestin, 1.95        " 

Proteose, 1.95        " 

Insoluble  protein, 4.50        " 

As  seen  from  the  above  table  the  most  important  of  the  soluble  proteins  is 
hordein,  which  in  quantity  is  almost  equal  to  the  insoluble  protein  of  the 
barley  grain.  The  starch  granules  of  barley  are  recognized  by  their  dis- 
tinctive shape  and  size,  as  revealed  by  the  microscope.  A  typical  micro- 
photographic  view  of  barley  starch  is  shown  in  Fig.  22. 


BUCKWHEAT.  219 

BUCKWHEAT  {Polygonum  fagopyrum  L.). 

Buckwheat  is  usually  classed  with  the  cereals,  but  botanically  it  does  not 
belong  to  the  order  of  true  grasses  to  which  the  cereals  belong. 

Buckwheat  is  commonly  grown  in  many  parts  of  the  United  States,  and  its 
seed  is  highly  prized  for  bread  and  cake  making  purposes.  The  buckwheat 
is  ground  and  the  outer  black  tough  hull  separated,  and  the  flour  is  used 
chiefly  for  making  hot  breakfast  cakes  which  are  much  prized  throughout 
the  country.  Properly  ground  buckwheat  flour  has  a  more  or  less  dark  tint, 
due  to  fine  particles  of  the  outer  envelope  which  escape  the  bolting  process. 

Acreage  and  Yield  of  Buckiuheat. — This  crop  is  not  grown  in  many  states. 
New  York,  Pennsylvania,  and  Michigan  produce  the  largest  quantities.  The 
statistical  data  for  buckwheat  grown  in  the  United  States  in  1909  are  as  follows: 

Acreage, 834,000 

Yield  per  acre,  ..1. 20.9  bushels 

Production, 1 7,438,000         " 

Price  per  bushel, 69.9  cents 

Total  value, 12,189,000  dollars 

Composition  of  Buckwheat  Flour. — The  composition  of  finely  bolted 
buckwheat  flour  is  as  follows: 

Moisture, 1 1 .89   percent 

Protein 8.75 

Ether  extract, i  .58         " 

Ash, 1.85 

P'iber, 52         " 

Starch  and  sugar, 75-4^         " 

Calories  per  gram, 35854 

The  above  is  the  composition  of  a  white  flour  more  finely  ground  and  bolted 
than  is  advisable  for  palatable  purposes.  In  the  grinding  of  the  above  flour 
the  germ,  which  contains  a  large  part  of  the  ether  extract,  is  eliminated  and  also 
a  large  quantity  of  the  bodies  rich  in  protein.  The  composition  of  a  less 
highly  refined  flour  and  one  which  is  more  palatable  and  more  nutritious  is 
given  in  the  following  data: 

Moisture, 11.19  percent 

Protein, 9.81  " 

Ether  extract, 2.33  " 

Ash, 1.53 

Fiber,.. 73  " 

Starch  and  sugar, —      74-41  " 

Calories  per  gram, 3>954 

Milling  Process. — In  the  preparation  of  the  so-called  highest  grade  of  buck- 
wheat flour,  that  is,  that  which  is  most  carefully  ground  and  thoroughly  bolted, 
the  process  employed  is  as  follows :  During  the  process  of  milling  the  buck- 
wheat grains  pass  to  a  receiving  separator  which  removes  all  the  coarse  par- 
ticles, stones,  straws,  etc.,  by  means  of  a  series  of  sieves.     At  the  same  time 


220  CEREAL    FOODS. 

any  dust  which  they  contain  is  blown  out  by  a  current  of  air.  The  sifted 
grains  pass  next  to  the  scouring  machines,  in  which  they  are  thoroughly 
scoured,  cleaned,  and  polished.  From  these  machines  the  grains  pass  to  a 
separator  containing  magnets^  by  means  of  which  any  pieces  of  metal,  in  the 
form  of  nails,  screws,  pieces  of  wire,  etc.,  are  removed. 

The  grains  next  pass  through  a  steam  dryer  for  removing  the  greater  portion 
of  the  water  employed  for  the  scouring.  As  soon  as  they  are  dry  they  are 
again  treated  to  a  blast  of  air,  which  removes  any  dirt,  dust,  or  light  particles 
which  may  have  been  detached  during  the  process  of  drying.  The  grains 
next  pass  to  the  shelling  rolls,  where  the  greater  part  of  the  outer  hulls  is  re- 
moved. This  process  is.  accomplished  by  means  of  an  apparatus  which  is 
called  a  sieve  scalper.  After  the  separation  of  the  outer  hulls  the  residue  of 
the  material  passes  to  a  drying  chamber,  where  the  moisture  is  reduced  to 
about  lo  percent,  thus  insuring  the  keeping  qualities  of  the  flour.  After  dry- 
ing the  grains  are  ready  for  the  rolls.  After  entering  the  roils  the  process  is 
practically  the  same  as  that  which  is  employed  in  milling  wheat,  consisting 
of  a  series  of  breaks  and  reductions,  with  the  attendant  bolting  and  grading, 
and  this  process  is  prolonged  until  the  flour  is  practically  removed  from  the 
feed  or  middlings.  The  sifting  cloths  used  in  the  bolting  of  buckwheat  flour 
are  somewhat  coarser  than  those  for  wheat,  and  this  allows  some  of  the  dark 
particles  of  the  inner  hulls  to  pass  into  the  flour,  which  gives  it  a  dark  color 
on  baking.  It  is  quite  possible  to  make  a  buckwheat  flour  as  white  as  that 
from  wheat,  but  in  this  country  the  public  taste  requires  a  darker  product,  so 
that  the  white  flour  does  not  readily  sell.  The  requisite  degree  of  darkness  is 
secured  by  using  bolting  ck)ths  which  will  allow  a  part  of  the  inner  hulls 
(middlings)  to  pass  into  the  flour.  Two  grades  of  flour  are  generally  produced 
— a  whiter  one  in  which  finer  cloths  are  used,  and  a  darker  flour  made  by  using 
coarser  bolting  cloths,  allowing  larger  quantities  of  middlings  to  pass  through. 
The  outer  hulls  which  are  first  removed  are  used  for  fuel,  although  from  their 
composition  it  is  seen  that  they  contain  a  large  quantity  of  carbohydrates  and 
might  be  very  profitably  used  in  connection  with  some  highly  nitrogenous 
food,  such  as  cottonseed  meal  or  flaxseed  meal  for  feeding  cattle.  The 
middlings  are  used  principally  as  cattle  food,  and  especially  by  dairymen. 

The  above  process,  while  it  makes  a  white  and  fine-looking  flour,  is  not  to  be 
compared  with  the  meal  made  in  the  old-fashioned  way  of  grinding  between 
stones  and  separating  the  principal  part  of  the  outer  hull  by  bolting.  This  old- 
fashioned  flour  is  more  nutritious,  that  is,  it  contains  more  fat  and  protein, 
has  a  greater  fuel  value,  or  in  other  words  has  a  greater  number  of  calories 
and  makes  a  much  more  palatable  cake  than  the  fine  modern  flour. 

Buckwheat  Cakes. — Buckwheat  cakes  are  prepared  from  batter  made  by 
mixing  buckwheat  flour  into  a  paste  of  the  proper  consistency,  seeding  it  with 
yeast,  and  allowing  it  to  remain  in  a  moderately  warm  place  until  fermenta- 


BUCKWHEAT    STARCH.  221 

tion  takes  place.  The  proteins  of  buckwheat  have  some  agglutinating  power, 
and  thus,  when  treated  as  above,  make  a  cake  capable  of  a  considerable  degree 
of  aeration.  Baking  powders  are  often  used  as  a  substitute  for  yeast  and  per- 
mit of  preparation  in  a  few  minutes  instead  of  waiting  for  the  fermentation 
above  mentioned.  The  product  made  in  this  way  cannot  be  considered  so 
palatable  or  nutritious  as  the  old-fashioned  product.  The  batter  is  baked 
on  a  smooth  hot  iron  or  soapstone,  polished  and  kept  bright  in  order 
to  prevent  the  sticking  of  the  cake.  The  proper  poHshing  of  the  iron 
is  a  better  means  of  preventing  sticking  than  greasing.  The  batter  is 
poured  over  the  smooth  iron  and  is  of  a  consistency  to  flatten  out  without 
help  and  to  form  a  film  over  the  baking  iron,  which  produce^  a  cake  about  one- 
fourth  of  an  inch  in  thickness.  The  cake  is  to  be  turned  as  soon  as  the  side 
in  contact  with  the  iron  is  brown.  It  is  evident  that  in  this  baking  process 
there  can  be  no  very  profound  change  in  the  starch  granules,  but  this  does  not 
appear  to  materially  interfere  with  the  digestibility  of  the  product.  Buck- 
wheat cakes  are  eaten  hot,  usually  with  butter  and  sirup.  Maple  sirup,  sorghum 
sirup,  or  cane  sirup  in  a  pure  state  are  highly  prized  for  use  with  buckwheat 
cakes.  These  sirups  are  both  condimental  and  nutritious.  Mixed  sirups 
made  of  glucose,  melted  brown  sugar,  or  molasses,  or  mixtures  of  all  these  bodies 
are  more  commonly  furnished  to  the  consumer  than  the  pure  sirup  mentioned 
above.  Honey  is  also  used  very  extensively  as  a  condimental  flavor  for  cakes 
of  this  kind. 

Adulterations. — There  is  probably  no  bread  or  cake  making  material 
whigh  is  subjected  to  more  extensive  adulteration  than  buckwheat  flour. 
Much  of  what  is  sold  as  buckwheat  flour  may  be  regarded  as  imitations 
of  that  substance.  Mixtures  of  rye  flour,  Indian  corn  flour,  wheat  flour,  and 
other  ground  cereals  are  used  as  a  substitute  for  buckwheat.  There  can  be  no 
objection  from  the  hygienic  point  of  view  to  such  substitutes  but  the  use  of 
these  mixtures  under  the  name  of  buckwheat  can  be  regarded  in  no  other 
light  than  as  an  unpardonable  fraud. 

Detection  of  Adulterations. — There  is  rarely  any  mineral  adulteration 
practiced  with  buckwheat  flour  and  if  so  it  is  easily  detected  by  incineration. 
Any  content  of  ash,  unless  baking  powder  has  been  used,  above  2  percent  may 
be  regarded  wfth  suspicion  as  indicating  an  admixture  of  some  mineral  sub- 
stance. The  cereal  flours  used  for  adulteration  are  readily  detected  by  the 
microscope  in  the  hands  of  an  experienced  observer.  The  field  of  the  micro- 
scope has  only  to  be  compared  with  the  microscopic  appearance  of  genuine 
buckwheat  starch  in  order  to  detect  the  added  substance. 

Buckwheat  Starch. — The  microscopic  appearance  of  buckwheat  starch 
is  shown  in  the  accompanying  figure.  The  granules  of  buckwheat  starch 
are  very  characteristic.  They  consist  of  chains  or  groups  of  more  or  less 
angular  granules  with  a  well  defined   nucleus,  and  without  rings  or  with 


222  CEREAL    FOODS. 

very  faint  rings.  The  contour  of  buckwheat  starch  is  more  angular  than  that 
of  any  other  common  cereal  with  the  exception  of  maize  and  rice;  it  is  this 
and  the  relative  size  which  enable  the  observer  to  distinguish  it  from  other 
starches.  The  size  of  the  granules  is  quite  uniform,  varying  usually  only 
from  lo  to  15  microns*  in  diameter.  In  so  far  as  the  angular  appearance 
is  concerned  the  granules  of  buckwheat  starch  have  a  general  resemblance 
to  those  of  maize  and  rice  and  oats,  but  a  comparison  under  the  microscope 


o 


^ '**««?    \  (^ 


c^o    ^^  a^Q?r^"    ogl 


^  \-^ 


X.    -^ 


Fig.  23. — Buckwheat  Starch.    X  200. — {Courtesy  of  Bureau  of  Chemistry.) 

of  the  three  starches  reveals  lines  of  distinction  which  with  a  little  practice 
would  prevent  the  observer  from  drawing  a  false  conclusion. 

INDIAN  CORN  {Zea  mays). 

Next  to  wheat  the  most  important  cereal  used  as  a  human  foo'd  in  the  United 

States  is  Indian  corn.     According  to  the  magnitude  of  the  crop,  Indian  corn 

is  the  leading  cereal  of  the  country.     Statistical  data  on  the  production  of 

Indian  corn  in  the  United  States  during  1909  are  given  in  the  following  table: 

Acreage, 108,771,000 

Yield  per  acre, 25.5  bushels 

Production, 2,772,376,000  " 

Value  per  bushel, 59.6  cents 

Total  value  at  farm, 1,652,822,000   dollars 

*A  micron  is  one  thousandth  of  a  millimeter. 


MAIZE.  223 

Indian  com  is  universally  employed  as  food  throughout  all  parts  of  the 
country,  but  more  especially  in  the  South,  where  the  daily  dietary  is  rarely 
complete  without  one  or  more  meals  in  which  Indian  corn  is  served  in  some 
form  or  other.  Although  it  is  grown  much  more  extensively  in  the  North  than 
in  the  South,  it  is  not  so  generally  used  as  human  food.  Indian  corn  grows  in 
all  kinds  of  soil  and  produces,  under  favorable  conditions,  large  yields  in  all 
parts  of  the  country.  It  is  the  most  important  agricultural  crop  of  many  states, 
namely,  Indiana,  Illinois,  Iowa,  Missouri,  and  Kansas.  It  is  planted  in  the 
late  winter  and  spring  in  different  parts  of  the  country.  The  planting  season 
varies  from  January  in  Florida  to  June  in  Maine  and  Minnesota  and  the  earlier 
varieties  will  mature  in  120  days. 

Maize  is  a  crop  which  requires  an  abundance  of  rainfall  and  a  high  tem- 
perature during  the  growing  season.  Maize  is  planted  in  rows  about  three 
and  one-half  feet  apart  and  in  hills  of  about  the  same  distance  apart,  or  it  may 
be  drilled  between  the  rows  so  that  one  stalk  grows  a  distance  of  about  from 
nine  inches  to  a  foot  from  its  fellows.  It  requires  constant  cultivation  during 
the  early  period  of  its  growth  and  a  careful  preparation  of  the  seed  bed.  Good 
farmers  give  from  four  to  seven  cultivations  to  the  growing  crop.  The  field 
must  be  kept  free  of  weeds  and  in  good  tilth  to  secure  the  best  results. 

Many  hundreds  of  analyses  of  the  maize  kernel  have  been  made,  but  a  com- 
bination of  them  all  in  the  following  data  may  be  regarded  as  typical  of  the 
Indian  corn  grown  in  this  country. 

Weight  of  100  kernels, 38       grams 

Moisture, 10.75  percent 

Ether  extract, 4.25 

Protein, 10.00 

Fiber, 1.75 

Ash, 1.50 

Starch  and  sugar,  etc., 7i-75 

The  consideration  of  the  above  data  shows  that  Indian  corn  is  a  ration  in 
which  the  protein  is  rather  low.  In  other  words,  the  quotient  of  carbohydrates 
and  fat  divided  by  protein  is  rather  large.  It  is  a  food  product  which  is  particu- 
larly well  suited  to  furnish  heat  and  energy  and  support  a  high  degree  of  muscu- 
lar exertion.  For  this  reason  it  is  a  food  product  which  is  particularly  well 
adapted  to  men  engaged  in  hard  manual  labor. 

Varieties. — There  are  many  distinct  varieties  of  Indian  corn.  Sturtevant 
has  published  a  description  of  several  hundred.  These  varieties  are  classified 
under  various  subspecies.  The  polymorphic  species,  Zea  mays,  according  to 
Sturtevant,  can  be  divided  into  a  number  of  groups  which,  on  account  of  their 
well  defined  and  persistent  characters,  may  be  considered  as  presenting  specific 
claims  and  may  properly  receive  specific  nomenclature.  The  grouping  adopted 
is  founded  upon  the  internal  structure  of  the  kernel  for  cultivated  varieties, 
and  the  presence  of  a  husk  to  the  kernel  in  the  assumed  aboriginal  form. 


224  CEREAL   FOODS. 

Hence  Sturtevant  offers  the  names  Zea  tunicata  for  the  husk-kernel  forms, 
Zea  everta  for  the  popcorn,  Zea  indurata  for  the  flint  corns,  Zea  indentata 
for  the  dent  corns,  Zea  amylacea  for  the  soft  corns,  and  Zea  saccharata  for 
the  sweet  corns. 

Argument  in  favor  of  the  specific  claims  for  these  groups  is  based  primarily 
on  the  convenience  thus  attained;  secondarily,  on  the  absence  or  rarity  of  in- 
termediate or  connecting  forms,  so  far  as  present  data  extend,  and  also  on  the 
antiquity  of  the  separation.  It  seems  almost  certain  that  in  the  order  of  evolu- 
tion (excluding  from  consideration  the  puzzling  sweet  corn  group)  progress. 


^^ 


Fig.  24. — Section  of  Raw  Popcorn.    X  i^o.— {Courtesy  of  Bureau  0/  Chemistry.) 
Shows  cells  with  the  small  angular  starch  grains  closely  packed  together  within  them. 

has  been  from  the  pops,  through  the  flints  and  the  dents,  to  the  softs.  Cer^ 
tainly  the  soft  corns  in  some  of  their  varieties  present  a  kernel  that  is  larger,, 
softer,  and  less  fitted  to  the  struggle  with  natural  conditions  than  is  the  kernel 
from  any  of  the  other  groups.  Yet  soft  corns  are  the  prevailing  form  in  the 
mummy  burials  of  Peru  and  of  our  Southwestern  states.  The  popcorn,  on 
the  contrary,  has  stronger  regerminative  powers  than  have  the  other  groups, 
is  better  fitted  to  contend  against  natural  vicissitudes,  and  is  the  kind  that  has 
been  reported  as  found  growing  wild  in  Mexico  under  the  name  of  Coyote  corn,. 
Zea  canina  Watts. 

Some  of  these  subdivisions  may  not  be  accepted  by  botanists,  but  they  are 


POPCORN. 


225 


convenient  for  purposes  of  description.     The  principal  field  varieties  which 
are  grown  are  the  flint  corn,  Zea  indurata,  and  the  dent  corn,  Zea  indentata. 

POPCORN. 

This  variety  of  maize  is  used  very  largely  in  the  United  States  as  a  delicacy, 
and  with  sugar  and  cream  as  a  dessert.  It  is  a  hard,  small-grained  variety 
which  has  the  property,  when  heated,  of  exploding  with  a  very  great  enlarge- 


FiG,  25. — Section  of  Popcorn  in   First  Stage  of   Popping,  Showing  Partially  Expanded 
Starch  Grains  and  Ruptured  Cell  Walls.     X  150. — {Courtesy  0/  Bureau  of  Chemistry.) 


ment  of  the  starch  grain,  producing  a  soft  and  very  delicate  edible  material 
which  is  highly  prized. 

In  the  raw  popcorn  the  starch  grains  are  packed  together  very  closely 
within  the  cells.  When  popping  begins  there  is  an  expanding  of  the  starch 
grains,  producing  a  cavity  nearly  circular  in  form  in  each  grain.  This  causes 
a  rupturing  of  the  cell  walls,  though  fragments  are  plainly  visible  in  the  early 
stages.  In  the  fully  expanded  or  popped  kernel  the  starch  grains  have  ex- 
panded until  each  is  about  half  or  two-thirds  as  large  as  the  original  cells 
of  the  endosperm.  The  cell  walls  at  this  stage  are  practically  obliterated 
as  far  as  detection  in  a  section  is  concerned.  The  exploding  of  the  starch 
grains  is  influenced  by  the  water  content  of  the  kernel.  It  must  not  be  too 
16 


226 


CEREAL   FOODS. 


wet  nor  too  dry;  about  lo  or  12  percent  is  the  proper  content  of  moisture. 
These  changes  are  beautifully  shown  in  the  accompanying  microphotographs, 
Figs.  24,  25,  and  26,  by  Mr.  Howard,  of  the  Bureau  of  Chemistry. 


Fig.  26.— Section  of  Fully  Popped  Popcorn.    X  \zo.— {Courtesy  of  Bureau  of  Chemistry.') 
The  fully  expanded  starch  grains  are  nearly  half  as  large  as  the  original  cells  in  which  they  were 

contained. 


SWEET  CORN. 

This  is  a  variety  of  maize  which  develops  a  high  sugar  content  and  is  eaten 
while  the  starch  is  yet  soft,  in  other  words,  in  an  unripe  state.  It  is  a  food 
product  of  immense  importance  in  the  United  States,  although  almost  unknown 
in  Europe.  The  content  of  sugar  varies  from  5  to  8  percent  in  the  fresh,  soft 
kernel.  The  sugar  which  is  present  in  the  kernel  rapidly  disappears  after  the 
husking  or  removal  from  the  stalk.  In  order  to  secure  the  maximum  sweetness 
the  corn  should  be  cooked  and  eaten  as  soon  as  possible  after  removal  from 
the  stalk.  Where  it  is  not  possible  to  do  this  it  should  be  placed  in  cold  stor- 
age after  removal  from  the  stalk  and  remain  unhusked  until  it  is  ready  for 
cooking.  Green  corn  is  universally  eaten  hot.  It  is  usually  cooked  by  boiling 
in  water,  although  it  may  also  be  roasted  before  the  fire.  It  has  a  high  food 
value,  and  the  composition  of  the  grains  of  fresh,  soft,  green  corn  is  shown  in 
the  following  table: 


CANNED   CORN.  227" 

Composition  of  Fresh  Green  Indian  Corm 

Moisture, 73-oo  percent 

Starch, i3-5o  " 

Sugars, 6.00  " 

Protein, 5.00  " 

Crude  fiber, i  .20  " 

Ash, 70 

Fat, • 60 

Maize  Proteins. — The  proteins  of  maize  are  composed  principally  of  two- 
zeins.  The  two  forms  are  differentiated  by  their  behavior  toward  alcohol 
The  first  form  constitutes  the  zein  soluble  in  alcohol  and  the  second  the  zeir 
insoluble  in  alcohol.  There  are  two  other  proteins  in  maize  existing  in  smal- 
quantities  which  have  been  named  myosin  and  vitellin,  respectively.  Theri 
is  also  a  third  unnamed  variety  and  small  quantities  of  albumin. 

Variation  in  Maize,  under  Different  Climatic  Conditions. — It  is  possi- 
ble that  most  of  the  varieties  and  subvarieties  of  maize  are  simply  the  existing 
standard  varieties  modified  by  changing  environments.  There  are  certain 
conditions  of  climate,  soil,  and  distribution  of  rainfall  w^hich  tend  to  produce 
a  large,  starchy,  soft  grain,  while  other  conditions  tend  to  produce  a  small,  hard 
grain  richer  in  protein.  The  variations  of  importance  are  those  of  the  car- 
bohydrates and  the  protein,  which  are  complementary,  since  as  the  protein 
rises  the  carbohydrates  fall  in  relative  proportion.  There  is  also  a  marked 
variation  in  the  carbohydrates,  due  to  variety  and  climatic  conditions  combined. 
It  is,  for  instance,  the  increase  of  the  sugar  at  the  expense  of  the  starch  that 
produces  the  body  known  as  sweet  maize  eaten  in  the  green  state,  as  already 
described.  Even  in  the  sweet  variety  the  relative  proportion  of  sugar  varies 
in  different  localities  and  under  different  conditions  of  growth. 

Early  Varieties. — There  are  certain  varieties  of  maize  which  are  of  especial 
value  on  account  of  their  early  maturation.  This  is  a  property  extremely  val- 
uable in  the  sweet  variety  of  maize  or  that  eaten  in  the  green  state,  since  it  is 
important  to  get  these  varieties  into  the  market  as  early  as  possible  and  to  con- 
tinue them  as  long  as  possible.  This  is  secured  by  planting  the  early  variety 
at  the  earliest  date  possible  and  planting  later  maturing  varieties  at  intervals 
thereafter.  By  the  selection  cf  varieties  of  different  periods  of  maturing  it  is 
possible  in  the  climate  of  Washington  to  offer  green  corn  from  neighboring 
fields  on  the  market  from  July  until  the  advent  of  a  killing  frost  which  is  usually 
the  last  of  October  or  first  of  November.  This  gives  a  period  of  nearly  four 
months  during  which  the  green  corn  may  be  delivered  to  the  local  market. 
Further  south  the  period  of  supply  is  longer. 

Canned  Com. — Immense  quantities  of  green  corn  are  grown  for  the  pur- 
pose of  canning  in  order  to  supply  the  market  during  the  closed  season.  The 
canning  industry  for  green  corn  is  located  chiefly  in  the  north.  In  the  eastern 
states  the  industry  is  of  great  importance,  from  Maryland  to  Maine.     The 


228  CEREAL   FOODS. 

northern-grown  corns  are  often  preferred  as  they  are  supposed  to  be  sweeter 
and  more  palatable.  In  the  central  western  states,  northern  Indiana,  Michi- 
gan, Wisconsin,  northern  Illinois,  and  Iowa  are  the  principal  centers  of  the 
canning  industry,  although  it  is  practised  to  a  greater  or  less  extent  in  almost 
all  parts  of  the  country. 

Adulterations  of  Canned  Com. — Unfortunately  in  the  canning  process 
of  corn  additions  have  been  made  to  the  product  which  are  of  an  objectionable 
nature.  Chief  among  these  is  the  use  of  bleaching  agents  such  as  sulfur  in 
the  form  of  burnt  sulfur  or  of  sulfite  or  bisulfite  of  soda  or  potash.  These 
bleaching  agents  impart  to  the  corn  a  white  color  which  some  consumers  prefer, 
but  at  the  expense  of  introducing  a  substance  which  must  be  regarded  as  delete- 
rious to  health.  Still  more  objectionable  is  the  practice  of  using  saccharin  in- 
stead of  sugar  as  a  sweetening  agent.  Saccharin  is  a  coal  tar  product  which 
has  an  intense,  sweet  taste,  very  persistent,  and  when  used  alone  becomes  dis- 
agreeable. A.  very  small  quantity  of  it  is  sufficient  to  impart  a  very  sweet 
taste  to  the  canned  corn  at  a  much  less  expense  than  could  be  secured  by  using 
the  pure  sugar.  This  form  of  adulteration  is  extremely  reprehensible  both  be- 
cause it  deceives  the  consumer  and  adds  a  substance  which  by  most  hygienists 
is  regarded  as  prejudicial  to  health.  The  bleaching  agent  and  the  artificial 
sweetener  are  wholly  unnecessary.  The  manufacturers  of  sweet  corn  are 
expected  to  use  the  best  and  freshest  and  sweetest  materials  and  cannot  be  ex- 
cused for  tampering  with  them  in  any  way  which  either  produces  deception  or 
injury  to  health. 

Sugar  added  to  make  an  ordinary  corn  taste  like  sweet  com  is  to  be  regarded 
as  an  adulteration  unless  its  use  is  noted  on  the  label. 

Maize  starch  is  also  often  added  to  sweet  corn  at  the  time  of  canning  and 
this  practice  can  only  be  regarded  as  an  adulteration. 

Detection  of  Adulterations  in  Sweet  Corn. — Test  for  Stdjurous  Acid. — 
To  about  25  grams  of  the  sample  (with  the  addition  of  water,  if  necessary) 
placed  in  a  200-c.c.  Erlenmeyer  flask,  add  some  pure  zinc  and  several  cubic 
centimeters  of  hydrochloric  acid.  In  the  presence  of  sulfites,  hydrogen  suliid 
will  be  generated  and  may  be  tested  for  with  lead  paper.  Traces  of  metallic 
sulfids  are  occasionally  present  in  vegetables,  and  by  the  above  test  will  indi- 
cate sulfites.  Hence  positive  results  obtained  by  this  method  should  be  veri- 
fied by  the  distillation  method.*  It  is  always  advisable  to  make  the  quan- 
titative determination  of  sulfites,  owing  to  the  danger  that  the  test  may  be 
due  to  traces  of  sulfids.  A  trace  is  not  to  be  considered  sufficient  as  indicat- 
ing either  a  bleaching  agent  or  a  preservative. 

Detection  oj  Saccharin.'f — Add  from  25  to  40  c.c.  of  water  to  about  20  grams 
of  the  sample;  macerate  and  strain  through  muslin;    acidify  with  2  c.c.  of 

*  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agri.,  Bureau  of  Chemistry  Bulletin  107,  Revised,  page  187. 
Iflbid.,  page  182. 


STARCH  OF  INDIAN  CORN.  229 

sulfuric  acid  (i  to  3)  and  extract  with  ether.  Separate  the  ether  layer,  allow 
the  ether  to  evaporate  spontaneously,  and  take  up  the  residue  with  water.  If 
saccharin  be  present  its  presence  will  be  indicated  by  the  sweet  taste  imparted 
to  the  water.  To  confirm  this  test  add  from  one  to  two  grams  of  sodium 
hydroxid,  and  place  the  dish  in  an  oil  bath.  Maintain  the  temperature  of 
the  oil  at  250°  C.  for  20  minutes,  when  the  saccharin  will  be  converted 
into  salicylic  acid.  After  cooling  and  acidifying  with  sulfuric  acid,  extract 
in  the  usual  way  and  test  for  salicylic  acid.  This  test,  of  course,  presupposes 
the  absence  of  salicylic  acid  in  the  original  sample.  If  salicylic  acid  is  present 
in  the  original  sample  it  must  be  removed  before  making  the  test  for  saccharin. 


?^!L-.-^m^ 


Fig.  27. — Indian  Corn  Starch.     X  200. — (Bureau  of  Chemistry.) 

Starch  of  Indian  Com. — Maize  starch  has  characteristics  which  enable 
it  to  be  easily  detected  by  the  microscope.  The  granules  of  this  starch  are  of  a 
more  uniform  size  than  those  of  wheat,  being  from  20  to  30  microns  in 
diameter.  Occasionally  very  much  smaller  granules  occur  which  probably 
are  more  of  the  original  size  and  which  have  been  arrested  in  growth  by  the 
ripening  of  the  grain.  The  granules  of  maize  starch  are  more  or  less  polyhedral 
in  form  with  round  angles.  The  only  common  cereal  starch  which  they  can 
be  mistaken  for  is  rice,  but  they  are  generally  larger  than  the  granules  of  rice. 
Under  the  microscope  with  ordinary  light  they  give  only  the  faintest  sign  of 


230  CEREAL    FOODS. 

rings  but  show  in  most  cases  a  well  developed  hilum,  which  is  at  times  star- 
shaped  or  like  an  irregular  cross,  while  at  other  times  it  has  the  appearance  of 
a  circular  depression.  The  maize  starch  granule  is  a  type  of  the  angular,  as 
the  wheat  is  of  the  sphere  or  spheroid  form.  The  characteristic  appearance 
of  maize  starch  kernels  is  shown  in  the  accompanying  Fig.  27.  Viewed  with 
polarized  light  the  starch  grains  of  Indian  corn  present  deep,  well  marked 
crosses,  which  divide  each  grain  into  four  distinct  parts  as  shown  in  Fig.  28. 
It  is  interesting  to  note  that  the  angularity  of  maize  starch  is  greatly  in- 
fluenced by  the  hardness  of  the  kernels  from  which  the  grains  are  taken. 
The  hard  v&,rieties,  such  as  popcorn,  have  very  angular  grains  while  those 
from  soft  varieties  have  a  great  many  almost  spherical  forms. 


Fig.   28.— Starch   Grains   of    Indian  Corn,  under  Polarized   Light,     y,  200.— {Courtesy  of 

Bureau  of  Chemistry.) 

Maize  Flour  (Com  Meal). — Formerly  the  maize  kernel  was  ground  between 
stones,  bolted  to  remove  the  bran,  and  the  maize  flour  or  corn  meal  thus  pro- 
duced used  directly  as  a  human  food.  Modern  milling  operations  have 
changed  the  method  of  producing  maize  flour  so  that  not  only  is  the  outer  bran 
removed  but  also,  to  a  large  extent,  the  germ  itself,  thus  diminishing  the 
quantity  of  fat  in  the  prepared  meal.  This  is  notably  true  of  the  maize 
flour  which  is  prepared  for  exportation.  Leaving  in  the  flour  such  a  large 
quantity  of  fat  tends  to  produce  rancidity  during  shipment.  To  avoid  any 
change  of  a  deleterious  nature  which  the  flour  may  undergo  during  shipment, 


COMPOSITION    OF   MAIZE   FLOUR.  23 1 

it  is  also  frequently  kiln-dried  before  being  sent  to  foreign  shores  and  even 
when  intended  for  domestic  consumption  at  points  remote  from  the  mill. 

While  this  preparation  of  maize  flour  is  doubtless  important  for  transporta- 
tion purposes,  it  impairs  the  palatability  and  nutritive  value  of  the  product. 
It  is  advisable  to  continue  to  have  the  maize  flour  prepared  in  the  old-fashioned 
way  and  sent  directly  into  consumption. 

Method  of  Preparation. — One  method  of  preparing  the  maize  flour  is  as 
follows:  The  grains  are  broken  into  large  pieces  and  dried  with  steam  heat  at  a 
temperature  of  from  105°  to  1 10°  C.  (22r°-239°  F.).  The  mass  while  still  hot 
passes  into  a  mill  composed  of  two  stones  which  revolve  rapidly  in  opposite 
directions.  The  smaller  portions  of  the  meal,  which  have  been  reduced  to  a 
kind  of  gum  by  the  high  temperature,  are  separated  by  tjiis  process  from  the 
covering  or  the  bran  of  the  kernel.  A  small  mass  of  the  starchy  matter  leaves 
the  mill  in  the  form  of  small  noodles,  which  are  freed  from  any  particles  of 
bran  by  sifting.  In  this  manner  a  mass  is  obtained  which  is  quite  free  from 
fiber  and  fat. 

The  composition  of  maize  meal  prepared  by  the  above  process  is  as  follows: 

Moisture, 9.70  percent 

Protein, 12.68       " 

Ether  extract, 1.19       " 

Ash, 60       " 

Fiber, 35       " 

Starch,  sugar,  and  dextrin, 71-48       " 

This  method  of  preparing  maize  meal  is  not  used  to  any  extent  in  this  country, 
but  is  said  to  be  commonly  employed  in  Germany. 

Composition  of  Maize  Flour. — The  color  of  maize  flour  depends  upon 
the  color  of  the  corn  from  which  it  is  produced, — it  may  be  white  or  yellow. 
The  starch  granules  when  heated  in  water  to  62.5°  C.  swell  up  and  become 
deformed,  except  a  few,  usually  the  small  ones,  which  resist  the  action  of 
water  at  that  temperature.  The  starch  granules  of  maize  flour  under  polar- 
ized light  present  a  black  cross,  very  marked  and  very  distinct  when  the  field 
is  obscured.  When  viewed  under  polarized  light  with  a  selenite  plate  the 
starch  grains  of  maize  are  colored  red  with  a  green  cross  or  reciprocally,  and 
this  coloration  is  very  brilliant. 

As  has  already  been  said,  the  composition  of  Indian  com  meal  made  by  the 
old-fashioned  method  of  grinding  and  removing  only  the  bran  is  practically 
that  of  the  whole  grain  itself. 

The    composition   of    degerminated    maize    meal   (Indian   corn    flour)    is 

shown  by  the  following  average  data: 

Moisture, 12.57  percent 

Protein, 7.13 

Ether  extract, 1.33 

Ash, .6t 

Fiber, 87 

Starch  and  sugar, 78-36 

Calories  calculated  on  the  moist  meal, 3.837 


232  CEREAL   FOODS. 

The  above  data  show  that  the  refined  Indian  corn  meal  has  lost  more  than 
three-fourths  of  its  fat,  a  large  portion  of  its  mineral  matter,  and  also  a  very 
considerable  proportion  of  its  protein,  due  to  the  separation  of  the  bran  which 
is  extremely  rich  in  protein  and  the  germ  which  is  rich  both  in  oil  and  protein. 
A  mere  glance  at  the  data  shows  that  this  refined  Indian  corn  meal  is  much  less 
nutritious  than  the  natural  meal  in  so  far  as  its  content  of  tissue-forming  bodies 
and  its  faculty  to  furnish  heat  and  energy  are  concerned.  In  other  words,  the 
calories  are  very  much  lower  than  in  the  natural  corn  meal.  This  is  another 
reason  for  urging  our  people  to  return  to  the  consumption  of  the  old-fashioned 
material. 

The  Adulteration  of  Indian  Corn  Meal. — Owing  to  the  cheapness  of 
Indian  corn  in  so  far  as  is  known  there  is  no  adulteration  practiced.  The 
refined  Indian  corn  flour  itself  is  sometimes  used  as  an  adulteration  for  buck- 
wheat flour,  wheat  flour,  and  other  cereal  flours,  but  has  not  itself  been  sub- 
jected to  adulteration. 

Com  Bread  {Indian  Corn  Bread). — Corn  bread  is  a  very  common  diet 
among  all  classes  of  people  in  the  southern  states  and  also  to  a  considerable 
extent  in  the  north. 

Owing  to  the  lack  of  agglutinating  powers  of  the  nitrogenous  constituents  of 
Indian  corn  flour,  corn  bread  cannot  be  aerated  or  raised,  as  is  the  case  with 
wheat  bread.  It  is  often  eaten  in  an  unleavened  state.  It  may  be  partially 
leavened  by  the  usual  agent,  namely,  yeast  or  a  chemical  baking  powder. 
Two  varieties  of  bread  are  very  commonly  used,  namely,  that  made  of  white 
flour  or  meal  and  that  made  of  yellow.  There  is  apparently  no  difference  in 
the  nutritive  values  of  these  two  kinds.  Some  consumers  prefer  the  white 
loaf  and  some  the  yellow. 

Composition  of  Indian  Com  Bread.-^The  composition  of  bread  depends 
upon  whether  the  whole  grain  flour  is  used  from  which  only  the  coarse  bran 
has  been  removed  by  bolting  or  whether  the  decorticated  and  degerminated 
meal  is  used.  In  the  first  case  bread  is  made  richer  in  fat  and  protein  and  in 
the  second  case  richer  in  starch.  In  the  bread  will  also  be  found  the  materials 
used  io  its  preparation,  namely,  salt,  lard  or  other  fats,  milk,  yeast,  or  baking 
powder  residues.  The  best  bread  is  made  from  the  freshly  ground  flour  of  the 
whole  grain  from  which  only  the  outer  covering,  namely,  the  coarse  bran  has 
been  removed.  As  offered  at  many  of  our  hotels  and  some  private  houses,  corn 
bread  has  been  so  manipulated  as  to  lose  a  large  part  of  its  palatability,  with- 
out any  compensating  improvement  of  its  nutritive  properties. 


OATS  (Genus  Avena). 

This  cereal  is  an  important  food  product,  being  used  very  largely  in  Europe, 
especially  in  Scotland,  and  also  very  extensively  in  this  country  as  human  food. 


OATS.  233 

The  chief  use  of  oats  is  for  cattle  food,  especially  for  horses.  It  is  extraordi- 
narily rich  in  its  nutritive  constituents  and,  therefore,  is  prized  highly  as  a  food 
in  the  building  and  restoration  of  nitrogen  tissues,  such  as  the  muscles.  The 
variety  in  common  cultivation  is  Avena  saliva  L. 

Oats  are  grown  in  almost  every  part  of  the  United  States,  but  chiefly  in  the 
northern  and  western  portions.  In  the  southern  states  the  crop  is  planted  in 
the  late  autumn  or  early  winter.  In  the  northern  states  it  is  chiefly  a  spring 
crop,  being  sown  early  in  the  spring  as  soon  as  the  ground  is  in  fair  condition. 
The  oat  crop  is  one  which  requires  a  rather  abundant  and  well-distributed  rain- 
fall. A  spring  drought  is  very  detrimental  to  the  growth  of  oats,  much  more 
so  than  wheat  or  rye.  It  is  a  crop  which  is  well  suited  to  be  grown  under 
irrigation. 

There  are  many  varieties  of  oats  in  cultivation,  but  in  general  characteristics 
they  all  correspond  to  one  description.  The  husk  adheres  firmly  to  the  grain, 
and  when  threshed  the  grain  of  a  common  variety  of  oat  carries  the  first  layer 
of  husk  or  chaff  with  it.  Oats,  as  bought  in  the  market,  therefore,  consist  not 
only  of  the  kernel  or  grain  but  also  of  this  outer,  chaffy  envelope.  The  magni- 
tude of  the  crop  in  the  United  States  is  very  great,  but  only  an  inconsiderable 
proportion  of  the  whole  is  used  for  human  food,  and  this  chiefly  in  some  form 
of  oatmeal.  The  statistics  of  the  crop  grown  in  the  United  States  during 
1909  are  given  in  the  following  table: 

Acreage, 33,204,000 

Yield  per  acre,  bushels, 30.3 

Total  yield,  bushels, 1,007,353,000 

Price  per  bushel,  cents, 40.5 

Total  value  at  farm, $408,174,000 

Ratio  of  Kernel  to  Hull. — Numerous  examinations  of  unhulled  oats  show 
that  the  average  percentage  of  kernel  to  hull  for  100  parts  is  as  73  to  27.  In 
the  oats  grown  in  the  western  states  the  proportion  of  kernel  is  relatively  higher 
and  in  the  southern  states  lower. 

In  the  analytical  process  if  the  hull  or  chaff  is  ground  with  the  grain  the  pro- 
portion of  fiber  or  crude  cellulose  is  very  considerably  higher  than  in  the  class 
of  cereals  ground  without  the  chaff.  The  mean  composition  of  unhulled  ker- 
nels of  oats  of  American  growth  is  represented  by  the  following  table: 

Weight  of  100  unhulled  grains, 2.92  grams 

Moisture, 10.06  percent 

Protein, - 12.15       " 

Ether  extract, 4-33       " 

Crude  fiber, 12.07       " 

Ash, 3.46       " 

Starch  and  sugar, 57-93       " 

A  study  of  the  above  data  shows  that  the  flour  of  unhulled  oats  is  rich  in  fat, 
fiber,  and  ash.     The  large  percentage  of  fiber  and  ash  is  due  to  a  great  degree 


234  CEREAL   FOODS. 

to  the  composition  of  the  hulls  or  chaff.     The  fat  or  oil  comes  chiefly  from  the 
germ. 

Composition  of  Hulled  Oats. — Inasmuch  as  the  chaff  is  always  separated 
from  the  oat  flour  when  the  latter  is  to  be  used  for  human  food,  the  composition 
of  the  oat  in  the  hulled  state  is  of  greater  importance  to  the  present  purpose 
than  in  the  unhulled  condition.  The  means  of  179  analyses  show  the  hulled 
oats  to  have  the  following  composition: 

Moisture, 6.93  percent 

Protein, i4-3i 

Ether  extract, 8.14 

Crude  fiber, 1.38 

Ash, 2.15 

Starch  and  sugar, 67.09 

The  removal  of  the  hulls,  as  is  seen,  and  the  partially  dried  condition  of  the 
grain  in  the  above  analysis  increases  the  percentage  of  other  ingredients. 
The  protein  and  fat  are  especially  large  in  quantity.  Oatmeals  may  be  regarded 
as  the  richest  of  the  cereal  flours,  both  in  protein  and  in  oil. 

The  Protein  of  Oat  Kernels. — There  are  three  principal  products  in  the 
oat  kernels  characterized  by  their  different  degrees  of  solubility,  namely,  pro- 
tein soluble  in  alcohol,  protein  soluble  in  dilute  salt  solution,  and  protein  soluble 
in  alkali.  The  protein  soluble  in  alcohol  constitutes  about  1.25  percent,  of 
the  whole  grain,  the  protein  soluble  in  dilute  salt  solution  about  1.5  percent, 
and  the  protein  soluble  in  alkali- the  remainder,  viz.,  11.25  percent.  The 
protein  of  oats  has  very  little  agglutinating  power  and,  therefore,  oat  flour  is 
not  suitable  for  making  bread,  or  rather  it  is  very  little  used  for  that  pur- 
pose. 

Oat  Products. — As  has  been  intimated  before,  the  principal  oat  products, 
as  far  as  food  is  concerned,  are  the  various  forms  of  oatmeal  commonly  classed 
as  breakfast  foods.  These  products  are  prepared  in  various  forms  of  aggluti- 
nation and  physical  texture  but  if  made  from  genuine  oats,  as  there  is  little 
cause  for  doubt,  they  have  essentially  the  same  composition  and  nutritive  power. 
It  is  doubtful  if  there  is  any  preparation  of  oatmeal  any  more  nutritious  or 
palatable  than  the  plain  oat  grain  properly  cooked.  The  forms  in  which  the  oat 
products  are  offered  to  the  public  are  perhaps  more  convenient  for  use  and  in 
some  cases  by  reason  of  heating  and  preparation  require  less  trouble,  but  other- 
wise they  apparently  have  no  advantage  over  the  simple  product. 

The  mean  composition  of  a  number  of  oat  flour  products  is  shown  in  the 
following  table: 

Moisture, 7.66  percent 

Protein, 15.48      " 

Ether  extract, 7.46       " 

Crude  fiber, 1.20       " 

Ash, 1.29       " 

Starch  and  sugar, 67.61       " 


OAT   PRODUCTS.  235 

In  the  dry  substance  : 

Protein, 16.77  percent 

Ether  extract, 8.08        " 

Crude  fiber, 1.38       " 

Ash, 1.94       " 

Starch  and  sugar, 73-20        " 

Calories, 4j87S 

It  is  evident  from  the  above  average  analysis  that  the  products  examined  are 
made  from  the  whole  kernel  without  the  removal  of  the  germ  but  with  a  very 
careful  removal  of  the  hull  and  bran.  The  composition  of  these  products 
compares  very  favorably  with  the  typical  composition  of  the  kernel  itself. 


^  '^Vn^-'^^^^ 


r^?^^^:>- 


Ji 


$.(i 

^j^ 

^"im^ 

'fe^^ 

%^ 

^t 

Fig.  29.— Oat  Starch.     X  200.— {Courtesy  of  Bureau  of  Chemistry.) 

These  data  show  the  high  nutritive  value  of  these  oat  products,  both  in  respect 
of  fat  and  protein. 

Adulterations. — There  are  very  few  adulterations  of  oatmeal.  Fortunately 
the  price  of  this  cereal  is  such  that  the  admixture  of  other  cereals  would  not 
be  profitable.  Doubtless  such  admixtures  have  often  been  made  but  evidently, 
from  the  examination  of  the  products  upon  the  open  market,  they  are  not  very 
frequent.     The  characteristic  appearance  of  oat  starch  is  shown  in  Fig.  29. 

Oat  starch  grains  average  about  lo  microns  in  diameter.  There  are 
usually  present  some  grains  of  somewhat  oval  shape,  which  assist  in  identi- 


236  CEREAL   FOODS. 

fying  oat  products  when  present.     The  starch  granules  also  have  a  tendency 
to  agglutinate  into  masses  of  varying  size,  as  shown  in  the  photograph. 

Detection  of  Adulterations. — The  adulteration  of  oatmeal  with  the  flour 
of  other  cereals  can  easily  be  detected  by  the  use  of  the  microscope.  Oat  starch 
when  highly  magnified  presents  a  peculiar  cellular  structure  of  pentagonal 
character  which  might  be  compared  to  the  effect  produced  by  grinding  a  large 
number  of  faces  upon  a  precious  stone.  This  peculiar  appearance  is  caused 
by  the  tendency  of  the  starch  granules  in  oats  to  become  compacted  in 
large  masses.  The  appearance  of  the  separate  granules  and  also  the  com- 
pact aggregate  are  shown  in  the  figure  on  the  preceding  page.  The  large 
aggregated  masses  are  of  different  sizes,  ranging  from  .02  to  1.2  millime- 
ters in  length.  These  masses  are  usually  broken  up  by  grinding  or  pressure 
and,  therefore,  are  not  found  in  very  great  abundance  in  the  commercial 
oatmeal.  When  separated  into  single  granules  these  are  found  to  be  irreg- 
ular in  outline,  due  to  the  compression  to  which  they  have  been  subjected, 
more  or  less  pentagonal  in  structure,  and  from  .015  to  .02  millimeter  in  diameter. 
The  starch  granules  do  not  show  any  very  marked  characteristics  under  polar- 
ized light  and  have  neither  lines  nor  hilum.  The  above  statements  can  easily 
be  verified  by  any  one  who  can  operate  an  ordinary  microscope,  but  before 
attempting  to  detect  adulteration  a  careful  examination  of  starch  granules, 
prepared  by  the  investigator  himself,  should  be  made. 

RICE  {Oryza  sativa). 
Rice  is  one  of  the  most  important  food  cereals.  It  furnishes  a  large  part 
of  the  food  of  the  inhabitants  of  China  and  Japan.  It  is  a  food  rich  in  starch 
and  poor  in  protein,  and  furnishes,  therefore,  heat  and  energy,  and  is  well 
adapted  for  the  nourishment  of  those  engaged  in  hard  labor  or  who  undergo 
extreme  physical  exertion.  The  cultivation  of  rice  is  rapidly  extending  in 
the  United  States,  especially  in  Louisiana  and  Texas.  The  statistical  data 
relating  to  the  rice  crop  for  1909  are  as  follows: 

Acreage, 720,225  acres 

Production, , 24,368,000  bushels 

Yield  per  acre, 33.8     " 

Price  per  bushel, 79.4   cents 

Total  value  at  farm, 19,341,000       dollars 

The  adulteration  of  rice  is  confined  to  coating  it  with  talc,  paraffin,  and 
glucose.  The  object  of  this  treatment  is  to  give  a  better  appearance  to  the 
grain  and  to  protect  it  from  the  ravages  of  insects.  The  use  of  indigestible 
substances  such  as  talc  and  paraffin  is  scarcely  justifiable.  The  starch  granules 
of  rice  have  distinctive  properties  which  enable  them  to  be  readily  recog- 
nized under  the  microscope,  as  shown  in  Fig.  30. 

The  rice  starch  grains  are  polygonal  in  form  and  have  sharp  angles.     The 


RYE. 


237 


grains  vary  in  size  from  2  to  10  microns,  though  the  latter  size  is  seldom 
reached,  the  most  of  the  grains  being  about  6  microns.  The  hilum  is  seldom 
visible.  The  grains  occur  in  the  rice  kernels  mostly  in  groups  of  a  consider- 
able number  of  the  individual  grains  forming  starch  masses  of  ovoid  or  angular 
form. 

RYE. 
This  is  the  source  of  the  principal  supply  of  bread  in  many  .Eiu*opean  coun- 
tries, but  is  not  extensively  used  in  the  United  States  except  among  our  citizens 
of  foreign  birth.     It  is  also  extensively  used  for  making  whisky.     Rye  belongs 


/  Q       "       o 


■J 


V 


^o 


6 


Fig.  30,— Rice  Starch.     X  200.— ^Courtesy  of  Bureau  of  Chemistry.) 

to  the  genus  Secale.  Only  one  species  {Secale  cereale  L.)  is  commonly  culti- 
vated, but  this  species  has  a  great  many  different  varieties  or  races.  Accord- 
ing to  the  time  of  sowing  there  are  two  great  classes  of  rye,  namely,  that 
planted  in  the  autumn  or  early  winter  and  that  planted  in  the  early  spring, 
generally  known  respectively  as  winter  and  spring  rye.  This  is  one  of  the 
hardiest  of  cereals,  and  grows  well  in  all  locations  where  w^heat  and  other 
common  cereals  flourish.  The  area  planted  in  rye  in  the  United  States  in 
1909  and  the  quantity  harvested  are  given  in  the  following  table: 

Acreage, 2,006,000 

Yield  per  acre, 16.4  bushels 

Production, 32,239,000  " 

Price  per  bushel, 73.9   cents 

Total  value  at  farm, 23,809,000       dollars 


238 


CEREAL   FOODS. 


Composition  of  Rye. — From  a  study  of  many  hundreds  of  analyses  of  rye 
of  American  origin  the  following  table  may  be  given  as  approximating  the  com- 
position of  a  typical  American  rye : 

Weight  of  100  kernels, 2.50  grams 

Moisture, 10.50  percent 

Ether  extract, 1.50 

Protein, 12.25 

Fiber, 2.10 

Starch  and  sugar, '. 7i-7S 

Ash, 1.90 

The  percentage  of  moisture  in  American  grown  rye  is  usually  less  than  that 
of  European  origin.     The  American  rye,  also,  has  smaller  kernels  as  a  rule 


f.€^ 


Fig.  31. — Rye  Starch.     X  200.— {Couriesy  of  Bureau  of  Chemistry.') 


than  that  of  foreign  growth.  In  the  content  of  protein  the  American  samples 
of  rye  are  fully  equivalent  to  those  of  foreign  origin,  and  in  their  mean  com- 
position, except  as  noted  above,  do  not  differ  greatly  from  that  of  standard 
varieties  collected  abroad. 

Protein  of  Rye. — As  is  the  case  with  other  cereals  more  than  one  nitrog- 
enous constituent  exists  in  the  rye.  Three  of  the  principal  ones  have  been 
separated  and  named  as  follows:  leucosin,  gliadin,  and  edestin.  Other 
proteins  belonging  to  the  globulin,  albumin,  and  proteose  family  are  also  found 
in  small  proportions.     The  gliadin  of  rye  resembles  in  its  chemical  and  physical 


WHEAT.  239 

properties  the  gliadin  of  wheat.  There  is,  however,  in  the  rye  no  protein  com- 
pound corresponding  to  the  glutenin  of  wheat,  and,  therefore,  rye  flour  does  not 
form  a  gluten  similar  in  quality  to  that  of  wheat,  although  it  comes  nearer  to 
doing  so  than  any  other  cereal.  The  gliadin  of  rye  is  soluble  in  alcohol,  the 
leucosin  of  rye  is  soluble  in  water,  and  the  edestin  is  soluble  in  a  salt  solution. 

In  a  typical  sample  of  American  rye  there  will  be  found  about  5.16  percent 
of  gliadin,  2.27  percent  of  edestin  and  proteose,  0.55  percent  of  leucosin,  and 
3.14  percent  of  protein  soluble  in  salt  solution. 

Adulteration  of  Rye  Flour. — Rye  flour  is  frequently  adulterated  by  the 
admixture  of  flours  of  other  cereals.  Real  rye  flour  is  distinguished  by  the 
character  of  the  starch  granules,  as  shown  in  Fig.  31. 

Rye  starch  grains  are  lenticular  in  form,  and  the  largest  gtains  are  of  about 
50  microns  diameter.  They  average  somewhat  larger  than  wheat  starch 
grains  and  are  characterized  by  many  of  the  large  grains  having  a  fissure  in 
the  form  of  a  slit,  cross,  or  star,  which  is  rare  in  wheat  and  barley.  The  rings 
and  hilum  are  indistinctly  seen  in  some  of  the  grains. 

Rye  Bread. — This  bread  may  be  made  leavened  or  unleavened,  since  the 
analogy  in  the  property  of  its  protein  to  that  of  wheat  renders  the  leavening  of 
rye  bread  somewhat  more  easy  of  accomplishment  than  that  of  the  other  cereals, 
with  the  exception  of  wheat. 

Rye  bread  made  of  pure  rye  flour  has  a  dark  color,  sometimes  almost  black. 
It  is  often  baked  long  in  advance  of  the  time  of  eating  and  keeps  well,  is  highly 
nutritious,  and  is  the  staple  bread  of  many  European  countries. 

A  partial  rye  flour  bread  is  made  by  mixing  rye  flour  with  other  flours,  such 
as  wheat,  barley,  Indian  corn,  etc.,  and  this  is  the  kind  which  is  commonly  used 
in  this  country  and  in  many  portions  of  Europe  where  the  light-colored  breads 
are  preferred  to  the  dark. 

The  large  consumption  of  bread  made  from  rye  and  Indian  corn  indicates 
that  even  if  the  supply  of  wheat  should  become  limited  there  is  no  reason  to  fear 
a  famine  of  bread.  It  would  be  easy  to  substitute  bread  made  wholly  or  in  part 
of  Indian  corn  and  rye  for  that  made  wholly  of  wheat  and  thus  to  supply  practi- 
cally any  demand  for  bread  which  the  increasing  population  of  the  earth  may 
make. 

WHEAT  (Genus  Triticum), 

In  respect  of  human  nutrition  wheat  is  the  most  important  of  the  cereals. 
It  is  grown  in  the  temperate  regions  of  almost  every  country,  but  does  not 
flourish  in  tropical  or  subtropical  countries. 

In  the  United  States  the  wheat  is  divided  in  respect  of  the  period  of  its  growth 
into  two  great  classes,  namely,  winter  or  fall  planted  wheat  and  spring  or 
spring  planted  wheat.  Winter  wheat  is  usually  planted  from  September  to 
November  and  spring  wheat  from  the  last  of  March  to  the  last  of  April. 


240  CEREAL   FOODS. 

In  this  country  wheat  is  not  cultivated,  that  is,  there  is  no  cultivation  of  the 
soil  after  seeding.  The  soil  is,  however,  plowed  and  harrowed  before  plant- 
ing. In  the  winter  wheat  regions  the  harvesting  is  in  the  month  of  June, 
though  in  the  southern  localities  it  comes  somewhat  earlier  and  in  the  more 
northern  localities  may  extend  into  July.  In  the  spring  wheat  regions  the  har- 
vesting is  from  the  last  of  July  to  the  middle  or  end  of  August.  The  statis- 
tics of  wheat  grown  in  the  United  States  during  1909  are  as  follows: 

Winter.  Spring. 

Acreage, 28,330,000  18,393,000 

Yield  per  acre  (bushels), 15.8  15.8 

Total  yield  (bushels), 446,366,000  290,823,000 

Total  value  at  farm, $459,154,000  $270,892,000 

Price  per  bushel  (cents), 102.9  93.1 

All  the  different  varieties  of  wheat  which  are  now  known  are  cultivated. 
The  simplest  form,  namely,  the  one  grain  wheat  is  the  only  one  which  grows 
wild,  and  the  origin  of  the  other  varieties  of  wheat  is  unknown. 

Botanists  recognize  three  species,  namely — Species  i,  one  grain  wheat 
{Triticum  monococcum  Lam.) ;  species  2,  Polish  wheat  {Triticiim polonicum  L.) ; 
species  3,  common  wheat  {Triticum  sativum  Lam.).  All  of  these  species  are 
distinct,  especially  the  third  one,  of  which  the  most  valuable  variety  is  the 
common  wheat,  Triticum  vulgare  Vill. 

The  quality  and  properties  of  wheat  depend  more  upon  the  environment  in 
which  it  is  grown  than  upon  the  species  to  which  it  belongs.  There  is  perhaps 
no  other  field  crop  in  which  the  environment,  namely,  condition  of  the  soil, 
temperature,  precipitation,  etc.,  makes  a  greater  difference  than  in  wheat.  In 
general,  the  environment  and  the  species  together  produce  two  kinds  of  wheat 
as  far  as  milling  and  bread  making  are  concerned,  namely,  the  soft  or  starchy 
wheat  and  the  hard  or  glutinous  wheat.  In  the  first  variety  there  is  a  larger 
percentage  of  starch  in  relation  to  the  content  or  protein  matter  than  in  the 
second.  Taking  the  wheat  as  a  whole  its  average  composition  is  shown  in  the 
following  table: 

Weight  of  100  kernels, 3.85  grams 

Moisture, 10.60  percent 

Protein, 12.25        " 

Ether  extract, 1.75        " 

Crude  fiber, 2.40        " 

Ash, 1.75        " 

Carbohydrates  other  than  crude  fiber, 71-25        " 

Dry  gluten, 10.25        " 

Moist  gluten, 26.50        " 

In  regard  to  protein  American  wheat,  as  a  rule,  is  quite  equal  to  that  of  for- 
eign origin.  This  is  an  important  characteristic  when  it  is  remembered  that 
both  the  milling  and  food  value  of  a  wheat  depend  largely  upon  the  nitrog- 
enous matter  which  is  present.  It  must  not  be  forgotten,  however,  that  merely 
a  good  percentage  of  protein  is  not  of  itself  a  sure  indication  of  the  milling  value 


GLUTEN.  241 

of  a  wheat.  The  ratio  of  gluten  to  the  other  protein  constituents  in  a  wheat  is 
not  always  constant,  but  it  is  the  gluten  content  of  a  flour  on  which  the  bread 
making  qualities  chiefly  depend. 

Gluten. — The  principal  part  of  the  protein  in  wheat  is  known  as  gluten. 
Gluten  as  such  does  not  exist  in  the  wheat  but  is  formed  when  the  pulverized 
wheat,  that  is,  the  wheat  flour,  is  mixed  with  water  by  the  union  of  two  elements 
in  the  wheat,  namely,  gliadin,  which  is  soluble  in  dilute  alcohol  and  forms  nearly 
half  of  the  whole  protein  matter  of  the  wheat  kernel,  and  glutenin,  a  compound 
insoluble  in  water,  dilute  salt  solutions,  and  dilute  alcohol  and  which  is  quite  as 
abundant  as  gliadin  in  the  wheat  kernel.  In  fact,  the  gliadin  and  the  glutenin 
together  make  the  whole  of  the  protein,  except  a  little  over  one  per  cent. 

There  are  three  other  forms  of  protein,  as  pointed  oufby  Osborne,  in  the 
wheat  kernel,  making  altogether  nearly  ij  percent  of  total  protein  content. 
The  average  quantity  of  these  compounds  in  the  protein  of  wheat  is  as  follows. 

Constituents : 

Globulin, 0.70  percent 

Albumin, ^ 0.40        " 

Proteose, 0.30        " 

Gliadin, 4.25        " 

Glutenin, 4.35        " 

10.00 

Starch  in  the  Wheat  Kernel. — The  most  abundant  constituent  of  the 
wheat  kernel  is  the  starch.  The  appearance  of  wheat  starch  is  shown  in  the 
figure.  Wheat  starch  grains  ordinarily  show  the  rings  and  hilum  in  a  few 
cases  only  under  the  most  favorable  conditions,  though  there  are  sometimes 
cases  where  the  striations  are  quite  distinct.  The  granules  of  starch  vary 
greatly  in  size,  being  from  5  to  10  microns  in  diameter.  There  are,  in 
fact,  two  kinds  of  granules  in  wheat  starch,  one  having  the  appearance 
under  the  microscope  of  irregularly  rounded  particles  in  sections  like  a  cir- 
cular disk,  and  the  other  of  elongated  particles  with  a  distinct  hilum,  as 
shown  in  Fig.  32.  The  appearance  of  the  granules  under  polarized  light  is 
shown  in  Fig.  33. 

Wheat  starch  is  not  very  commonly  used  for  commercial  purposes  but  is 
highly  prized  for  some  things,  especially  in  the  sizing  of  textile  fabrics.  The 
germ  in  wheat  is  particularly  rich  in  oil  and  the  bran  or  outside  covering  in 
protein.  The  common  idea  that  the  bran  is  composed  mostly  of  silicious  mat- 
ter is  wholly  erroneous.  On  the  contrary  the  bran  is  a  highly  nutritious  food,, 
and  the  objection  to  it  for  human  food  is  mostly  of  a  mechanical  nature. 

Adulterations. — Wheat  grains  are  never  adulterated  but  they  may  some- 
times contain  dirt  and  foreign  seeds,  due  to  the  growth  of  some  body  in  connec- 
tion with  the  wheat  itself. 

Standards. — Wheat,  commercially,  is  sold  under  three  standards,  namely, 
17 


242  CEREAL   FOODS. 

one,  two,  three.  The  difference  is  an  arbitrary  one  and  not  founded  upon  any 
chemical  data  but  wholly  upon  the  physical  appearance,  degree  of  moisture, 
and  freedom  from  extraneous  admixtures. 

Wheat  Products. — The  principal  product  of  wheat  is  flour.  The  milling 
process  for  wheat  is  highly  interesting  both  from  a  chemical  and  technical  point 
of  view,  but  cannot  be  described  in  full  in  this  manual.  The  old-fashioned 
milling  of  wheat,  namely,  pressing  between  stones  and  separation  of  the  flour 
by  bolting  has  been  almost  entirely  superseded  by  the  modern  milling  with 
metal  rollers. 

Altogether  nearly  a  hundred  different  products  are  made  incident  or  final 


'-0'  %?^'o^ 


a 


f 

\' 

>-- 

Fig.  32.— Wheat  Starch,     x  200 —{Courtesy  of  Btireau  of  Chemistry.^ 

to  the  milling  of  wheat.  Only  those  products,  however,  which  are  used  for 
human  food  interest  us  at  the  present  time. 

Chief  Varieties  of  Flour. — The  highest  grade  of  wheat  flour  is  known 
usually  by  the  term  "patent";  a  lower  grade  is  known  as  "bakers'  flour"  and 
a  third  as  low  grade  flour.  A  barrel  of  flour  weighs  196  pounds  and  requires 
about  258  pounds  of  wheat  for  its  manufacture.  The  whole  product  from  the 
258.35  pounds  of  wheat  is  shown  in  the  appended  table. 

In  general  it  may  be  said  that  about  75  percent  of  the  weight  of  the  wheat 
is  obtained  as  merchantable  flour  of  some  kind,  about  60  to  70  percent  being 


SPECIAL   NAMES   OF   FLOUR.  243 

good  grade  or  straight  flour.  About  24  percent  of  the  weight  of  the  wheat  is 
obtained  as  cattle  food  and  about  i  percent  is  lost  during  the  process  of 
manufacture. 

Product.  Pounds.  Percentage. 

Patent  flour, 149-37  57-^2 

Bakers' flour, 29.13  11.28 

Low  grade  flour, i7-5o  6.77 

Total  flour, 196.00  75-87 

Bran, 45.56  17.64 

Shorts, 9.80  3.79 

Screenings, 4.99  1.93 

Waste, 2.00  0.77 

Total  weight, 258.35          ^  100.00 

Special  Names  of  Flour. — In  addition  to  the  classification  above  mentioned 
other  names  are  used  in  many  commercial  senses  for  flour.     These  additional 


Fig.  33.— Wheat  Starch  under  Polarized  Light.    X  200.— {Courtesy  of  Bureau  0/  Chemistry). 


names  are  "family,"  "red  dog,"  "blended,"  gluten,  etc.  Many  flours  are 
also  named  after  the  name  of  the  mill  or  locality  or  bear  simply  fanciful 
names. 

Graham  Flour. — This  term  was  originally  applied  to  the  coarse,  unbolted 
flour  which  was  made  by  grinding  the  whole  wheat.     The  name,  therefore. 


244  CEREAL  EOODS. 

should  be  applied  to  all  flour  made  from  well  grained  wheat,  ground,  and  un- 
bolted. Most  of  the  flours  howe^^er,  which  are  sold  nowadays  as  graham  flours^ 
are  produced  by  a  more  or  less  perfect  bolting  process.  From  the  above  it  is^ 
seen  that  true  graham  flour  will  contain  practically  the  same  constituents  as 
the  wheat  kernel  itself  and  in  the  same  proportion  and  have  the  same  composi- 
tion as  wheat.  , , 

Entire  Wheat  Flour. — ^This"name  would  naturally  carry  the  idea  of  a  flour 
corresponding  to  the  graham  flour  above  mentioned.  It  is,,  however,  a  mis- 
named trade-mark  for  a  flour  produced  in  a  special  manner  which  consists  in 
the  removal  of  the  outer  or  purely  branny  covering  of  the  grain.  "  Entire 
wheat"  flour,  therefore,;  contains  all  the  ingredients  of  wheat  grains,  save 
those  which  are  found  in  the  outer  branny  covering. 

Gluten  Flour. ^This.  is  a  name  applied  to  a  flour  which  is  produced  by  remov- 
ing the  greater  ^part.of  the  starch  from  ordinary  flour.  It  is  especially  recom- 
mended for  the  use  of  diabetic  patients.  Unfortunately,  the  name  is  very 
commonly  applied  to  flours  made  from  wheat  containing  a  little  higher  per- 
centage of  protein  than  the  ordinary  and  sometimes  even  to  an  ordinary  wheat 
flour.    A  gluten  flour  should  contain  not  less  than  35  percent  of  protein. 

Mixed  Flour. — The  act  of  Congress  of  June  13,  1898,  defines  mixed  flour  and 
imposes  a  tax  upon  the  manufacture,  sale,  importation,  and  exportation  of 
that  article.  The  maximum  tax  laid  upon  mixed  flour  is  4  cents  on  a  barrel  of 
196  pounds.  The  total  number  of  barrels  of  mixed  flour  returned  for  taxation 
for  the  fiscal  year  ending  June  30,  1909,  was  195;  half  barrels,  83,648;  quarter 
barrels,  30,067;  eighth  barrels,  35,789.  The  total  quantity  of  mixed  flour 
returned  for  taxation  during  the  year  was  8,215,167  pounds.  The  above  data 
show  that  the  amount  of  mixed  flour  offered  for  sale  is  a  very  small  part  of  the 
total  flour  manufactured  in  the  United  States.  It  may  be  that  there  is  a  great 
deal  of  flour  mixed  and  sold  in  violation  of  the  law  since  it  is  quite  impossible 
in  the  inspection  of  the  stores  to  supervise  all  the  transactions  of  business  deals 
in  flour;  especially  is  it  believed  that  rye  flour  and  buckwheat  flour  are  often 
adulterated  by  mixing  with  them  the  flour  of  other  cereals.  This  adulteration 
is  not  one  which  is  at  all  injurious  to  health  but  is  simply  practiced  for  the  pur- 
pose of  making  a  rye  or  buckwheat  flour  look  whiter  or  because  the  added  flours 
are  cheaper  than  the  real  rye  or  buckwheat. 

Properties  Affecting  the  Commercial  Value  of  Flour. — Aside  from  its 
nutritive  properties  wheat  flour  has  a  commercial  value  depending  upon  its 
color  and  texture  and  upon  the  gluten  which  it  contains.  The  character  of 
gluten  also  varies  largely  in  different  varieties  of  wheat  and  in  wheat  grown 
in  different  localities.  A  chemical  examination  will  not  always  tell  the  bread 
making  properties  of  a  flour,  and  the  character  of  the  bread  itself  depends  often 
quite  as  much  upon  the  skill  of  the  baker  as  upon  the  flour  which  is  used. 

In  cases  where  loaves  are  sold  by  weight,  a  flour  with  a  high  percentage  of 


SEPARATION  OF  GLUTEN. 


245 


tenacious  gluten  is  often  preferred,  sihce  it  permits  of  the  forming  of  loaves 
containing  a  maximum  percentage  of  water.  With  a  flour  rich  in  gluten  it  is  not 
difficult  to  make  a  palatable  loaf  which  does  not  bear  any  evidence  of  an  excess 
of  water,  containing  as  much  as  40  percent  of  moisture.  The  baking  of  bread 
is  an  art  which  is  most  successfully  practiced  by  professionals,  and  the  American 
method  of  home  bread  making  does  not  always  lead  to  the  happiest  results. 

The  ideal  flour  for  bread  making  is  one  which  contains  a  sufficient  quantity 
•of  gluten  to  make  a  porous  and  spongy  loaf,  but  not  one  which  permits  an  ex- 
cessive quantity  of  moisture  to  be  incorporated  in  the  loaf  itself. 

Average  Composition  of  Different  Varieties  of  Flour. — Analyses  of  a 
great  number  of  samples  of  different  varieties  of  flours  lead  to  the  following  data, 
which  may  be  accepted  as  a  very  close  approximation  of  the  average  variety  of 
■different  grades  of  flour  offered  upon  the  American  market: 


Name  of  Flour. 

i 

0 

^x 

S5 

4 

OS 
0 

0 

i 
< 

Starch 
N  X  6.25.* 

Starch 

N  X  5.70.* 

i 

Patent  flour 

Bakers'  and  family  flour,  .   . 
Common  market  flour,  .   .   . 
Miscellaneous  flour,  .... 
Self-raising  flour,    .   . 
■Gluten  flour, 

Percl. 

12.77 
11.69 
12.28 
12.73 

"45 
12.99 

Perct. 

10.55 
12.28 
10.18 
10.45 
9-75 
13-30 

Perct. 

9.62 
11.20 

9.28 

IS> 

12.13 

Perct. 

25-97 
34-70 

26.97 
39.68 

Perct. 

9-99 
13.07 

9.21 
10.22 

9-65 
14.84 

Perct. 
1.02 
1.30 
1.30 
1.08 
0.70 
1-05 

Perct. 

0.44 
0.57 
0.61 
0.49 
4.45 
0.55 

Perct. 

74.76 
73.87 
75.63 

72.11 

Perct. 

76.14 
74.98 
76.53 
76.15 
74.51 
73.28 

Perct. 
0.21 
0.22 
0.28 
0.25 
0.21 
0.32 

3,858.0 
3.929.6 

3>882.5 
3,846.3 
3,719.3 
3.891.1 

Separation  of  Gluten. — The  character  of  a  wheat  flour,  as  has  already 
been  intimated,  is  measured  largely  by  the  quantity  of  gluten  which  it  may 
contain.  The  separation  of  gluten  may  be  accomplished  by  any  one,  even 
without  a  chemical  training,  by  a  little  practice.  It  is,  therefore,  one  of  the 
tests  for  the  value  of  a  wheat  flour  which  can  be  easily  and  generally  applied. 
The  principle  of  separation  of  the  gluten  rests  upon  the  fact  that  when  wheat 
flour  is  moistened  and  kneaded  into  a  sticky  mass  it  may  be  washed  with  pure 
water  with  constant  kneading  until  nearly  all  the  starch  has  been  removed  from 
the  mass.  Meanwhile  only  that  portion  of  the  protein  is  removed  which  is 
soluble  in  the  water  and  the  gluten  which  is  formed  by  the  process  of  kneading 
remains  as  a  sticky  mass.  When  this  moist  mass  is  kneaded  and  rolled  until 
all  the  moisture  is  taken  out  of  it  that  can  be  removed  in  this  way,  it  may  be 
weighed  and  the  proportion  of  moist  gluten  in  the  sample  determined.  It  may 
then  be  placed  in  an  oven  and  dried,  and  then  the  proportion  of  dry  gluten  se- 
cured. The  following  method  is  one  which  is  easily  applied:  Place  10  grams 
of  the  sample  in  a  porcelain  dish  and  moisten  with  from  6  to  7  cubic  centi- 

*  In  the  first  of.  these  columns  the  starch  is  calculated  by  difference,  assuming  the  pro- 
tein to  be  the  quantity  of  nitrogen  present  multiplied  by  6.25.  and  in  the  second  column 
the  figure  is  obtained  in  the  same  way,  using  5.70  as  the  protein  factor.    , 


246 


CEREAL   FOODS. 


meters  of  water,  knead,  and  allow  to  stand  for  an  hour.  Work  into  a  ball, 
being  careful  that  none  of  the  material  adheres  to  the  dish.  Holding  the  mass 
in  the  hand  knead  it  in  a  slow  stream  of  cold  water  until  the  starch  and  all  solu- 
ble matter  are  washed  out.  Place  the  ball  of  gluten  thus  formed  in  cold  water 
and  allow  to  stand  for  one  hour;  remove  from  water,  press  as  dry  as  possible 
between  the  hands,  roll  into  a  ball,  and  weigh  in  a  flat-bottomed  dish.  After 
weighing,  place  the  ball  of  moist  gluten  in  the  drying  oven  for  twenty  hours; 
cool  and  weigh. 

Gluten  Tester. — A   simple   test    for   determining    the   approximate  per- 


FiG.  34. — Kedzie's  Farinometer  showing  the  Farts.— (Bulletin  /j,  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture.) 


centage  of  gluten  in  flour  may  be  used,  based  upon  the  principle  that  the 
viscosity  of  dough  is  a  measure  of  its  practical  gluten  content.  The  name 
applied  to  a  gluten  tester  is  farinometer. 

A  convenient  form  of  farinometer  devised  by  Kedzie  is  shown  in  the 
accompanying  figure.  It  is  patterned  somewhat  upon  the  plan  of  Jago's 
viscometer.  The  instrument  is  shown  in  parts  in  Fig.  34.  The  instru- 
ment as  in  use  is  exhibited  in  Fig.  35,  Parts  shown  in  Fig.  34  are  as  fol- 
lows: No.   I   is  the  stand  or  support  of  the  parts.     No.  2  is  the  cap  of 


BLEACHING   OF   FLOUR. 


247 


No.  I,  and  discloses  the  half-inch  opening  (half  closed  by  the  slide) 
through  which  the  dough  is  forced  by  the  pressure  of  the  rod  No.  4. 
l"he  slide  by  which  this  opening  is  closed  is  plainly  shown;  also  the  socket 
for  holding  No.  3.  No.  3  is  a  brass 
tube  3  inches  high  and  i  inch  inter- 
nal diameter,  with  a  small  knob  to  fit 
into  the  notched  opening  in  the  side 
of  the  socket  seen  in  No.  2,  to  hold 
No.  3  firmly  in  place.  No.  4  is  a 
steel  rod  yf  inch  in  diameter  and  12 
inches  long,  with  a  thin  brass  cap  i 
inch  in  diameter,  beveled  slightly  so 
that  the  front  edge  fills  the  barrel  of 
No.  3  without  friction,  and  is  yet 
dough-tight.  Near  the  top  the  rod 
is  marked  into  inch  spaces. 

In  using  the  farinometer  two  points 
are  considered: 

1.  The  water-absorbing  power  of 
a  flour,  or  the  percentage  of  water 
it  will  take  up  to  form  a  dough  of  a 
certain  consistency. 

2.  The  viscosity  of  such  dough,  or 
its  resistance  to  change  of  form  under 
a  uniform  force;  e.  g.,  the  length  of 
time  in  seconds  required  to  force  a 
cylinder  of  dough  i  inch  high  through 
a  hole  one-half  inch  in  diameter  under 
the  pressure  of  a  vertical  steel  rod  13 
inches  long  and  weighing  2  J  pounds 
avoirdupois. 

Bleaching  of  Flour . — For- 
merly flour  was  extensively  bleached 
for  the  purpose  of  making  an  in- 
ferior article  resemble  a  superior 
one.  By  this  means  a  greater  per- 
centage of  the  flour  produced  can  be 
rated  as  of  first  quality.      The  oxids 

of  nitrogen  developed  by  electrical  discharges  are  the  principal  bleaching 
agents  employed,  and  add  to  the  flour  a  substance  which  may  be  injurious  to 
health.  Under  the  Food  and  Drugs  Act  the  bleaching  of  flour  for  interstate 
commerce  has  practically  ceased. 

Adulteration  of  Flour. — The  adulteration  of  wheat  flour  is  not  prac- 


-^TTT 


Fig.   35. — Kedzie's   Farinometer    in    Use. 
{Bulletin  13,  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture.) 


248  CEREAL   FOODS. 

ticed  to  any  extent  in  this  country.  The  most  common  adulteration  arises 
from  grinding  with  wheat  foreign  seeds  and  other  foreign  matter,  rust,  smut, 
etc.,  which  may  be  present  in  the  grain.  Other  adulterations  are  the  mixture 
with  wheat  flour  of  the  starch  or  flour  of  maize  and  other  cereals.  The 
adulteration  with  any  form  of  terra  alba  or  white  powdered  earthy  substance 
is  exceedingly  rare.  Although  some  attempts  have  been  made  to  introduce 
such  adulterations  in  this  country  they  have  not  reached  any  commercial 
success.  The  adulterations,  with  the  exception  of  those  with  white  earthy 
powders,  are  most  readily  ascertained  by  microscopic  examination  for  for- 
eign matters  and  other  varieties  of  starch  than  grow  naturally  in  the  wheat. 

Standard. — The  United  States  standard  for  flour  is  as  follows: 

Flour  is  the  fine,  sound  product  made  by  bolting  wheat  meal  and  contains 
not  more  than  thirteen  and  one-half  (13.5)  percent  of  moisture,  not  less  than 
one  and  twenty-five  hundredths  (1.25)  percent  of  nitrogen,  not  more  than 
one  (i.o)  percent  of  ash,  and  not  more  than  fifty  hundredths  (0.50)  percent  of 
fiber. 

Graham  flour  is  unbolted  wheat  meal. 

Whole  wheat  flour,  entire  wheat  flour,  improperly  so  called,  is  fine  wheat 
meal  from  which  a  part  of  the  bran  has  been  removed. 

Gluten  flour  is  the  product  made  from  flour  by  the  removal  of  starch,  and 
contains  not  less  than  five  and  six-tenths  (5.6)  percent  of  nitrogen  and  not 
more  than  ten  (10)  percent  of  moisture. 

Age  of  Flour. — The  freshly  ground  flour  is  most  highly  esteemed  by 
many  consumers  on  account  of  palatability  and  freedom  from  all  danger  of 
mold  and  ferments.  Older  flours  are  likely  to  lose  flavor,  become  moldy  and 
infested  with  weavil  and  other  insect  pests.  The  last-named  evils  are  avoided 
by  the  use  of  wheat  containing  no  fungus,  none  of  the  eggs  of  the  weavil, 
nor  of  other  insects,  and  enclosing  the  freshly  ground  flour  in  packages  not 
accessible  to  infection.  Even  then  it  is  advisable  to  consume  the  flour  as 
soon  as  convenient  after  the  milling  process.  Many  manufacturers  and 
experts  contend  that  flour  is  improved  by  keeping  for  a  certain  length  of 
time,  and  this  contention  is  based  on  the  assumption  that  the  flour  assumes 
a  lighter  color  and  improves  in  flavor  on  keeping.  There  is  of  course  a 
certain  limit  to  improvements  of  this  kind. 

Substitutes  for  Flour. — Wholesome  ingredients  are  used  in  part 
instead  of  flour  in  bread  making,  and  when  that  fact  is  clearly  made  known 
the  admixture  of  these  substances  with  flour  is  not  considered  an  adulteration. 
Bread  which  is  made  of  an  admixture  of  Indian  corn  meal  with  flour  or  rye 
flour  with  flour  or  other  cereal  products  is  well  liked  by  many  people.  Pota- 
toes are  also  used  very  often  in  bread  making.  Acorns,  buckwheat,  and 
other  farinacious  and  oily  substances  are  also  employed.  The  admixture  of 
inert  substances  with  flour  merely  to  increase  the  bulk  and  weight  of  the 
loaf,  even  if  stated,  cannot  be  regarded  as  other  than  an  adulteration. 


VARIETIES    OF    BREAD.  249 

In  times  of  famine  such  admixtures  are  sometimes  made  in  order  to  increase 
the  size  and  weight  of  the  loaf.  Such  substances  are  known  in  times  of 
famine  as  "hunger  bread."  Finely  ground  straw,  bark,  the  hulls  of  nuts, 
etc.,  are  often  used  for  this  purpose.  These  bodies  practically  have  no  nutri- 
tive value  and  serve  no  useful  purpose  except  to  deceive  the  eater  respecting 
the  quantity  of  bread  he  consumes. 


BREAD. 

The  term  "Bread"  when  used  alone  is  understood  in  this  country  to  apply 
to  bread  made  from  wheat  flour  or  some  form  of  wheat.  If  made  from 
other  cereals  a  prefix  is  used  to  distinguish  this  fact,  as  Indian  corn  bread, 
rye  bread,  etc.  The  term  bread  includes  also  the  materials  which  are  used 
necessarily  therew^ith  in  the  ordinary  process  of  baking.  Thus,  the  term 
bread  would  apply  to  a  loaf  which  contains  not  only  the  wheat  flour  as  the 
base  and  chief  part  of  its  mass  but  also  the  yeast  or  other  leavening  agent 
employed,  together  with  salt,  lard,  or  butter  used  in  its  preparation.  The 
presence  of  these  bodies,  used  in  the  sense  above  described,  is  not  regarded 
as  an  adulteration.  The  term  "bread,"  however,  is  not  to  be  used  to  include 
those  other  forms  of  nutriment  made  from  wheat  flour  in  which  condimental 
substances,  especially  sugar,  are  used  to  such  an  extent  as  to  give  the  domi- 
nant taste  of  the  condiment  or  condiments  employed.  Thus,  the  ordinary 
cake  of  all  descriptions,  tarts,  puddings,  and  other  edible  substances  made 
largely  from  wheat  flour,  but  to  which  the  condiment  or  condiments  impart 
a  distinct  taste,  are  not  included  under  the  term  bread. 

In  the  generic  sense  the  term  bread  may  be  used  in  the  largest  signification 
to  signify  food  in  general. 

Varieties  of  Bread. — In  general  all  forms  of  bread  may  be  divided  into 
two  great  classes,  leavened  and  unleavened.  By  far,  the  greater  quantity  of 
bread  consumed  belongs  to  the  former  class.  Unleavened  bread  is  used 
chiefly  for  certain  religious  festivals,  in  the  form  of  biscuits  or  in  certain 
varieties  of  Indian  corn  bread  such  as  hoe  cake,  Johnnie  cake,  etc.  Of  the 
leavened  bread  there  are  two  distinct  classes,  namely,  bread  which  is  baked 
and  eaten  cold  and  bread  which  is  consumed  hot  from  the  oven.  Bread 
intended  to  be  consumed  cold  is  generally  eaten  within  twenty-four  or  forty- 
eight  hours  from  the  time  of  making  though  some  varieties  may  be  kept  for 
an  indefinite  period.  The  use  of  hot  bread  is  not  commended  by  hygien-ists 
though  it  is  difficult  to  see  why,  when  properly  made,  the  consumption  of  a 
hot  roll  should  be  regarded  as  injurious.  The  apparent  injury  which  may 
result  therefrom  is  probably  due  to  the  larger  quantity  eaten  on  account 
of  greater  palatabihty  than  is  the  case  with  cold  bread.  That  variety  of 
bread  which  is  baked  so  as  to  present  a  maximum  of  crust  and  made  of  floui 


250  CEREAL   FOODS. 

which  gives  a  tough  consistency  to  the  loaf  is  most  highly  regarded  botl;  for 
palatability  and  nutritive  purposes.  This  form  of  bread  is  improperly 
called  French  or  Vienna  rolls  in  this  country. 

Unleavened  bread  is  particularly  advisable  for  use  in  emergency  rations 
for  marching  soldiers,  in  logging  camps,  etc.  This  bread  is  compact,  com- 
paratively free  of  moisture  and  has  a  high  nutritive  value.  The  leavened 
bread  may  be  divided  into  distinct  classes  in  respect  of  the  leavening  agent 
employed. 

Class  I  is  bread  in  which  the  leavening  agent  is  yeast.  Class  2  is 
bread  in  which  the  natural  ferments  residing  in  the  flour  or  wheat 
are  utilized  for  the  leavening  agent  as  in  the  making  of  that  variety  known 
as  salt  rising  bread.  Class  3  includes  that  form  of  bread  in  which  the 
leavening  is  secured  by  chemical  reagents  mixed  with  the  dough.  Class  4 
includes  that  variety  in  which  a  leavening  reagent  such  as  carbon  dioxid 
or  air  is  mechanically  incorporated  with  the  dough  during  the  kneading 
process. 

Unleavened  bread  is  also  divided  into  several  technical  forms.  The  first 
class  includes  the  biscuit  of  commerce,  sometimes  incorrectly  called  crackers, 
and  intended  to  be  used  soon  after  preparation.  The  second  class  includes 
biscuits  which  are  intended  for  long  storage  and  transportation.  The  third 
class  includes  wafers  and  other  delicate  forms  of  unleavened  bread  for  special 
use.  Class  4  is  the  unleavened  loaves  which  are  made  most  frequently 
from  Indian  corn  meal  and  intended  to  be  eaten  while  still  hot.  Class  5 
includes  any  miscellaneous  unleavened  loaves  or  cakes  made  in  various  ways 
and  for  different  purposes. 

In  nearly  all  forms  of  unleavened  bread  made  from  wheat  flour  the  dough 
is  thoroughly  beaten,  and  mechanically  mixed  or  kneaded,  in  order  to  make 
it  lighter  in  color  and  more  crisp  and  hard  after  baking. 

Yeast. — Bakers'  yeast  is  one  form  of  the  ordinary  yeast  ferments  or  a  mix- 
ture thereof  producing  alcoholic  fermentation  under  proper  conditions.  All 
flour  contains  a  certain  quantity  of  sugar  which  is  easily  fermented.  By 
the  action  of  tlje  yeast  upon  this  sugar  carbon  dioxid  and  alcohol  are  formed. 
The  particles  of  carbon  dioxid  become  entangled  in  the  gluten  of  the  wheat 
flour  when  it  is  mixed  into  a  dough  and  thus  make  the  mass  spongy  and 
light.  When  placed  in  the  oven  to  be  baked  these  minute  particles  of  carbon 
dioxid  expand  still  more  and  produce  additional  lightness  and  sponginess 
of  the  loaf.  The  yeast  may  be  propagated  from  one  mass  of  dough  to  another, 
may  be  used  in  a  moist  state  or,  as  is  very  commonly  the  case,  manufactured 
in  large  quantities,  and  sold  either  moist  or  more  commonly  in  a  partially 
dried  and  pressed  cake. 

Spontaneous  Ferments. — All  cereals  contain  ferments  of  a  character  to 
produce  alcoholic  fermentation  spontaneously  under  proper  conditions.     It 


CHEMICAL  AERATING  AGENTS.  251 

is  possible  even  to  ferment  dough  by  seed  from  one  loaf  to  another  or  by 
developing  a  spontaneous  fermentation.  This  method  is  quite  a  common 
one  in  the  rural  districts,  and  all  bread  made  in  this  way  is  known  as  salt  rismg 
bread.     It  may  be  made  according  to  the  following  receipt: 

A  quarter  of  a  pint  of  fresh  whole  milk  is  slowly  heated  to  near  the  boiling 
point,  but  not  allowed  to  boil.  This  process  will  sterilize  the  milk  and  pre- 
vent the  development  of  a  too  rapid  lactic  fermentation  in  the  subsequent 
processes.  The  heated  milk  is  added  to  a  quantity  of  maize  meal  sufficient 
to  make  with  the  milk  a  stiff  batter,  and  the  whole  is  thoroughly  mixed.  The 
vessel  containing  the  batter  is  wrapped  with  paper  and  then  with  a  heavy 
flannel  cloth,  and  kept  in  a  warm  place  at  a  uniform  temperature  of  about 
blood  heat  for  several  hours,  until  fermentation  is  fully  established  and  the 
batter  assumes  a  definite  sour  odor.  At  this  point  a  teaspoonful  of  salt  is 
stirred  into  a  pint  of  blood-warm  water  and  into  this  a  sufficient  quantity 
of  high-grade  wheat  flour  is  stirred  to  make  a  moderately  stiff  batter.  This 
is  thoroughly  mixed  with  the  sour  mass  obtained  by  the  previous  fermentation 
and  the  mixture  exposed  for  from  three-fourths  to  one  hour  to  a  blood  heat 
as  before.  If  the  fermentation  has  been  well  conducted  the  mass  will  now 
be  in  a  sufficiently  active  state  to  secure  a  proper  porosity  of  the  loaf.  The 
salt  rising  thus  prepared  is  mixed  with  a  wheat  flour  dough  made  with  warm 
water  in  sufficient  quantities  to  make  from  four  to  six  loaves,  the  whole  mass 
well  kneaded,  molded  into  loaves  and  put  aside  at  a  temperature  of  blood 
heat  until  the  fermentation  has  proceeded  far  enough  to  make  the  loaf  light 
and  spongy.     The  loaf  is  then  baked  in  the  ordinary  way. 

Chemical  Aerating  Agents. — In  this  country  a  yery  common  method 
of  aerating  bread  is  practiced,  based  upon  the  use  of  certain  chemical  reagents 
which  when  mixed  in  the  dough  set  free  carbon  dioxid.  These  reagents 
are  known  as  baking  or  yeast  powders  and  are  especially  prized  by  reason 
of  the  fact  that  it  is  possible  with  their  aid  to  prepare  in  a  few  moments  a 
light  spongy  loaf  or  roll  which  would  require  from  10  to  24  hours  to  make 
by  the  ordinary  fermenting  with  yeast.  The  principal  objection  to  the  use 
of  baking  powder  lies  in  the  fact  that  the  residues  arising  from  the  chemical 
reaction  are  necessarily  left  in  the  loaf.  While  these  residues  may  not  have 
any  specific  or  poisonous  properties  they  increase  the  quantity  of  mineral 
matter  in  the  bread,  and  this  mineral  matter  is  in  the  inorganic  state  and  as 
such  does  not  take  any  part  in  the  process  of  nutrition.  It  can  only  be  re- 
garded as  a  waste  product,  burdening,  to  that  extent,  the  excretory  organs 
of  the  body. 

Constituents  of  Baking  Powder. — The  essential  constituents  of  baking 
powder  are  a  carbonate  of  some  kind  and  an  acid  reagent  capable  of  de- 
composing this  carbonate  and  setting  the  carbon  dioxid  free.  The  common 
carbonate  of  a  baking  powder  is  bicarbonate  of  soda.     The  classification 


252 


CEREAL   FOODS. 


of  baking  powders  rests  upon  the  acid  elements  which  they  contain.  They 
may  be  classified  as  follows:  (i)  Cream  of  tartar  baking  powder,  in  which  the 
acid  constituent  is  cream  of  tartar  which  is  known  chemically  as  acid  potas- 
sium tartrate.  Other  forms  of  tartaric  acid  may  be  used  in  baking  powders 
of  this  class  but  they  are  not  common.  (2)  Phosphate  powders,  in  which 
the  acid  constituent  is  phosphoric  acid  usually  in  the  form  of  the  acid  phos- 
phate of  lime.  (3)  Alum  powders  in  which  the  acid  constituent  is  alum  or 
some  form  of  aluminium  sulfate,  usually  the  basic  sulfate  of  alumina. 

The  acid  and  basic  constituents  of  these  powders  may  be  kept  in  separate 
containers  and  mixed  together  at  the  time  of  making  the  dough.  A  more 
common  form  is  to  use  them  in  such  a  way  that  until  they  mix  w  ith  the  dough 
they  do  not  exert  any  notable  effect  upon  each  other.  For  instance,  per- 
fectly dry  bicarbonate  of  soda  and  perfectly  dry  acid  potassium  tartrate  may 
be  mixed  together  and  kept  for  quite  a  while  without  any  notable  decom- 
position of  the  bicarbonate  taking  place. 

In  order  to  render  any  such  possible  action  minimum  in  its  effect  it  is  cus- 
tomary to  add  to  the  mixture  a  small  quantity  of  starch,  milk  sugar,  or  some 
other  diluent.  These  materials  tend  to  keep  apart  the  particles  of  acid  and 
base  and  render  it  possible  to  make  a  mixture  of  them  which  may  be  kept 
for  a  long  while  without  any  notable  loss  of  leavening  power.  When  a  cream 
of  tartar  baking  powder  is  mixed  with  dough  the  moisture  of  the  dough  grad- 
ually dissolves  the  two  ingredients  and  in  this  state  a  chemical  reaction  occurs 
between  them.  The  carbon  dioxid  is  set  free  as  a  gas,  commonly  known 
as  carbonic  acid.  The  mineral  substance  which  results  is  a  tartrate  of  sodium 
and  potassium  that  is  a  union  of  tartaric  acid  with  potash  and  soda.  This 
compound  is  commonly  known  under  the  term  of  Rochelle  salts.  If  there 
be  a  sufficient  quantity  of  water  in  the  bread  to  allow  the  Rochelle  salts  to 
crystallize  in  the  usual  way  a  portion  of  the  water  becomes  incorporated  with 
the  salt.  Two  teaspoonsful  of  a  tartrate  baking  powder  leave,  a  residue  of 
about  II  grams  (165  grains)  of  crystallized  Rochelle  salts  in  the  loaf. 

Phosphate  Powders. — As  has  already  been  said,  the  acid  constituent  of 
phosphate  powder  is  chiefly  acid  phosphate  of  lime.  In  this  case  the  acid 
phosphate  of  lime  decomposes  the  bicarbonate  of  soda  with  the  production 
of  carbon  dioxid  and  leaves  a  residue  consisting  of  a  mixture  of  sodium  and 
lime  phosphate.  If  in  two  teaspoonsful  of  phosphate  powder  there  are  approx- 
imately 16  grams  (250  grains)  there  is  formed  a  crystallized  residue,  about 
an  equal  weight  of  phosphate  of  soda  and  lime,  which  is  left  in  the  loaf. 

Alum  Powders. — Perhaps  by  far  the  largest  part  of  baking  powders  used 
contain  alum  in  some  form  as  the  acid  constituent.  Formerly  the  common 
substance  known  as  alum  or  burnt  alum  was  employed  but  in  late  years  an 
aluminium  basic  salt  known  as  basic  sulfate  of  aluminium  has  largely 
succeeded  the  old  form  of  alum.     When  the  reaction  takes  place  in  the  dough 


CHARACTER   OF   ALUM   RESIDUES.  253 

between  these  two  constituents  of  alum  baking  powder  there  is  formed  an 
equivalent  quantity  of  sulfate  of  soda  and  hydroxid  of  alumina  if  the  acid 
constituent  be  basic  aluminium  sulfate. 

The  quantity  of  residue  left  in  the  loaf  if  two  teaspoonsful  of  baking  powder 
be  used  is  about  11  grams  (165  grains). 

Harmfulness  of  Baking  Powder  Residues. — The  question  of  the  harm- 
fulness  of  the  residues  left  by  the  various  forms  of  baking  powder  is  one  which 
has  been  of  much  interest  to  the  hygienist  and  physician.  It  is  not  claimed 
in  any  case  that  these  residues  are  beneficial.  The  principal  question  which 
has  been  discussed  is  which  of  them  is  the  least  harmful.  This  is  a  question 
which  it  is  not  proper  to  enter  into  in  this  manual.  It  might,  however,  not 
be  out  of  place  to  say  that  the  use  of  chemical  reagents  for  leavening  bread 
is  not  as  advisable  as  the  use  of  the  ordinary  fermentation.  It  would  be 
better,  evidently,  if  all  people  used  more  yeast  bread  and  less  baking  powder 
rolls.  At  the  same  time  the  utility  and  convenience  of  baking  powder  cannot 
be  denied,  and  this  is  a  factor  which  must  be  taken  into  consideration  in  the 
general  discussion  and  final  resolution  of  the  question. 

Character  of  Aluni  Residues. — Every  one  is  agreed  that  the  substance 
known  as  alum,  namely,  the  sulfate  of  alumina  in  conjunction  with  another 
mineral  or  base,  such  as  soda,  potash,  or  ammonia,  is  not  a  desirable  con- 
stituent of  food  products.  In  the  manufacture  of  baking  powders  containing 
alum  an  effort  is  made  to  so  balance  the  constituents  that  when  the  reaction 
is  completed  no  undecomposed  alum  remains.  If  this  condition  is  secured 
in  every  instance  the  materials  which  remain  in  the  bread  are  not  alum  but 
the  residues  above  mentioned,  consisting  of  aluminium  hydrate,  and  sulfates 
of  soda,  potash,  or  ammonia. 

The  residue  of  chief  importance  is  the  hydroxid  or  hydrate  of  alumina, 
which  is  the  form  in  which  the  alumina  itself  should  appear  when  a  complete 
reaction  like  that  defined  above  takes  place.  When  the  hydroxid  of  alumina 
is  dried  and  especially  when  ignited  it  is  converted  into  an  oxid  of  alumina 
which  is  highly  insoluble  in  water  and  only  slightly  soluble  in  a  very  dilute 
acid  solution.  The  claim  is  made  by  the  manufacturer  of  alum  powders 
that  the  aluminium  residue  which  is  formed  is  insoluble  in  the  digestive  juices 
and  therefore  cannot  produce  any  effect  usually  ascribed  to  the  soluble  salts 
of  aluminium.  It  is  important  that  the  conditions  which  obtain  in  the  baking 
of  bread  should  be  such  as  to  produce  this  highly  desirable  result.  The 
temperature  of  the  interior  of  the  loaf  during  baking  does  not  rise  much  above 
that  of  boiling  water,  although  the  exterior  temperature,  which  is  sufficient 
to  produce  the  browning  of  the  crust,  is  very  much  above  that  temperature. 
It  is  evident  that  as  long  as  any  considerable  proportion  of  water  remains 
in  the  loaf  it  will  be  difficult  to  raise  the  interior  of  the  loaf  to  the  tempera- 
ture just  mentioned,  and  if  this  were  done  the  caramelization  would  take  place 
throughout  the  whole  loaf.     Unfortunately,  from  a  scientific  point  of  view 


254  CEREAL   FOODS. 

the  investigation  of  this  subject  has  not  been  always  undertaken  under  con- 
ditions which  are  wholly  beyond  criticism.  Many  of  the  investigations  have 
been  in  the  interest  of  rival  baking  powder  companies,  and  it  is  very  desirable 
that  this  matter  should  be  undertaken  in  a  wholly  unbiased  way  and  con- 
ducted in  such  a  manner  as  to  lead  to  results  which  all  will  accept.  Chemical 
and  physiological  investigations,  which  have  even  as  a  remote  object  the 
promotion  of  the  sale  of  one  compound  and  the  repression  of  the  sale  of 
another,  lose  at  the  outset  much  of  that  claim  upon  the  public  confidence 
which  such  investigations  made  from  a  purely  scientific  point-  of  view  should 
have. 

General  Statement. — In  respect  of  the  use  of  chemical  leavening  agents 
in  general  it  may  be  said  that  they  introduce  an  extraneous  product  into  the 
bread  which  is  not  likely  to  promote  the  health  and  which,  therefore,  on 
general  principles  should  be  excluded.  On  the  other  hand,  large  experience 
has  shown  that  the  consumption  of  bread  made  by  these  leavening  agents 
does  not  produce  any  general  effect  upon  the  public  health  which  is  noticeable. 
This,  it  is  understood,  is  not  any  valid  argument  in  favor  of  the  process.  It 
must  also  be  acknowledged  that  a  fermentation  of  a  bread  with  yeast  also  intro- 
duces extraneous  matter  into  the  food,  viz.,  alcohol  and  congeneric  products 
of  fermentation,  and  hence  this  process  may  be  open  to  a  certain  extent  to 
the  same  objection  as  the  one  above.  It  is  too  early  yet  to  formulate  definite 
principles  either  of  inclusion  or  exclusion  of  these  products,  and  the  purpose 
of  this  manual  is  secured  when  the  general  character  and  effects  thereof  are 
briefly  outlined. 

Composition  of  Bread. — Because  of  the  many  different  methods  of  bread 
making  which  are  practised  it  is  not  possible  to  give  in  a  chemical  form  an 
analysis  which  would  do  more  than  represent  in  general  the  character  of  the 
bread  in  common  use.  For  instance,  the  quantity  of  water  which  is  found 
in  bread  varies  greatly  and  the  nature  of  bread  itself  must  be  influenced  by 
the  character  of  the  flour  from  which  it  is  made.  The  flour  depends  upon  the 
quality  of  the  wheat  used  in  its  manufacture.  Hence  the  same  brand  of  bread 
prepared  in  the  same  way  and  baked  in  the  same  manner  must  necessarily 
vary  in  composition  from  season  to  season  and  even  from  day  to  day.  It 
must  be  understood  also  that  it  is  a  very  common  custom  in  the  United  States 
to  use  milk  in  the  mixing  of  dough,  and  thus  a  food  product  is  introduced 
which  of  itself  is  not  of  constant  character.  Some  bakers  use  whole  milk, 
others  skimmed,  and  others  sour  milk. 

A  very  good  formula  for  mixing  dough  for  bread  making  consists  in  using 
the  following  proportions  of  ingredients  mentioned: 

P^lour, 2,000  grams 

Whole  milk, • 500      " 

Water 650      " 

Salt, 25      " 

Yeast  cake,. 10     " 


COMPOSITION   OF   BREAD. 


255 


When  properly  leavened  and  kneaded  and  baked  these  quantities  of  mate- 
rials will  make  a  loaf  of  bread  weighing  2750  grams. 

Average  Composition  of  Bread. — In  the  following  tables  are  given  the  average 
composition  of  bread  of  different  classes.  Class  i  is  composed  of  loaves  of 
the  so-called  Vienna  or  French  type;  Class  2  consists  of  what  is  known  as 
home  made  bread  or  bread  baked  at  the  home  and  not  in  the  bakery;  Class 
3  consists  of  bread  made  from  graham  flour;  Class  4  consists  of  bread 
made  largely  of  rye  flour;  Class  5  is  a  second  collection  of  home  made  bread 
which  may  be  very  properly  compared  with  Class  2;  Class  6  consists  of 
bread  of  miscellaneous  origin  bought  on  the  open  market.  The  data  given 
represent  the  mean  composition  of  numbers  of  samples  (Bull.  13,  Bureau  of 
Chemistry) :  - 


Moisture. 

Protein. 

Ether 
Extract. 

Fiber. 

Ash. 

Starch  and      Salt. 
Sugar. 

Calories. 

Class  i.                           Perct. 

Perct. 

Perct. 

Perct. 

Perct 

Perct.            Perct. 

38.71 
In  the  dry  substance,   .   . 

8.09 
13-23 

1.06 
1.73 

.62 
.97 

1. 19 
1-95 

83.10 

57 
93 

4458 

33.02 
In  the  dry  substance,   .   . 

7.24 
10.80 

1-95 
2.91 

.24 
.36 

1.05 
1-55 

56.75 
84.75 

i4 

4497 

Class  3. 

34.80 
In  the  dry  substance,   .   . 

8.15 
12.51 

2.03 
3-13 

1.13 
1.74 

1.59 
2.29 

53.40 

82.06             I 

69 
07 

4434 

3342 
In  the  dry  substance,   .   . 

7.88 
11.86 

.66 
1.02 

.62 
•95 

1.84 
2.79 

56.21             I 
84.36             I 

00 

50 

4395 

Class  5. 

36.16 
In  the  dry  substance,    .   . 

7.10 
II. 17 

1. 14 

1-75 

.26 
.41 

1.06 
1.68 

54.53 
85.41 

58 

92 

4395 

Class  6. 

3441 
In  the  dry  substance,   .   . 

6.93 
10.59 

1.48 

2.21 

.46 

I.OO 

1-53 

56.18 
85.66 

49 
.-76 

4401 

A  Typical  American  High-grade  Yeast  Bread. — In  conjunction  with  the 
actual  analyses  given  above  it  is  of  interest  to  combine  as  many  analytical 
data  as  can  be  conveniently  secured  for  the  purpose  of  determining  what 
the  average  composition  of  a  high-grade  typical  yeast  bread  is.  This  com- 
parison leads  to  the  following  composition: 

Moisture, 35-oo  percent 

Protein, 8.00        " 

Ether  extract, 75        " 

Starch  and  sugar, 54-45        " 

Fiber, 30        " 

Ash, 1.50       " 

Of  the  ash  mentioned  in  the  above  analysis  .50  percent  may  be  ascribed  to 
the  natural  mineral  ingredients  of  flour  and  i  percent  to  added  salt. 

The  chief  variations  from  the  typical  composition  of  bread  made  from 
high-grade  flour  are  found  in  the  moisture  and  ether  extract.  The  moisture 
may  rise  above  40  percent  in  breads  made  of  flour  rich  in  gluten  or  sink 
to  30  percent  or  under  when  flour  of  an  inferior  gluten  content  is  employed. 
The  quantity  of  ether  extract  depends  chiefly  upon  the  amount  of  milk  which 
is  used  in  the  making  of  bread  and  the  amount  of  fat  employed  either  in  the 


256  CEREAL   FOODS. 

bread  itself  or  in  greasing  the  pan  in  which  it  is  baked.  There  is  great  diffi- 
culty in  extracting  a  fatty  body  which  has  been  mixed  with  a  glutinous  material 
like  flour.  The  analytical  data,  therefore,  do  not  represent  in  the  ether  extract 
all  the  fat  naturally  present  in  the  flour  plus  that  added  in  the  making  of 
dough  or  in  baking. 

The  quantity  of  moisture  in  bread  may  also  be  determined  largely  by  the 
time  of  baking  and  the  temperature  of  the  oven.  A  bread  baked  for  a  long 
while  at  a  low  temperature  will  be  much  drier  than  a  bread  baked  quickly 
at  a  high  temperature.  The  high  temperature  solidifies  the  exterior  of  the 
loaf  so  as  to  make  it  difficult  for  the  interior  moisture  to  escape.  By  quickly 
baking  the  bread  the  temperature  of  the  interior  does  not  reach  so  high  a 
temperature  as  in  an  oven  with  a  low  temperature  and  a  long-continued  heat. 

Standard  jor  Moisture. — The  quantity  of  moisture  in  bread  of  standard  quality 
in  the  District  of  Columbia  may  not  exceed  31  percent. 

The  average  temperature  of  the  baking  oven  is  about  240°  C.  (464°  F.). 

Quantity  of  Sugar  in  Bread. — The  quantity  of  sugar  found  in  fermented 
bread  is  always  less  than  that  present  in  the  flour,  added  in  milk,  or  otherwise 
introduced  in  the  preparation  of  the  dough.  The  sugar  disappears  largely 
under  the  influence  of  the  fermentation  due  to  the  yeast. 

Quantity  of  Ash. — The  quantity  of  ash  in  bread  is  uniformly  higher  than 
the  content  of  mineral  matter  in  the  flour.  This  is  due  to  the  addition  of 
common  salt  which  is  uniformly  employed  in  all  bread,  and  in  the  case  of 
bread  made  from  baking  pbwder  the  retention  of  the  mineral  residues  in  the 
loaf  increases  to  that  extent  the  content  of  ash.  With  the  exception  of  the 
ash,  the  ether  extract  or  fat,  the  sugar,  and  the  dry  material  of  bread  corre- 
spond in  quantity  to  the  same  materials  in  the  flour  from  which  it  is  made^ 
except  the  loss  due  to  the  caramelization  of  the  crust. 

Acidity  of  Bread. — The  development  of  the  lactic  acid  ferments  is  impor- 
tant in  regard  to  hygienic  conditions  and  to  palatability.  Flour  contains 
practically  no  acid  in  a  free  state,  and  the  acidity  of  bread  is  itself  due  to  the 
changes  which  take  place  in  its  preparation  under  the  influence  of  the  ferments 
therein.  Bread  baked  in  the  usual  manner  after  the  yeast  ferments  have  ex- 
erted their  activity  shows  the  presence  of  acetic  acid,  lactic  acid,  and  other 
acids  and  salts.  The  acidity  of  bread  adds  to  its  palatability  and  also,  doubt- 
less, to  its  digestibility.  Bread,  containing,  as  it  does,  a  large  percentage  of 
protein,  is  digested  in  an  acid  medium.  The  natural  acidity  of  bread,, 
therefore,  must  be  regarded  as  beneficial. 

Comparative  Nutritive  Properties  of  Indian  Corn  Bread  and  Wheat 
Bread. — There  is  a  widespread  opinion  that  the  products  of  Indian  corn 
are  less  digestible  and  less  nutritious  than  those  of  wheat.  This  opinion 
amounts  to  a  conviction  in  most  European  countries,  where  the  products 
obtained  by  the  milling  of  Indian  corn  are  not  regarded  as  fit  for  human 


COMPARATIVE   DIGESTIBILITY   OF   WHEAT  AND   CORN.  257 

food  in  an  unmixed  state.  The  above  opinion,  it  appears,  has  no  justifica- 
tion either  from  the  chemical  composition  of  the  two  bodies  or  from  recorded 
digestive  and  nutritive  experiments. 

A  study  of  the  analytical  data  of  the  whole  grain  shows  that  in  so  far  as 
actual  nutrition  is  concerned  the  maize  is  fully  as  nutritious  as  wheat.  In 
respect  of  its  content  of  fat  Indian  corn  and  its  direct  products  easily  take 
precedence  of  all  the  other  cereals,  with  the  exception  of  hulled  oats.  In 
round  numbers  Indian  corn  flour  or  bread  made  therefrom  contains  twice 
as  much  fat  or  oil  as  wheat,  three  times  as  much  as  rye,  twice  as  much  as 
barley,  and  nearly  as  much  as  hulled  oats.  In  regard  to  digestible  carbo- 
hydrates, that  is  digestible  starch,  sugar,  dextrin,  and  fiber,  Indian  corn  flour 
possesses  a  higher  content  than  hulled  oats  and  almost  the  same  content  as 
wheat.  In  regard  to  digestible  protein  Indian  corn  has  nearly  the  same 
quantity  as  the  other  leading  cereals,  except  oats.  What  it  lacks,  however, 
in  its  quantity  of  protein  in  so  far  as  nutrition  is  concerned  is  more  than  made 
up  in  its  excess  of  fat. 

Comparative  Digestibility  and  Nutrition  of  Wheat  and  Indian  Com 
from  Experiments  Made  in  South  Dakota  Station,  Bulletin  38. — Pigs 
were  fed  with  Indian  corn  and  wheat,  or  rather  the  ground  Indian  corn  and 
ground  wheat,  and  it  was  found  that  pound  for  pound  there  was  a  greater 
gain  in  the  case  of  Indian  corn  flour  than  wheat.  For  ibo  pounds  of  flour 
fed  the  average  gain  with  Indian  corn  was  21.83  pounds  and  where  wheat 
flour  was  used  20.79  pounds.  These  experimental  data  show  that  in  regard 
to  nutritive  properties  Indian  corn  flour  cannot  be  considered  inferior  to 
wheat  flour.  Indian  corn  bread  is  particularly  well  suited  for  persons  engaged 
in  hard  manual  labor.  A  ration  which  is  composed  largely  of  Indian  corn 
products  and  oatmeal  is  found  to  be  particularly  valuable  for  those  engaged 
in  lumbering,  harvesting  sugar-cane,  etc. 

Indian  Corn  Flour  Pudding. — Various  forms  of  pudding  are  prepared 
from  Indian  corn  flour.  Among  the  most  important  is  that  known  in  the 
New  England  States  as  hasty  pudding  and  in  the  west  and  south  as  mush. 
A  simple  method  of  preparing  Indian  corn  pudding,  hasty  pudding,  or  mush 
is  to  stir  into  water,  very  slowly,  the  Indian  corn  flour  in  such  a  way  as  to 
avoid  the  formation  of  lumps.  The  flour  should  be  sifted  into  the  water 
either  cold  or  at  boiling  temperature  and  the  mixture  vigorously  stirred  mean- 
while. By  this  means  a  thin,  uniform  paste  is  secured  which  is  allowed  to 
cook  slowly  until  quite  thick  in  consistence  and  until  all  the  starch  granules 
are  thoroughly  disintegrated.  The  product  is  improved  by  allowing  to  stand 
for  several  hours  at  near  the  boiling  point  after  the  cooking  is  finished,  pro- 
vided precautions  are  taken  not  to  allow  the  mass  to  become  too  solid.  This 
product  is  eaten  hot  with  butter,  milk,  or  cream,  or  is  much  prized  when  allowed 
to  cool,  cut  into  thin  slices  and  fried.  A  very  important  dish  for  the  children 
18 


258  CEREAL   FOODS. 

of  working  people  and  farmers  of  the  south  and  west  is  mush  and  milk, 
namely  the  product  above  mentioned  eaten  with  skim  milk.  This  mixture 
forms  a  palatable  and  wholesome  diet.  Various  other  forms  of  pudding 
are  made  into  which  Indian  corn  enters  to  a  greater  or  less  degree. 

Composition  of  Biscuits. — The  composition  of  a  biscuit  or  dry  unleavened 
bread  does  not  differ  essentially  from  that  of  the  ordinary  bread  except  in  the 
content  of  moisture.  The  biscuits  are  usually  baked  in  thin  cakes  or  loaves 
which  become  heated  throughout  and  sometimes  caramelize  throughout  a 
large  part  of  their  substance.  This  favors  the  expulsion  of  the  greater  part 
of  the  moisture  which  the  dough  originally  contained.  The  average  com- 
position of  biscuits  is  shown  in  the  following  data: 

Moisture, 7.13  percent 

Protein, 9.43 

Ether  extract, 8.67 

Fiber, '   .47 

Ash, 1.57 

Salt, 99 

Starch  and  sugar, 73-77 

In  the  dry  substance: 

Protein, 10.18  percent 

Ether  extract, 9.33  " 

,         Fiber, 53  " 

Ash, 1.70  " 

Salt, 1.08  " 

Starch  and  sugar, 78.79  " 

Calories, 4,755 

The  above  data  show  that  biscuits  vary  in  composition  from  bread  chiefly 
in  their  content  of  moisture  and  fat  or  oil.  The  moisture,  as  is  noted,  is  very 
low,  while  the  quantity  of  fat  which  the  biscuit  contains  is  from  8  to  10  times 
as  great  as  that  contained  in  flour  from  which  they  are  made.  The  salt  con- 
tent and  the  mineral  ingredients  of  the  biscuit  are  often  higher  than  in  bread 
or  flour.  Inasmuch  as  a  large  quantity  of  fat  and  salt  are  used  commonly 
in  the  manufacture  of  biscuits  the  presence  of  these  bodies  cannot  in  any  sense 
be  regarded  as  an  adulteration.  In  forty-eight  samples  examined  only  four 
were  free  of  notable  quantities  of  added  fat.  In  one  case  over  16  percent 
of  fat  was  found,  and  as  it  has  been  shown  that  all  the  fat  which  is  added  is 
not  extracted  by  ether  it  is  evident  that  in  this  case  an  amount  of  fat  equal  to 
20  percent  of  the  weight  of  the  flour  may  have  been  used. 

It  appears,  from  a  study  of  the  composition  of  biscuits,  that  it  is  advisable 
to  use  them  as  a  relish  or  delicacy  for  eating  with  cheese,  etc.,  in  ordinary 
daily  life,  while  they  become  almost  a  necessity  in  some  form  or  other  in  the 
preparation  of  emergency  rations  for  marching  armies,  on  shipboard,  in  logging 
camps,  etc.  It  is  not  advisable  to  employ  them  in  the  daily  diet  to  the  exclu« 
sion  of  bread.  Their  nutrient  contents  have,  in  comparison  with  bread, 
a  lower  coefficient  of  digestibility,  due  largely  to  the  added  fat. 


AMOUNT    OF   SUGAR   LOST   IN   FERMENTATION. 


259 


Amount  of  Sugar  Lost  in  Fermentation. — The  total  quantity  of  sugar 
and  other  carbohydrates  lost  in  fermentation  amounts  to  about  2  percent 
of  the  weight  of  flour  used.  Sometimes  it  is  much  greater  and  sometimes 
less  than  this.  The  nutritive  value  of  the  product  is  diminished  in  proportion 
to  the  extent  of  the  loss  of  sugar.  The  carbon  dioxid  produced  during  fer- 
mentation has  no  food  value,  and  the  alcohol  is  largely  lost  in  the  form  of 
vapor  during  the  process  of  baking.  About  half  the  loss  is  due  to  carbon 
dioxid  and  half  to  alcohol.  The  alcohol,  although  lost  mostly  during  the 
baking,  serves  a  useful  purpose, — in  the  expansion  of  the  vapor  it  aids  the 
carbon  dioxid  in  making  the  bread  more  porous.  The  hydrolysis  which 
takes  place  in  baking  converts  some  of  the  starch  to  dextrinoid  or  saccharoid 


Fig.  36.— Comparative  Appearance  of  Breads  of  Different  Kinds. 

conditions.  It  is  evident  that  from  6  to  8  percent  of  total  starch  present  in 
the  flour  is  changed  during  the  fermentation  and  baking  into  more  or  less 
soluble  forms. 

Texture  and  Size  of  Loaves  Made  from  Different  Kinds  of  Flour.— 
The  variations  in  bread  and  size  of  loaves  made  from  different  kinds  of  flour 
when  the  conditions  of  fermentation  and  baking  are  the  same  depends  upon 
the  texture  and  quantity  of  the  gluten  material  in  the  flour.  The  difference 
in  the  appearance  and  size  of  loaves  is  shown  by  a  photograph  of  the  cross- 
sections  of  three  loaves  of  bread  in  Fig.  36. 

It  is  seen  that  the  loaves  made  from  graham  flour  and  entire  wheat  flour  to 
the  left  in  the  illustration,  are  somewhat  coarser  in  structure  and  are  smaller 
in  size  than  the  one  made  from  the  same  quantity  of  standard  patent  flour^ 
shown  to  the  right. 


20o  CEREAL   FOODS. 


MACARONI. 


The  preparation  of  wheat  flour  of  a  high  glutenous  character  and  molded 
into  various  forms,  usually  tubes,  cylindroids,  or  fine  shreds,  is  known  in  the 
trade  under  various  names  such  as  noodles,  spaghetti,  and  macaroni.  An 
examination  of  a  number  of  these  bodies  shows  them  to  have  the  following 
average  composition: 

Moisture, 9.66  percent 

Protein, 12.02 

Ether  extract, 42 

Crude  fiber, 56 

Ash, 78 

Starch  and  sugar, 77-12 

In  the  dry  substance: 

Protein, ^3-33  percent 

Ether  extract, .47        " 

Crude  fiber, .62        " 

Ash, 86 

Starch  and  sugar, 85.34        " 

Calories, 4,428 

These  bodies,  it  is  seen,  do  not  have  a  composition  very  different  from  that 
of  a  first-class  bread  except  in  their  content  of  moisture  arid  protein.  They 
are  made  from  various  kinds  of  wheat,  especially  hard  wheat  which  forms 
a  tenacious  gluten  product  well  suited  to  molding  into  the  different  forms 
•which  these  bodies  have.  Their  nutritive  value  is  practically  the  same  as 
that  of  good  wheat  bread  of  the  same  moisture  content. 

Domestic  Macaroni. — The  introduction  of  varieties  of  wheat  with  the 
properties  suitable  for  making  macaroni  has  been  thoroughly  exploited  by 
the  Department  of  Agriculture.  The  macaroni  wheat  grown  as  a  sub  variety 
is  known  botanically  as  Triticum  durum.  The  durum  wheats  are  not 
regarded  as  of  equal  value  to  the  ordinary  wheats  for  general  milling 
purposes  and  command  a  lower  price.  The  French  name  is  Ble  dur 
and  the  German  name  is  Hartweizen.  The  wheat  of  this  subspecies  grows 
rather  tall,  having  broad,  smooth  leaves  of  a  whitish  green  color  and  a  very 
hard  cuticle.  The  heads  are  comparatively  slight  in  most  varieties,  com- 
pactly formed,  and  occasionally  very  short.  All  the  durum  wheat  is  bearded 
and  the  beards  are  exceptionally  long.  The  kernels  are  hard  and  glassy, 
often  partly  translucent.  They  are  generally  yellowish  white  in  color,  oc- 
casionally inclined  to  red,  and  the  grains  are  generally  rather  large.  In  other 
aspects  this  wheat  resembles  barley  and  for  this  reason  in  Germany  it  is  often 
called  Gerstenweizen.  The  general  appearance  of  these  wheats  both  in  the 
field  and  in  the  individual  heads  is  shown  in  the  accompanying  figures. 

Macaroni  wheats  are  well  adapted  to  semi-arid  regions;  in  fact  it  may  be 
said  that  they  are  the  product  of  such  an  environment  rather  than  adapted 


MACARONI. 


261 


Fig.  37. — A  Field  ok  Durum  WnuxT.— (^Courtesy  of  Bureau  0/  Plant  Industry.) 


262 


CEREAL   FOODS. 


Fig.  38.— Drought-resistant  Macaroni  Wheats  (Heads  and  Grains). 

la;  3,  Velvet  Don;  4,  Black  Don;  5,  Wild  Goose. 

of  Plant  Industry,  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture.) 


I,  Kubanka;  2,  Nicaragua;  3,  Velvet  Don;  4,  Black  Don;  5,  Wild  Qoos&.— {Bulletin  No, 3 ^ Bureau 


MANUFACTURE   OF   MACARONI. 


263 


to  it.  For  this  reason  they  are  wheats  which  are  able  to  resist  continued  dry 
weather  and  high  temperature.  These  wheats  do  not  grow  well  in  acid  soils 
but  flourish  best  in  an  alkaline  soil  of  fine  texture  and  well  supplied  with 
humus  and  the  necessary  plant  foods. '  The  largest  quantity  of  macaroni 
wheat  is  grown  in  east  and  south  Russia.  These  wheats  have  given  very 
good  results  in  the  semi-arid  regions  of  the  United  States.  The  appearance 
of  the  wheat  as  it  grows  in  the  field  is  shown  in  the  accompanying  plate. 

The  domestic  macaroni  is  now  made  in  many  factories  in  the  United  States 
and  there  is  a  continually  increasing  demand  for  the  domestic  article.  The 
hardiest  varieties  of  wheat  are  used  in  the  manufacture  of  this  article  in  the 
United  States,  especially  the  hard  Kansas  winter  wheat. 

Composition  of  Domestic  Macaroni. — In  the  table  below' is  given  the  mean 
composition  of  twenty  samples  of  macaroni  of  domestic  origin,  made  from 
domestic  wheat.  In  the  second  column  is  given  the  mean  composition  of 
five  samples  of  imported  macaroni. 

Domestic  Product.  Foreign  Product. 

Moisture, 10.27  1032 

Fat  or  ether  extract, .40  .35 

Crude  fiber, .49  .53 

Protein, 11.61  12.27 

Starch  and  sugar, '. .  76.52  76.10 

Preparation  of  Flour  for  Macaroni. — The  term  Semolina  or  Semola  (Italian) 
or  Semoule  (French)  is  usually  applied  to  the  flour  used  in  the  manufacture 
of  macaroni.  In  the  United  States  the  flour  which  is  used  is  obtained  by 
selecting  the  hardest  wheat  and  preparing  the  flour  in  the  usual  manner. 
In  France  and  Italy  the  preparation  of  semolina  is  accomplished  in  separate 
mills.  The  devices  for  grinding  are  essentially  the  same  as  those  for  pro- 
ducing the  best  grade  flour,  the  main  difference  being  that  the  wheat  is 
moistened  slightly  before  grinding  and  the  flour  is  less  fine  than  ordinary 
baking  flour. 

Evidently  very  slight  changes  in  the  method  of  milling  would  enable  the 
ordinary  mill  to  produce  a  fine  grade  of  macaroni  flour  either  from  the  macaroni 
wheat  or  from  any  very  hard  glutinous  wheat  grown  in  the  United  States. 

Manufacture  of  Macaroni. — As  practiced  in  the  best  districts  of  Italy, 
macaroni  is  manufactured  according  to  the  following  method  :* 

The  durum  wheat  is  ground  into  semola  and  sieved  to  remove  the  starchy 
part  of  the  grains  and  leave  the  clear,  light  amber,  or  glutinous  part.  Three 
or  four  grades  of  quality  are  made,  and  these  depend  on  the  size  of  the  sieve 
meshes. 

The  semola  is  put  into  a  special  iron  mixer,  shaped  like  an  old-fashioned 
artillery  mortar,  except  that  it  is  square  instead  of  cylindrical,  and  furnished 
in  the  bottom  with  special  screw-shaped  fans  with  which  to  stir  the  paste 
*Fairchild,  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.,  Bureau  of  Plant  Industry,  Bulletin  25. 


264  V  CEREAL    FOODS. 

or  dough.  Boiling  water  is  added  to  the  semola  and  the  dough  is  mixed 
for  about  seven  minutes.  The  mass  is  then  put  on  a  flat,  circular  kneading 
board  and  kneaded  by  two  sharp-edged  parallel  beams  which  rise  and  fall 
as  the  table  turns  and  press  into  the  dough  as  they  descend.  A  few  minutes 
of  kneading  are  sufficient  and  the  homogeneous  dough  is  then  put  into  the 
cylinder  and  the  piston  descends  upon  the  mass,  forcing  it  in  strings  slowly 
through  the  perforated  plate  at  the  bottom.  Fifteen  minutes  are  required 
to  convert  the  gallons  of  dough  into  thousands  of  feet  of  yellow  macaroni. 
The  yellow  color  is  produced  by  the  use  of  saffron  or  of  a  coal  tar  dye  of 
which  a  very  small  quantity  is  put  into  each  batch  of  dough.  This  is  a  rep- 
rehensible practice. 

As  soon  as  the  strings  of  fresh  paste  which  issue  continually  from  the  die 
are  of  the  proper  length  they  are  cut  and  thrown  over  a  reed  pole  and  carried 
into  the  sunlight,  if  the  weather  is  fair,  or  into  sheltered  terraces,  protected 
by  curtains  from  the  rain,  if  the  weather  is  unfavorable.  On  bright  days 
the  strings  of  macaroni  are  exposed  to  the  sunlight  only  two  hours.  They 
must  be  dried  out  only  slightly  before  being  cellared  for  the  night  in  dungeon- 
like underground  vaults  similar  to  the  Bavarian  beer  cellars. 

For  twelve  hours  or  more  the  poles  of  macaroni  are  kept  in  these  damp 
places,  until  the  dough  has  become  moist  and  pliable  again  and  the  strings 
have  lost  the  brittleness  that  the  exposure  to  the  sunlight  has  given  them. 
From  the  cellars  the  poles  are  carried  to  shaded  storehouses  open  on  all  sides 
to  the  air  but  not  lighted  from  above.  Here,  in  great  masses  of  millions  of 
strings,  they  hang  for  several  days,  from  eight  to  twenty  being  required, 
depending  upon  the  dryness  of  the  atmosphere.  According  to  the  statements 
of  a  manager  of  a  factory  this  process  of  drying  is  necessary  to  give  to  the 
brittle  paste  a  horn-like  toughness  and  fit  it  to  withstand  the  rough  handling 
to  which  it  will  be  subjected  without  breaking  into  small  pieces. 

In  all  this  simple  process  the  one  point  at  which  bacteria  might  have  a 
chance  to  play  a  role  is  in  the  first  drying,  cellaring,  and  subsequent  slow 
drying  in  the  shade.  The  theory  that  the  water  is  responsible  for  the  flavor 
must  rest,  it  seems  to  the  writer,  on  other  than  bacterial  grounds,  for  from 
the  appearance  of  the  tank  which  supplied  the  hot  water  the  inference  is  easy 
that  the  water  is  chalybeate,  for  the  tank  was  incrusted  with  iron. 

ROLLS. 

The  term  rolls  is  applied  to  bread,  usually  leavened  with  yeast,  whether  it  is 
eaten  warm  or  cold.  The  term  biscuit  is  generally  but  improperly  used  in  this 
country  for  hot  bread  made  with  baking  powder.  The  composition  of  rolls 
varies  greatly  with  their  method  of  preparation.  Those  made  with  yeast  have 
practically  the  same  composition  as  ordinary  fermented  bread,  while  those 


CAKES.  265 

made  with  a  baking  powder  or  with  exceptionally  large  additions  of  milk, 
butter,  or  lard  vary  in  composition  accordingly.  In  the  making  of  hot  bread 
with  baking  powder,  lard  or  butter  is  commonly  used  to  a  very  large  extent 
as  "shortening."  These  fatty  bodies  render  the  gluten  less  tenacious,  and 
the  roll  is  thus  easily  broken  and  is  without  toughness  or  elasticity.  Owing 
to  this  irregular  use  of  shortening  and  of  mineral  matter,  including  salt, 
the  composition  of  rolls  of  commerce  is  extremely  variable.  In  eleven  samples 
of  rolls  analyzed,  for  instance,  the  content  of  moisture  varied  from  7  to  34. 
Evidently  the  sample  sold  as  a  roll  which  contained  only  7  percent  of  moisture 
was  in  point  of  fact  a  biscuit  and  not  a  roll.  The  percentage  of  ether  extract 
in  these  samples  varied  from  .43  to  7.55.  The  average  composition  of  the 
eleven  samples  is  as  follows: 

Moisture, 27.98  percent 

Protein, - , 7.48 

Ether  extract, 3.41 

Crude  fiber, .60 

Ash, 1.31 

Salt, .- 69 

Starch  and  sugar, 59-82 

In  the  dry  substance: 

Protein, 10.46  percent 

-     Ether  extract, 4-74 

Crude  fiber, -77 

Ash, i.8i 

Salt, 81 

Starch  and  sugar, 82.99 

Calories, ■ 4^538 


CAKES. 

Wheat  flour  is  one  of  the  principal  constituents  of  that  class  of  sweetened 
bread  known  generally  as  cake.  The  kind  and  character  of  cake  vary  so 
greatly  that  no  general  statement  of  any  very  great  value  can  be  made  respect- 
ing the  average  composition.  In  addition  to  the  sugar  and  flour  which  are 
used  in  the  manufacture  of  cake  various  flavoring  ingredients  or  essences 
are  employed,  and  usually  excessive  quantities  of  butter  or  lard  for  shortening 
purposes.  In  addition  to  this,  other  forms  of  cake  are  cooked  in  oil  after  the 
dough  is  made,  thus  adding  an  additional  quantity  of  fatty  matter  to  the 
material.  Eggs  are  also  a  common  constituent  of  cakes  and  these  introduce 
into  their  composition  additional  quantities  of  protein  and  fat.  Baking 
powder  is  very  generally  used  in  this  country  instead  of  yeast  for  the  leavening 
of  the  cake  and  thus  an  additional  quantity  of  mineral  matter  is  introduced 
into  their  composition. 

In  the  manufacture  of  sweetened  cakes  the  flour  is  mixed  with  eggs  and 
sugar  and  butter  or  lard  to  the  proper  consistency  with  or  without  the  use 


266  CEREAL   FOODS. 

of  milk  or  cream.  The  cakes  are  baked  in  all  kinds  of  sizes  and  shapes 
and  may  be  eaten  plain  or  in  layers  separated  by  a  jelly,  marmalade,  or  some 
other  preserve.  The  exterior  of  the  cake  is  often  frosted  with  a  mixture 
consisting  of  the  white  of  egg  beaten  up  with  white  sugar.  The  methods 
of  mixing  the  ingredients  of  these  cakes  as  well  as  the  method  of  frosting 
are  so  various  that  it  would  not  be  possible  to  undertake  any  minute  descrip- 
tion of  them., 

For  flavoring  various  materials  are  employed,  either  the  real  article  or  the 
imitation  thereof,  such  as  artificial  strawberry,  vanilla,  etc.  The  cake  or 
sweet  cake  is  a  very  common  dainty  which  is  served  at  dessert.  The  ordinary 
cane  sugar  of  commerce  is  the  common  sweetening  matter  usually  employed 
in  the  refined  state  although  sometimes  yellow  sugar  is  used.  Honey  is  not 
so  commonly  used  as  a  sweetening  agent  in  this  country  as  it  is  in  European 
countries. 

In  the  manufacture  of  one  of  the  common  varieties  known  as  ginger  cake 
sugar-cane  sirup  or  molasses  is  a  common  ingredient. 

An  examination  of  a  large  number  of  samples  of  cake  shows  the  following 
average  composition: 

Moisture, 1 1  -65  percent 

Protein, 6.29 

Ether  extract, 9,81 

Crude  fiber, 0.50 

Ash, 1. 17 

Salt, 0.39 

Sugar, 24.57 

Starch, 46.01 

In  the  dry  substance: 

Protein, 7.29  percent 

Ether  extract, 1 1.41 

Crude  fiber, 0.57 

Ash, 1.30 

Salt, 0.44 

Sugar, 27.84 

Starch, 51.59 

•  Calories, 4,805 

A  study  of  the  individual  data  shows  extremely  wide  variations  from  the 
mean.  The  ether  extract  in  the  moisture  samples  in  some  cases  amounted  to 
over  19  percent  and  in  the  dry  substance  to  over  24  percent.  The  moisture 
in  one  case  was  over  64  percent  while  in  the  dry  cake  of  biscuit  character 
it  sinks  below  5  percent  and  in  one  case  below  4  percent.  The  average 
data,  therefore,  are  to  be  considered  only  as  a  representative  of  this  class  of 
bodies  and  not  as  a  type  of  any  particular  variety. 

Adulterations. — It  is  difficult  to  speak  of  adulterations  of  a  substance  of 
the  composition  of  cake.  Any  wholesome  flavoring  or  sweetening  ingredient 
or  other  wholesome  ingredient  may  be  used  in  the  manufacture  of  a  cake 


BREAKFAST   FOODS.  267 

of  this  kind  without  being  an  adulterant.  From  this  class  of  bodies,  however, 
there  are  excluded  artificial  colors  and  artificial  flavoring  essences  bearing  the 
name  of  genuine.  A  yellow  cake  which  does  not  owe  its  color  to  the  eggs 
or  other  normal  ingredients  employed  must  be  regarded  as  an  adulterated 
article,  especially  if  the  dye  used  in  producing  the  yellow  is  one  of  the  coal  tar 
dyes,  whether  one  of  the  aniHns  or  a  nitrated  product.  The  use  of  imitation 
fruit  flavors  such  as  the  so-called  strawberry,  blackberry,  raspberry,  vanilla, 
etc.,  is  also  to  be  regarded  as  an  adulteration.  The  adulteration  of  cakes  may 
be  regarded  as  confined  particularly  to  these  two  classes  of  articles,  assuming 
that  all  the  other  ingredients  are  wholesome  and  without  injurious  effects  upon 
the  digestion.  The  eggs  used  in  cake  making  should  be  fresh  and  palatable. 
Too  often  stale  storage  eggs  and  eggs  broken  or  preserved  with  borax 
or  formaldehyde  and  unfit  for  consumption  have  been  used  by  the  bakers  of 
cakes. 

Mineral  coloring  matters  have  sometimes  been  found  in  cakes  and  these 
are  more  objectionable  by  far  than  the  artificial  colors  above  mentioned. 
Where  molasses  from  sugar-cane  factories  is  used  in  the  manufacture  of  cake 
a  considerable  trace  of  chlorid  of  tin  or  of  zinc  salts  may  be  found  therein, 
derived  from  the  wash  used  in  the  centrifugal  when  dr}'ing  sugar  crystals 
or  from  the  process  of  bleaching  the  molasses.  This  must  be  regarded  as  a 
very  serious  adulteration  and  molasses  of  this  kind  should  never  be  used  in 
the  manufacture  of  cake  nor  for  edible  purposes  upon  the  table.  Sulfurous 
acid  may  also  be  absorbed  during  the  process  of  bleaching  the  sugar-cane  juices. 

It  is  needless  to  add  that  cake  with  its  complex  character  should  be  eaten 
as  a  relish  rather  than  a  diet.  There  is  no  hygienic  or  dietetic  objection  to 
the  mixture  of  sugar  wath  the  flour  in  the  making  of  ordinar\'  sweetened  bread. 
Such  bread  must  be  regarded  as  highly  nutritious  and  as  differing  from  ordi- 
nary bread  only  in  a  disturbance  of  the  natural  food  content  of  the  loaf  caused 
by  the  addition  of  a  carbohydrate  to  the  bread.  ^lany  of  the  cakes  which 
are  sold  contain  so  small  a  quantity  of  sugar  that  they  ought  not  to  be  classed 
with  the  sweet  cake.  Out  of  the  whole  number  of  samples  used  in  the  making 
up  of  the  above  average  only  four  contained  so  little  sugar  as  to  be  ineligible 
to  bear  the  name  of  sweet  cake  or  sweetened  bread. 

Breakfast  Foods. — A  very  large  variety  of  cereal  preparations  are  on  the 
market  under  the  general  name  of  breakfast  foods.  These  preparations  are 
made  directly  from  the  cereals  more  or  less  completely  ground  by  subjecting 
them  to  certain  manipulations  of  a  fermentative  or  culinary  character  by 
means  of  which  the  preparations  are  made  ready  for  immediate  consumption 
or  at  least  with  only  a  moderate  degree  of  additional  cooking.  The  changes 
which  take  place  in  the  preparation  of  cereals  for  breakfast  foods  are  of 
two  general  characters,  namely,  those  produced  by  fermentative  action 
with  malt,  yeast,  or  other  ferments,  and,  second,  changes  produced  by  heating. 


268  CEREAL   FOODS. 

either  in  the  moist  or  dry  state.  Often  both  sets  of  changes  are  produced 
in  the  same  product.  The  general  difference,  therefore,  between  a  so-called 
breakfast  food  and  the  raw  material  from  which  it  is  made  is  found  in  the 
conversion  of  more  or  less  starch  into  sugar  and  the  change  in  the  composi- 
tion of  the  material  produced  by  moist  heat  or  dry  heat.  In  the  latter  case 
the  temperature  may  be  raised  so  as  to  cause  considerable  caramelization. 

Breakfast  foods  may  also  contain  added  condimental  substances,  such  as 
salt,  sugar,  etc.,  sometimes  used  in  their  preparation.  Nearly  all  the  cereals 
or  mixtures  of  cereals  .are  represented  in  these  prepared  foods.  Oats  probably 
occupy  the  first  rank  and  the  preparations  of  oatmeal  have  to  a  large  extent 
in  the  United  States  taken  the  place  of  home-prepared  oatmeal  for  the  break- 
fast table.  Wheat,  barley,  and  Indian  corn  are  not  far  behind  oats  in  their 
contributions  to  the  numerous  varieties  of  breakfast  foods. 

The  particular  methods  of  preparation  are  usually  trade  secrets  and  at  any 
rate  the  description  of  the  extensive  technical  processes  would  be  improper 
in  this  manual.  The  secrets,  however,  are  merely  methods  of  manipulation, 
since  it  is  certain  that  the  changes  of  a  chemical  nature  which  take  place  are 
of  the  general  character  or  class  described  above. 

Breakfast  foods  are  usually  sold  under  trade-mark  names  which  may  or  may 
not  give  an  indication  of  their  origin  or  character.  Sometimes,  in  fact,  the 
trade  name  gives  a  false  indication  and  the  use  of  such  trade  names  must 
be  considered  as  entirely  reprehensible.  Whenever  a  name  used  is  descrip- 
tive it  should  be  used  in  a  practical  sense  and  not  for  the  purpose  of  mis- 
leading or  deceiving.  Breakfast  foods  may  represent  practically  the  whole 
grain  or  the  grain  with  a  removal  of  a  proportion  of  the  outer  covering  or  they 
may  represent  the  refined  flour  from  which  all  or  a  considerable  proportion 
of  the  germ  and  some  of  the  rich  nitrogenous  ingredients  have  been  removed. 

The  attempt  to  give  a  list  of  the  names  which  have  been  applied  to  break- 
fast foods  would  consume  many  pages  and  be  of  little  value. 

Composition  of  Breakfast  Foods. — In  so  far  as  possible  the  breakfast 
foods  noted  in  the  following  tables  have  been  arranged  in  accordance  with 
the  raw  material  from  which  they  have  been  produced  and  the  data  given 
represent  the  average  composition  of  breakfast  foods  of  the  classes  mentioned. 
Individual  variations  from  the  average  are  often  very  great. 

Class      I. — Breakfast  foods  made  from  Indian  corn  products. 
Class    II. — Breakfast  foods  made  from  wheat  products. 
Class  III. — Breakfast  foods  made  from  oat  products. 
Class  IV. — Breakfast  foods  made  from  starch  and  tapioca. 
Class     V. — Breakfast  foods  made  from  noodles,  spaghetti,  and  macaroni. 
Class  VI. — Breakfast  foods  made  from  barley. 

Class  VII. — Breakfast  foods  of  miscellaneous  origin,  that  is  consisting  of 
those  compounds  of  raw  material  not  specified. 


BREAKFAST   FOODS.  269 

Composition  of  Breakfast  Foods.* 

Moisture.  Proteids.    Ether  Fiber.         Ash.    Starch  and  Calories, 
Extract.  Sugar.       Per  Gram. 

Class  I,  Indian  Corn  Products: 

Pcrct.  Perct.        Perct.  Perct.  Perct.         Perct. 

In  the  original  substance,  .      12.33  7.92  0.58  0.67  0.66  78.51  .   .    . 

In  the  dry  substance, 9.02  0.66  0.76  0.75  98.57  4385 

Class  II,   Wheat  Products: 

In  the  original  substance,  .      10.08  12.01  1.80  1.48  1.55  75.62  ... 

In  the  dry  substance, 13.36  2.01  1.65  16.73  84.0S  4462 

Class  III,   Oat  Products: 

In  the  original  substance,  .        7.66  15.32  7.46  1.20  1.79  67.61  .   .   . 

In  the  dry  substance, 16.60  8.08  1.38  1.94  73-20  4875 

Class  IV,  Starch  and  Tapioca  Products  : 
In  the  original  substance,  .      11.29  .39  .03  .13  .14  88.15  •   •   • 

In  the  dry  substance, .43  .04  .15  .16       "    99.37  4193 

Class  V,  Noodles,  Spaghetti  and  Macaroni : 

In  the  original  substance,  .       9.66  12.02  .42  .56  .78  77.12  ,   .    . 

In  the  dry  substance, 13.33  .47  .62  .86  85.34  4428 

Class  VI,  Barley  Products: 
In  the  original  substance,  .      10.92  7.50  .89  .67  .86  80.35  • 

In  the  dry  substance, 8.42  i.oo  .75  .97  90.19  4344 

Class  VII,  Miscellaneous  Products  : 
In  the  original  substance,  .       6.41  12.81  1.05  .99  1.06  78.68  .   .   . 

In  the  dry  substance, 13.68  1.12  1.04  1.13  84.07  4449 

Remarks  on  Table  of  Analyses. — 

Class  I,  Indian  Corn  Products. — The  analytical  data  show  that  in  the 
breakfast  foods  made  from  Indian  corn  products  the  germ  has  been  quite 
uniformly  removed.  The  quantity  of  fiber  also  shows  that  the  maize  flour 
produced  has  been  very  carefully  bolted.  The  ash  is  almost  normal,  show- 
ing only  a  small  addition,  probably  of  salt.  The  mean  quantity  of  protein 
is  that  which  would  be  predicted  of  an  Indian  corn  product  ground  by  the 
most  approved  milling  process  in  order  to  make  as  white  a  flour  as  possible. 
These  methods  of  preparing  the  flour,  although  so  common,  are  not  to  be 
preferred  either  by  reason  of  palatability  or  nutritive  properties  of  the  prod- 
ucts. The  old-fashioned  milling  process  makes  a  more  palatable  and  more 
nutritious  diet  and  affords  a  higher  degree  of  heat  and  energy. 

The  analysis  of  the  Indian  corn  products  show  that  they  are  very  much 
lower  in  protein  than  would  be  expected  from  an  analysis  of  the  whole  kernels. 
The  low  content  of  fat  in  the  products  is  doubtless  due  to  the  complete  deger- 
mination  of  the  grain  during  the  miUing  and  to  the  further  fact  that  the  baking 
and  other  preparation  of  the  material  tend  to  occlude  the  fat  particles,  making 
their  extraction  quite  difficult. 

Class  II,  Wheat  Products. — The  study  of  wheat  products  used  as  break- 
fast foods  shows  that  the  wheat  germ  is  not  removed  to  any  very  great  extent 
during  the  preparation  of  the  raw  material.  In  fact  the  quantity  of  ether 
extract  appears  somewhat  greater  than  would  be  expected  in  pure  wheat 
*U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.,  Bureau  of  Chemistry,  Bull.  13,  Part  ix,  p.  1345. 


270  CEREAL   FOOPS. 

products,  and  this  leads  to  the  supposition  that  oatmeal  or  Indian  corn  must 
be  mixed  with  the  food  product  in  small  quantities,  since  the  ether  extract 
in  the  case  of  wheat  products  is  more  than  three  times  as  great  as  in  the  case 
of  Indian  com  products  of  a  similar  character.  This  is  an  indication  either 
of  the  use  of  mechanical  methods  as  stated  above  or  else  of  the  admixture 
of  other  bodies  without  mention.  There  does  not  appear  to  have  been  any 
notable  quantity  of  mineral  substance,  common  salt  or  otherwise,  added 
during  the  process  of  preparation.  The  quantity  of  protein  in  the  product 
is  that  which  would  be  predicted  from  the  composition  of  wheat  flour  from 
which  the  samples  are  supposed  to  be  made. 

Class  III,  Oat  Products. — The  oat  products  have  evidently  been  made 
without  any  extensive  degermination,  as  is  shown  by  the  high  content  of  fat 
or  oil.  The  average  composition  of  oat  products  shows  that  genuine  oat- 
meal is  used  in  their  preparation  and  the  probability  is  that  little  adulteration 
is  practiced.  The  high  content  of  oil  and  protein  produces  a  corresponding 
depression  in  the  quantity  of  carbohydrates.  The  high  nutritive  value  of 
the  product,  both  in  respect  of  fat  and  of  proteins,  is  fully  illustrated  by  the 
analytical  data  obtained.  The  calories,  as  will  be  noticed,  are  very  much 
higher  than  in  the  corresponding  product  from  Indian  corn,  wheat,  or  in  fact 
of  any  other  of  the  breakfast  foods. 

Class  IV,  Products  made  of  starch  and  tapioca  show,  in  the  analytical  data, 
that  very  high-grade  starch  materials  are  employed  in  the  preparation  of 
these  bodies.  The  protein,  ether  extract,  fiber,  and  ash  almost  disappear. 
As  shown  in  the  data  for  the  dry  substance,  more  than  99  percent  of  the 
whole  material  consists  of  carbohydrates,  chiefly  starch.  The  calories  are 
correspondingly  diminished  since  starch  and  sugar  have  the  least  heat  value 
of  any  class  of  food  products,  except  those  of  a  mineral  character.  Foods 
of  this  kind  are  highly  unbalanced,  that  is,  contain  a  large  excess  of  starch 
and  sugar,  and  are  often  very  prejudicial  to  the  health  of  persons  whose  ability 
to  digest  starch  and  sugar  has  been  lessened  by  disease. 

Class  V,  Noodles,  spaghetti,  and  macaroni  are  often  used  as  breakfast  foods, 
though  not  by  any  means  so  universally  as  many  others  in  this  category.  The 
analytical  data  show  that  these  bodies  correspond  very  well  to  the  material, 
that  is  to  the  flour,  rich  in  gluten,  from  which  they  are  supposed  to  be  made. 
The  protein  content  is  high, — the  ether  extract,  fiber,  and  ash  low,  and  the 
calories  correspond  to  the  chemical  composition  of  the  material. 

Class  VI,  Barley  Products. — Barley  products  are  not  very  commonly  used 
as  breakfast  foods,  but  the  malt  used  in  the  preparation  of  other  breakfast 
foods  is  usually  made  of  barley,  since  the  barley  malt  has  the  highest  diastatic 
value  of  any  of  the  cereals. 

Class  VII,  Miscellaneous  breakfast  foods  are  so  called  because  the  character 
of  the  materials  of  which  they  are  made  is  not  known  or  no  statement  is  made 


BREAKFAST   FOODS.  27I 

by  the  manufacturer  or  dealer  concerning  them.  The  analytical  data,  of 
course,  do  not  lead  to  any  decision  regarding  the  nature  of  the  raw  material 
employed.  The  percentage  of  protein,  however,  taken  in  conjunction  with 
the  rather  low  ether  extract,  indicates  that  they  are  probably  made  chiefly 
from  wheat  products. 

Much  may  be  said  in  favor  of  the  use  of  prepared  breakfast  foods,  for,  in 
so  far  as  I  know,  they  are  usually  palatable,  wholesome,  and  nutritious.  There 
are  many  points  which  may  be  urged  against  their  general  use,  chief  of  which 
is  in  regard  to  their  cost.  There  is  no  cereal  now  in  general  use  for  edible 
purposes  which  is  worth  as  much  as  two  cents  per  pound  in  the  markets  of 
this  country,  yet  breakfast  foods,  which  are  only  prepared  cereals,  are  often 
sold  for  10  or  15  cents  per  pound.  This  is  a  high  price  in  ^comparison  with 
the  cost  of  the  raw  material,  but  it  must  not  be  forgotten  that  the  cost  of 
manufacture  is  to  be  considered.  In  the  second  place  the  cereal  foods  are 
undoubtedly  best  at  the  moment  they  are  prepared.  Unless  carefully  packed, 
they  may  become  infected  with  insects  of  various  kinds,  which  certainly  add 
nothing  to  their  value  and  detract  very  much  from  their  desirability.  In 
moist  climates  they  become  infested  with  mould  and  even  with  bacterial 
growths.  Inasmuch  as  necessarily  a  large  proportion  of  the  prepared  cereals 
remain  for  an  indefinite  time  unsold,  the  consumer  is  liable  at  any  time  to 
come  into  possession  of  one  of  these  deteriorated  packages.  In  the  third 
place  there  is  no  reason  to  believe  that  a  prepared  breakfast  food  is  any  more 
digestible,  nutritious,  or  favorable  to  the  health  of  the  healthy  individual  than 
the  broken  cereal  itself  properly  cooked.  Further  than  this  it  may  be  stated 
that  there  is  no  preparation  of  cereals  better  than  those  which  are  freshly 
made  from  the  freshly  broken  or  ground  grain.  If,  therefore,  one  has  the 
time  to  properly  prepare  the  fresh  grains  of  the  cereals  they  will  be  more 
palatable  and  more  nutritious  and  equally  as  digestible  as  any  of  the  prepared 
articles.  On  the  other  hand,  there  are  cases  of  diseased  or  disordered  digestion 
in  which  the  prepared  cereals  will  be  more  digestible,  but  this  is  certainly  not 
the  case  in  a  state  of  health.  There  is  reason  to  believe,  therefore,  that  the 
demand  for  prepared  cereals  will  continue,  but  the  old-fashioned  method  of 
preparation  of  the  cereal  from  the  grain  will  still  have  its  advocates. 

I  think  it  may  be  said  with  certainty  that  the  proper  home  preparation  of  a 
cereal  as  a  breakfast  food  will  not  cost  any  more  than  the  original  cereal  itself, 
and  hence  the  price  of  this  food  ought  not  to  be  much  more  than  4  cents  per 
pound  without  counting  the  added  water  in  its  preparation. 

I  believe,  therefore,  that  our  people  of  limited  means  can  be  safely  advised 
on  the  score  of  economy,  palatability,  and  nutrition  to  prepare  their  own 
cereals  for  ordinary  breakfast  purposes. 

Economy  in  Nutrition. — In  the  present  era  of  high  cost  of  living  the 
question  of  economy  in  the  food  supply  is  one  which  is  receiving  general  at- 


272  CEREAL   FOODS. 

tention.  There  is  no  economy,  however,  in  debasing  the  quality  of  food  or 
diminishing  its  quantity  below  the  amount  required  to  restore  wasted  tissue, 
provide  for  growth  and  furnish  the  margin  of  safety  which  every  well  regulated 
organism  provides.  If  the  food  supply  be  debased  by  any  sort  of  manipula- 
tion whereby  its  nutritive  properties  are  impaired,  the  damage  done  the  body 
is  more  costly  than  the  money  saved  in  the  purchase  of  the  i6od.  If  the  supply 
of  food  is  diminished  below  the  amount  specified  above,  the  organism  has  no 
reserve  power,  and  easily  falls  a  prey  to  infection  and  disease,  the  loss  in  effi- 
ciency and  the  cost  of  medication  far  outweighing  any  diminution  in  the  cost 
of  purchasing  the  foods.  Nevertheless  there  are  many  matters  concerning 
the  character  of  the  foods  already  described  which  are  worth  considering 
in  this  connection.  Pound  for  pound  the  cereals  are  the  cheapest  complete 
food  on  the  market.  Wheat  at  a  dollar  a  bushel  costs  1.33  cents  a  pound. 
Eighty  percent  of  wheat  is  fit  for  human  food,  and,  in  fact,  the  whole  wheat 
properly  crushed  is  believed  by  many  experts  to  be  the  best  complete  food  with 
the  possible  exception  of  milk.  Wheat  contains  only  12  percent  of  water  while 
milk  contains  87  percent.  Milk  with  13  percent  of  solids  costs  5  cents  a  pound, 
and  wheat  which  contains  8S  percent  of  solids  costs  1.33  cents  a  pound.  Ten 
cents  expended  for  milk  buys  0.27  pound  of  nourishment  while  ten  cents  ex- 
pended for  wheat  buys  8.8  pounds. 

A  pound  of  average  meat  costs  18  cents  and  is  not  much  over  45  percent 
food.  It  contains  nearly  half  its  weight  of  water  and  also  much  bone  and 
cartilage.  Ten  cents  spent  for  meat  buys  0.56  pound,  of  which  less  than 
half  is  food,  or,  in  other  words,  less  than  a  quarter  of  a  pound  of  food.  More- 
over, this  meat  is  not  a  complete  food,  lacking  the  carbohydrate  element. 
Milk  at  ten  cents  a  quart  and  meat  at  iS  cents  a  pound  afford  the  same  amount 
of  food,  but  the  milk  ration  is  a  complete  food  and  the  meat  ration  is  not. 

In  this  computation  the  cost  of  milling  the  wheat  and  baking  the  bread  and 
meat  has  not  been  included.  In  the  exercise  of  true  economy  the  wheat  should 
be  taken  to  the  mill  and  the  entire  yield  of  the  mill  less  the  toll,  viz.,  |  of  the 
whole,  be  returned  to  the  consumer.  Where  economy  is  to  be  considered 
the  preparation  and  baking  of  the  product  should  be  done  at  home.  In 
such  an  economical  household,  the  food  will  be  chiefly  cereals  in  the  form  of 
bread  or  other  appetizing  preparations,  with  milk  only  for  the  children,  and 
meat,  vegetables  and  fruits  in  moderation.  Many  a  laboring  man  would  find 
the  burden  of  life  greatly  lessened  by  heeding  these  facts. 

The  burden  of  life  is  heavy  enough  for  the  laborer  who  earns  scarcely  three 
hundred  dollars  a  year,  and  he  should  be  taught  how  he  can  best  feed  his 
family  on  this  sum  and  save  enough  for  rent,  clothing,  and  schools.  A  diet  of 
plain,  unprepared  cereals  will  do  more  for  the  poor  than  politics,  grammar 
or  geography. 


PART  VI. 

VEGETABLES,  CONDIMENTS,  FRUITS, 


SUCCULENT  VEGETABLES.  - 
The  term  vegetable  as  applied  to  food  in  the  broadest  sense  of  the  word 
means  that  class  which  distinguishes  it  from  animal  food.  In  a  narrower 
sense,  however,  the  term  vegetable  is  used  to  denote  a  certain  form  of  food 
which  is  of  a  succulent  or  juicy  nature.  While  cereals  and  fruits  are  vegetables 
in  the  broadest  sense  of  the  word  they  are  not  in  the  narrow  and  common 
meaning.  The  term  "vegetable"  in  this  section  therefore  refers  to  those 
substances  commonly  known  as  vegetables  upon  the  market  and  which  are 
characterized  by  their  high  water  content.  On  account  of  this  abundance  of 
liquid  or  juice  the  term  succulent  is  applied  to  them.  The  common  vegetables 
which  are  included  in  this  class  consist  of  lettuce,  spinach,  potatoes,  cauliflower, 
beets,  radishes,  turnips,  cabbage,  green  Indian  corn,  peas,  beans,  tomatoes, 
yams,  etc.  These  vegetables  contain  in  a  fresh  state  from  70  to  95  percent  of 
water.  Many  of  them  can  be  kept  for  a  length  of  time  without  deterioration, 
especially  the  potato  and  beet,  and  for  a  short  time  cabbage,  radishes,  etc., 
if  kept  cool  and  moist.  Other  kinds  of  vegetables  are  not  easily  preserved  for 
any  length  of  time  except  in  cold  storage,  such  as  lettuce,  peas,  beans,  tomatoes, 
etc.  If  the  potato  and  other  starchy  tubers  are  kept  out  of  account  these 
vegetables  do  not  have  a  very  high  nutritive  value,  as  will  be  seen  by  the 
analyses  which  follow.  They  have,  however,  an  important  part  in  the  ration 
because  of  their  palatability  and  the  effect  which  they  have  upon  the  general 
activity  of  the  alimentary  canal.  For  instance,  there  is  very  Httle  nourishment 
obtained  in  eating  a  turnip  which  perhaps  is  95  percent  water, — yet  its  palata- 
bility, its  condimental  character,  and  its  general  salutary  effect  upon  digestion 
is  such  as  to  make  it  w^orth  while  to  pay  even  a  high  price  in  proportion  to  its 
nutriment.  For  this  reason,  as  well  as  for  their  nutritive  value,  the  use  of  suc- 
culent vegetables  is  to  be  very  highly  commended. 

In  general,  as  has  been  said,  these  vegetables  are  eaten  in  a  fresh  state  or 

after  being  kept  for  a  considerable  time  in  cold  storage  or  otherwise.     The 

potato,  for  instance,  can  be  kept  by  properly  covering  it  in  the  earth  or  in 

bins  through  the  winter.     Cabbages  are  also  kept  in  the  same  way  and  many 

19  273 


274  VEGETABLES,    CONDIMENTS,   FRUITS. 

other  vegetables  without  apparent  deterioration.  These  vegetables  are  often 
desiccated,  and  in  this  way  can  be  kept  for  a  much  longer  period.  Unfor- 
tunately no  method  of  desiccation  has  been  developed  which  preserves  entirely 
the  palatability  of  the  vegetable,  although  its  nutrient  properties,  which  are 
perhaps  the  least  important  of  its  properties  in  many  respects,  are  preserved 
to  a  certain  extent  by  desiccation. 

We  may,  however,  leave  out  of  consideration  the  desiccation  of  fresh  vege- 
tables. Certain  of  the  vegetables  above  mentioned  naturally  become  desic- 
cated on  maturity  as  in  the  case  of  peas  and  beans,  but  then  they  are  removed 
from  the  category  of  succulent  vegetables.  Green  Indian  corn  is  also  often 
dried,  but  in  this  process  its  palatability  is  to  a  certain  extent  impaired  even 
when  it  is  prepared  for  cooking  in  such  a  way  as  to  restore  practically  all 
of  the  water  which  has  been  lost.  Succulent  vegetables  are  eaten  either  in  a 
raw  state  or  after  cooking.  For  instance  radishes  and  vegetables  of  this 
class  are  rarely  cooked.  On  the  other  hand,  potatoes,  peas,  and  beans  are 
always  cooked  and  practically  never  eaten  raw.  Green  Indian  corn  is  also 
universally  cooked  before  eating.  There  are  other  vegetables  which  are 
sometimes  eaten  raw  and  sometimes  cooked,  as,  for  instance,  the  turnip, 
while  on  the  other  hand  the  beet,  which  is  very  sweet  and  naturally  would  be 
considered  a  suitable  food  for  eating  in  a  raw  state,  is  always  cooked  before 
it  is  consumed. 

Artichoke  {Cynara  scolymus). — This  vegetable,  while  not  very  gener- 
ally grown  in  the  United  States,  is  cultivated  to  a  very  extensive  degree  in 
Europe.  The  flower  heads  and  the  fleshy  base  on  which  they  grow  are  the 
edible  portions. 

The  Jerusalem  artichoke  {Helianthus  tuberosus  L.)  is  a  plant  of  the 
aster  family  which  has  edible  tubers  that  form  a  valuable  carbohydrate 
food.  The  carbohydrates  which  are  present  in  this  artichoke  do  not  con- 
tain very  much  starch.  In  this  respect  they  differ  from  the  potato  and  the 
yam.  When  the  starch  of  the  potato  and  yam  is  converted  by  fermentation  or 
otherwise  into  sugar  it  forms  chiefly  dextrose  or  maltose.  On  the  other  hand, 
when  the  carbohydrates  of  the  artichoke  are  converted  into  sugar  they  form 
chiefly  levulose.  The  principal  part  of  the  carbohydrate  is  known  as  inulin 
or  levulan.  The  artichoke  can  be  easily  kept  over  a  long  period  of  time,  and 
may  remain  without  much  detriment  in  the  ground,  where  the  winters  are  not 
severe,  from  autumn  until  spring.  After  harvesting  it  may  be  kept  for  some 
time  without  any  very  great  loss  in  its  food  value. 

In  the  following  table  are  given  the  data  showing  the  composition  of  the 
Jerusalem  artichoke,  harvested  in  the  autumn: 


THE   BEAN.  275 

Fall: 

Water, 79-70  percent 

Inulin  or  levulin, 16.93        " 

Protein, - 1.48       " 

Ether  extract, 14       " 

Ash, 1.08       " 

(Behrend,  J.  fiir  Landwirtshaft,  vol.  52,  p.  134,  1904.) 

The  above  data  show  that  the  artichoke,  Hke  the  potato,  is  a  food  product 
poor  in  protein  and  in  fat  and  rich  in  carbohydrate  material.  In  so  far  as 
known  the  carbohydrates  of  artichokes  are  equally  as  digestible  and  nutri- 
tious as  those  of  other  tubers. 

Asparagus. — Asparagus  (Asparagus  officinalis  L.) — French,  asperge;  Ger- 
man, spargel;  Italian,  sparagio;  Spanish,  esparrago — is  a  highly  prized 
vegetable  and  is  a  native  of  Europe.  The  edible  asparagus  is  the  young, 
fresh,  undeveloped  shoots  taken  at  an  early  period  of  growth.  They  are 
highly  valued  when  stewed  or  for  use  as  a  salad.  There  is  a  number  of  varie- 
ties of  asparagus,  among  which  may  be  mentioned  the  Giant  Dutch  asparagus, 
the  common  green  asparagus,  white  German  asparagus,  etc.  These  are 
different  in  kind  only,  since  they  all  belong  to  the  same  botanical  species 
and  the  variations  are  produced  chiefly  by  different  methods  of  cultivation. 

Composition. — 

Water, 93-96  percent 

Ash, 67       " 

Protein, 1.83        " 

Fiber, 74       " 

Sugar,  starch,  etc., 2.55       " 

Fat, 25       " 

Asparagus  is  composed  chiefly  of  water,  which  amounts,  in  round  num- 
bers, to  94  percent  of  its  entire  weight.  Its  edible  portion  is  rich  in  pro- 
tein as  compared  with  the  beet  and  many  other  vegetables.  It  is  some- 
what richer  also  in  fat  than  the  beet  or  the  turnip.  Its  food  value,  as  will  be 
seen,  is  largely  of  a  condimental  character. 

The  Bean.— The  bean  belongs  to  the  family  Fabaceae.  It  is  a  native 
of  America  and  has  been  cultivated  from  the  earhest  times.  There  are  many 
different  varieties  of  the  bean  which  are  cultivated  in  this  country.  They 
grow  over  the  whole  range  of  the  United  States.  There  are  early  and  late 
maturing  varieties.  Beans  are  used  for  food  both  in  the  fresh  state,  while 
the  pods  are  tender  and  can  be  eaten  with  the  immature  beans,  and  also  in 
the  dry  state,  in  which  condition  they  are  a  staple  article  of  food.  There 
are  many  different  varieties  of  beans  which,  while  not  always  botanically 
identical,  are  sufficiently  so  to  warrant  the  use  of  the  common  name.  Two 
general  classes,  however,  may  be  distinguished,  namely,  those  that  grow  in 
small  clusters  or  bunches  and  those  that  grow  upon  vines  or  tendrils  which 
have  to  be  supported.     In  regard  to  the  kinds  of  culture  to  which  beans  are 


276  VEGETABLES,    CONDIMENTS,    FRUITS. 

subjected  there  may  be  mentioned  field  beans,  which  are  cultivated  over  a 
large  area,  and  garden  beans,  which  are  cultivated  in  small  gardens  for  the 
green  markets. 

Kidney  Bean. — The  kidney  bean,  or  French  bean,  is  a  special  botanical 
variety  {Phaseolus  vulgaris  L.).  It  is  what  is  known  in  French  as  haricot; 
in  German  as  Bohne;  Dutch,  Boon;  Italian,  faginolo;  Spanish,  habichuela. 
This  variety  of  bean  is  commonly  called  a  French  bean  and  is  a  native  of 
South  America.  It  does  not  seem  to  have  been  known  before  the  discovery 
of  the  American  continent  and  hence  is  not  thought  to  have  grown  wild 
in  any  other  part  of  the  world.  The  kidney  bean  is  not  very  well  suited  to 
very  high  northern  latitudes,  since  it  is  particularly  sensitive  to  the  cold,  even 
if  the  temperature  is  not  low  enough  to  produce  frost.  The  kidney  bean 
is  cultivated  over  large  areas  and  is  also  a  garden  crop.  There  are  early  and 
late  varieties,  so  that  the  season  for  the  kidney  bean  is  a  long  one.  The  pods 
of  this  bean  are  distinguished  by  being  long  and  slender,  and  it  is  particularly 
valuable  for  edible  purposes  while  green  and  is  also  prized  for  canning.  This 
is  true,  especially,  of  that  variety  which  has  a  tender  pod. 

There  is  another  variety  of  bean  in  which  the  pod  is  tough,  and  this, 
of  course,  is  not  so  well  suited  for  eating  green,  although  when  very  young, 
even  the  tough-podded  bean  can  be  used.  There  are  a  great  many  different 
varieties  of  kidney  beans  known,  one  of  which  is  called  the  ''dwarf  kidney 
bean"  on  account  of  its  growing  only  on  low  bushes  and  needing  no  support 
for  the  vines.  In  this  variety  the  pods  hang  in  thick  clusters,  the  lower  ends 
often  touching  the  ground. 

Butter  Beans. — There  is  another  large  class  of  beans  known  as  butter 
beans.     This  variety  is  also  known  as  Geneva,  or  plainpalais,  or  wax  bean. 

Lima  Beans. — The  Lima  bean  is  also  a  different  botanical  species  known 
as  Phaseolus  lunatus  L.  It  is  nearly  related  to  the  kidney  bean,  being  also 
a  native  of  South  America.  The  vine  is  a  very  long  one,  often  reaching  more 
than  10  feet  if  a  proper  support  be  offered  it.  The  common  Lima  bean  is 
one  which  matures  rather  late  in  the  season,  but  it  is  most  highly  valued  for 
its  product,  which  is  eaten  shelled.  There  are  smaller  varieties  of  this  bean 
known  as  the  dwarf  Lima  or  small  Lima. 

The  total  number  of  varieties  of  beans  which  are  known  and  cultivated 
is,  perhaps,  more  than  100,  but  they  belong  in  general  to  the  large  classes 
specified. 

Average  Composition  of  Green ^  String,  and  Lima  Beans. — 

Lima  beans : 

Water, 68.46  percent 

Ash, 1.69 

Protein, 7.15 

Crude  fiber, 1.71 

Carbohydrates, 20.30 

Fat, .69 


BEETS.  277 

String  beans: 

Water,.. 87.23  percent 

Ash, 76  " 

Protein, 2.20  " 

Crude  fiber, 1.92  " 

Carbohydrates, 7.52  " 

Fat, 37  " 

The  above  data  are  for  green  Lima  beans  with  the  pod  removed  and  for 
string  beans  including  the  pod.  The  latter,  it  is  seen,  are  composed  largely 
of  water,  containing  less  than  13  percent  of  dry  matter.  Of  the  dry  matter 
almost  20  percent  is  protein.  The  soluble  carbohydrates,  including  the 
starch  and  sugar,  are  the  most  important  of  the  ingredients  of  the  dry 
substance  in  so  far  as  actual  weight  is  concerned.  In  t-he  Lima  bean  the 
protein  is  more  than  three  times  as  great  as  in  the  string  bean,  and  the  starch 
and  sugar  almost  three  times  as  much.  As  a  nutrient,  therefore,  the  Lima 
beans  are  far  more  valuable  than  the  string  beans.  These  data  may  be 
taken  as  representative  of  all  varieties  of  green  beans,  hulled  and  unhulled, 
the  Lima  beans  being  types  of  hulled  beans  and  the  string  variety  being 
the  type  of  beans  including  the  pod. 

Composition  of  the  Dry  Bean. — 

Water, i5-86  percent. 

Ash,. 3.53 

Protein, 20.5  7 

Fiber, 3.86 

Sugar,  starch,  etc., 55-49 

Fat, 69 

The  analyses  show  that  the  dry  bean  is  much  richer  in  protein  than  the 
cereals. 

Beets. — All  the  varieties  of  edible  beets  belong  to  the  common  species 
Beta  vulgaris  L.  French,  betterave;  German,  Salat-Riibe;  Dutch,  Bet- 
wortel;  Italian,  barbabietola;  Spanish,  remolacha. 

The  most  important  of  these  beets,  economically,  is  the  variety  which  has 
been  cultivated  for  the  purpose  of  producing  sugar.  By  long  years  of  selection 
and  improvement  the  sugar  content  of  the  natural  beet,  which  is  not  more 
than  from  four  to  six  percent,  has  been  brought  up  to  an  average  of  about 
14  percent,  often  reaching  much  larger  quantities.  The  sugar  beet  itself,  in 
its  earlier  stages,  makes  an  excellent  vegetable  for  the  table,  being  particularly 
sweet  and  palatable.  Its  tannin  content,  however,  is  very  high,  and  before 
cooking,  especially,  it  has  quite  a  bitter  taste,  at  times.  This  disappears 
in  the  young  beets  when  they  are  cooked.  The  sugar  beet  has  a  perfectly 
white  flesh,  inasmuch  as  the  attempt  w^as  made  in  the  early  period  of  cultiva- 
tion to  develop  a  beet  without  color  in  order  to  produce  a  white  sugar  with 
as  little  trouble  as  possible.  On  the  other  hand  the  garden  beet  is  usually 
highly  colored,  the  red  beet  being  especially  prized.  The  number  of  varieties 
of  beets  in  cultivation  is  very  great.     Among  the  most  important  may  be 


278  VEGETABLES,  CONDIMENTS,  FRUITS. 

mentioned  the  long  blood-red  beet,  which  is  the  common  garden  beet,  the 
rough-skinned  red  beet,  the  pear-shaped  beet,  the  turnip-shaped  beet,  all  of 
which  are  of  the  red  color.  There  is  also  cultivated  for  eating  purposes  a 
beet  with  yellow  flesh,  though  it  is  not  by  any  means  so  common  as  the  red 
garden  beet. 

Composition  of  the  Beet. — The  following  data  represents  the  average  com- 
position of  the  red  beet  used  as  a  vegetable: 

Water, 88.47  percent 

Ash, 104 

Protein, 1-53 

Fiber, 88 

Sugar,  starch,  etc., 7.94 

Fat, - 14 

The  above  data  show  that  the  average  garden  beet  has  a  little  less  than  12 
percent  of  solid  matter  and  a  little  more  than  88  percent  of  water.  It  is 
rather  poor  in  protein,  though  it  is  not  a  vegetable  which  can  be  classed  as 
being  excessively  deficient  in  nitrogenous  constituents.  Its  chief  food  value, 
however,  is  in  the  sugar  which  it  contains,  which  is  more  than  7  percent.  It 
is  quite  deficient  in  fat. 

Brussels  Sprouts. — Brussels  sprouts  is  a  variety  of  cabbage  which  is 
grown  over  large  areas  in  different  countries  and  has  a  deservedly  high  repu- 
tation on  the  table.  The  French  name  is  chou  de  Bruxelles;  German, 
Briisseler  Sprossen-Kohl ;  Italian,  cavolo  a  germoglio;  Spanish,  bretones 
de  Bruselas.  The  composition  of  Brussels  sprouts  is  practically  the  same  as 
that  of  cabbage. 

Cabbage. — The  botanical  name  of  the  cabbage  is  Brassica  oleracea  L. 
and  it  belongs  to  the  family  Brassicaceae.  It  is  a  plant  which  is  indigenous 
to  both  Europe  and  Asia,  and  still  grows  wild  in  some  parts  of  the  European 
continent.  It  is  eaten  both  raw,  in  the  form  of  salad,  slaw,  etc.,  and  cooked 
in  various  methods.  It  is  also  subjected  to  a  fermentation,  producing  the 
highly  prized  dish  known  as  sauer-kraut.  Its  French  name  is  chou  cabus; 
German,  Kopfkohl;  Italian,  cavolo  cappuccio;  Spanish,  col  repollo. 

The  cabbage  is  a  plant  which,  as  it  approaches  maturity,  has  its  leaves  folded 
upon  each  other  in  a  solid  mass,  producing  the  head.  These  leaves  naturally 
become  bleached  and  are  extremely  crisp  and  tender.  The  external,  free 
leaves  are  not  prized  as  a  food.  The  varieties  of  the  cabbage  are  almost 
legion  and  are  produced  by  different  methods  of  cultivation. 

Composition. — 

Water, 90.52  percent 

Ash, 1.40       " 

Protein, 2.39        " 

Fiber, 1.47       " 

Starch,  sugar,  etc., 3.85        " 

Fat, 2>1       " 


CAULIFLOWER.  279 

The  above  data  show  that  cabbage  is  composed  chiefly  of  water,  amount- 
ing to  as  much  as  91  percent  of  its  weight.  Its  principal  food  constituents 
are  starch,  sugar,  and  digestible  fiber.  Its  most  valuable  food  constituent 
is  most  probably  the  protein,  of  which  it  contains  a  large  proportionate 
quantity.  In  all  its  forms  cabbage  is  a  wholesome,  if  not  very  nutritious, 
dish. 

Carrot. — The  botanical  name  of  the  carrot  is  Daucus  carota  L.  French, 
carotte;  German,  Mohre;  Italian,  carota;  Spanish,  zanahoria. 

This  plant  is  indigenous  to  Europe.  The  carrot  is  naturally  a  biennial 
plant,  though  it  is  often  produced  in  a  single  season,  and  especial  efforts  are 
made  to  produce  quick-growing  carrots.  This  vegetable  is  much  more  com- 
mon in  Europe  than  in  the  United  States,  and  when  grown  here  at  all  it  is 
used  chiefly  in  soups  and  often  for  cattle  food.  There  is  a  large  number  of 
varieties  of  carrots,  but  practically  all  belong  to  the  same  botanical  species. 
The  flesh  is  often  of  a  yellow  tint,  though  blood-red  carrots  are  grown  and 
highly  prized. 

Composition. — 

Water, 88.59  percent 

Ash, 1.02 

Protein, 1.14 

Fiber, 1.27 

Starch,  sugar,  etc., 7.56 

Fat, 42 

It  is  seen  from  the  above  data  that  the  carrot  has  almost  exactly  the  compo- 
sition of  the  garden  beet.  Its  principal  food  value  is  in  the  sugar  and  other 
carbohydrates  which  it  contains.  It  also  has  a  notable  proportion  of  protein 
and  has  almost  12  percent  of  solid  matter. 

Cauliflower. — Cauliflower  is  a  variety  of  cabbage  the  edible  portion  of 
which  is  the  extraordinarily  modified  and  thickened  flower  cluster.  It  is  more 
tender  and  delicate  in  its  structure  than  the  common  cabbage.  '  The  French 
nameischoufleur;  German,  Blumenkohl;  Italian,  cavolfiore;  Spanish,  coliflor. 

It  is  highly  prized  when  prepared  for  the  table  with  a  sauce.  It  is  a  dish 
which  is  much  more  common  in  Europe  than  in  this  country,  where  it  is  not 
appreciated  as  it  should  be.  There  is  a  large  number  of  varieties  produced, 
chiefly  by  the  different  methods  of  cultivation  and  the  effect  of  environment 
in  which  they  are  grown. 

Composition. — 

Water, 90.82  percent 

Ash, 81 

Protein, 1.62       " 

Fiber, 1.02       " 

Sugar,  starch,  etc., 4.94       " 


Fat, 


•79 


The  cauliflower  is  very  close  to  the  cabbage  in  composition,  having,  however, 


28o  VEGETABLES,   CONDIMENTS,    FRUITS. 

a  slightly  larger  proportion  of  digestible  carbohydrates  and  a  much  larger 
proportion  of  fat.  Its  dietetic  value,  however,  is  not  notably  different  from 
that  of  the  cabbage. 

Celery. — One  of  the  most  important  vegetables  upon  the  table  in  this 
country  is  celery.  The  botanical  name  of  celery  is  Apium  graveolens  L.  The 
French  name  is  celeri;  German,  Sellerie;  Italian,  sedano;  Spanish,  apio. 

Celery  is  indigenous  to  Europe.  It  is  eaten  in  its  young  state,  and  is  most 
valued  when  the  stalks  are  bleached.  This  is  accomplished  by  hilling  up 
the  earth  around  them  or  protecting  them  from  the  light  by  boards  or  other- 
wise. Kept  in  the  dark  in  this  way  the  green  color  fades  and  the  stalks  be- 
come more  crisp  and  brittle.  There  are  several  kinds  of  celery  grown, 
but  these  are  chiefly  due  to  the  different  methods  of  cultivation.  Celery 
is  not  only  eaten  raw  but  also  stewed  and  is  a  common  constituent  of  soup. 
Celery  seeds  are  supposed  to  have  not  only  a  condimental  but  a  medicinal 
value. 

Chicory. — The  botanical  name  of  chicory  is  Cichorium  intyhus  L.  In 
French  it  is  called  chicoree  sauvage;  German,  wilde  or  bittere  Chichorie; 
Italian,  cicoria  selvatica;  Spanish,  achicoria  amarga  o  agreste. 

The  wild  chicory  is  used  chiefly,  even  in  its  cultivated  state,  for  salad 
purposes,  the  roots  not  being  of  any  value  on  account  of  their  smallness.  The 
chicory,  however,  develops  under  cultivation  a  large  root  like  the  carrot  or 
turnip,  and  this  variety  of  chicory  is  used  chiefly  on  account  of  the  roots, 
which,  when  they  are  roasted  properly,  are  highly  prized  as  a  substitute  for 
coffee.  The  common  wild  chicory  has  been  used  from  time  immemorial 
as  a  salad.  The  leaves  have  rather  a  bitter  taste  and  are  more  highly  prized 
for  salad  purposes  when  mixed  with  lettuce  or  other  leaves  which  have  a  less 
pronounced  flavor.  The  variety  of  chicory  of  which  the  roots  are  used  as 
a  substitute  for  coffee  is  known  as  "Brunswick  chicory,"  or  Magdeburg 
large-rooted  chicory. 

Composition  of  the  Root. — 

Water, 79.20  percent 

Ash, I. II       " 

Sugars, 60       " 

Inulin, 14,00       " 

Fiber, 1.29       " 

Protein  and  undetermined, 3.50       " 

Starch  does  not  appear  to  be  among  the  carbohydrates  in  chicory  but 
inulin  takes  its  place.  In  this  respect  chicory  resembles  the  artichoke  in 
its  composition. 

Roasted  Chicory. — When  chicory  is  used  as  a  substitute  for  coffee  or  as 
a  substance  added  to  coffee  it  is  roasted,  and  its  composition  is  thus  materially 
changed,  as  is  represented  by  the  following  data: 


CUCUMBERS.  281 

Moisture, 13.3  percent 

Ash, 5-9       " 

Sugar, 12.4       "^ 

Inulin, 4-3 

Fiber, 6.9       " 

Caramel  and  undetermined, 57.2       " 

From  the  data  of  the  above  analysis  the  inulin  does  not  appear  to  have 
been  very  largely  converted  into  levulose  by  roasting,  but  rather  into  the  in- 
soluble carbohydrate  matter.  Whether  or  not,  therefore,  the  inulin  exists  in 
the  large  proportion  given  in  the  analysis  of  the  fresh  chicory  is  a  matter  of 
some  doubt. 

Cranberry. — The  cranberry  is  grown  extensively  in  the  swampy  grounds  of 
the  northern  part  of  the  United  States,  especially  in  New  England,  New  Jersey, 
and  Wisconsin.  It  is  a  red,  hard  berry,  not  at  all  pleasant  to  the  taste  in  its 
fresh  state,  very  acid,  but  greatly  valued  during  the  autumn  and  winter  months 
when  stewed  with  sugar  and  served  as  a  sauce,  especially  with  turkey.  Its 
chief  use,  in  fact,  is  to  eat  with  turkey  or  chicken.  The  cranberry  is  a  fruit 
which  contains  naturally  a  small  quantity  of  benzoic  acid. 

Composition. — 

Water, 86.10  percent 

Solids, 13-90       " 

Soluble  solids, 8.43       " 

Acidity, 1.98       " 

(Measured  as  grams  of  sulfuric  acid  per  100  grams  of  material.) 

Cress. — The  botanical  name  of  cress  is  Lepidium  sativum  L.  French, 
cresson  alenois;  German,  Garten-Kresse;  Italian,  agretto;  Spanish,  mas- 
tuerzo. 

It  is  a  plant  which  is  indigenous  to  Persia.  It  grows  in  this  country  in 
moist  gardens  and  particularly  in  the  warmer  parts  of  the  country.  The  real 
water  cress  belongs  to  a  different  species,  its  botanical  name  being  Rorifa 
nasturtium.  It  grows  only  in  water,  in  which  it  differs  from  the  preceding 
variety.  It  is  highly  prized  as  an  aromatic  flavoring  material  and  for  table  use. 
There  are  very  many  varieties  in  cultivation. 

Cucumbers. — The  botanical  name  of  cucumber  is  Cucumis  sativus  L. 
French,  concombre;    German,  Gurke;  Italian,  cetriulo;   Spanish,  cohombro. 

The  cuxumber  is  indigenous  to  East  India,  but  is  now  cultivated  in  all  coun- 
tries. It  is  a  plant  which  develops  vines  which  often  run  to  great  distances. 
The  cucumber  is  used  almost  exclusively  in  its  green  state,  and  the  very  young 
cucumbers  are  most  highly  prized  for  making  pickles,  though  all  sizes  are  used 
for  that  purpose,  from  the  very  smallest  to  the  giant  variety.  The  number  of 
varieties  cultivated  is  extremely  great.  The  variety  known  as  the  gherkin 
is  highly  prized  for,  pickling. 


282  VEGETABLES,    CONDIMENTS     FRUITS. 

Composition  of  the  Cucumber. — 

Water, 95-99  percent 

Ash, 46       " 

Protein, 81        " 

Fiber, 69       " 

Starch,  sugar,  etc., 1.83       " 

Fat, , 22       " 

The  above  data  show  that  the  cucumber  is  not  much  more  than  solid  water, 
there  being  just  enough  of  other  material  to  give  it  a  flavor  and  consistence. 

Egg  Plant. — Another  vegetable  which  is  highly  prized  for  the  table  is  the  egg 
plant,  Solanum  melongena  L.  French,  aubergine;  German,  Eierpflanze; 
Italian,  petronciano;    Spanish,  berengena. 

The  egg  plant  is  indigenous  to  India.  Its  name  is  derived  from  the  shape  of 
some  of  its  varieties,  though  many  of  them  have  ceased  to  resemble  the  egg  in 
appearance.  There  is  a  large  number  of  varieties,  but  the  one  which  is  known 
as  the  white  egg  plant  looks  more  like  an  egg  both  in  shape  and  color  than  most 
of  the  others. 

Composition. — 

Water, 92-93  percent 

^   Ash,.. 50       " 

Protein, 1.15        " 

Fiber, 77       " 

Starch,  sugar,  etc., 4.34       " 

Fat, 31       " 

The  egg  plant  is  a  highly  succulent  vegetable  containing  only  a  little  more 
than  7  percent  of  solid  matter,  and  this  is  chiefly  sugar,  starch,  and  other 
digestible  carbohydrates. 

Garlic. — The  botanical  name  of  garlic  is  Allium  sativum  L.  French,  ail 
ordinaire;  German,  Gewohnlicher  Knoblauch;  Italian,  aglio;  Spanish,  ajo 
vulgar. 

This  highly  prized  aromatic  vegetable  is  indigenous  to  southern  Europe.  It 
is  a  perennial  plant,  and  the  edible  bulbous  portion  grows  chiefly  underground. 
This  part  is  used  for  spicing  food.  It  is  eaten  in  large  quantities  by  the  Latin 
nations  of  southern  Europe,  and  is  employed  throughout  the  world  as  a  season- 
ing or  flavoring  for  many  dishes.  When  eaten  in  excess  it  makes  the  breath  ex- 
tremely disagreeable,  as  can  be  witnessed  by  all  who  have  traveled  in  the  Latin 
countries  of  Europe  and  even  among  the  South  Germans.  Garlic  is  not  eaten  to 
any  extent  by  our  native  citizens,  but  is  used  by  our  first-class  cooks  exten- 
sively as  a  seasoning.  A  little  of  it  is  known  to  go  a  great  way.  Its  composi- 
tion is  very  much  like  that  of  the  onion.  A  wild  garlic  grows  in  the  United 
States  over  wide  areas.  It  is  often  eaten  by  cows,  and  it  imparts  to  the  milk 
a  very  disagreeable  flavor  and  smell. 

Gourds. — Gourds  themselves  are  not  very  much  used  for  edible  purposes, 
but  the  varieties  which  include  all  the  species  of  pumpkin  and  squash  belong 


KALE.  283 

to  the  important  vegetable  foods  in  the  United  States.  The  most  important 
member  of  this  family  is  the  pumpkin,  Cucurhita  pepo  L.,  which  grows  often 
to  an  enormous  size  and  has  a  beautiful  yellow  color.  The  French  name  for 
the  pumpkin  is  potiron;  German,  Kurbiss;  Italian,  zucca;  Spanish,  calabaza 
totanera. 

The  pumpkin  of  California,  especially,  is  noted  for  its  gigantic  proportions. 
The  pumpkin  is  used  very  extensively  in  New  England,  as  well  as  other  parts  of 
the  country,  for  making  pies,  and  is  also  used  as  a  sauce.  The  pumpkin  is  not 
eaten  raw.  As  a  cattle  food  it  is  highly  prized  in  all  parts  of  the  country,  and 
when  fed  to  milch  cows  it  imparts  to  the  butter,  even  in  the  winter,  a  delicate 
amber  tint.  ^ 

Composition  of  the  Flesh  of  the  Pumpkin. — 

Water, 93-39  percent 

Ash, 67 

Protein, 91        " 

Fiber, 98 

Sugar,  starch,  etc., 3.93        " 

Fat, 12       " 

It  is  seen  that  the  flesh  of  the  pumpkin  is  essentially  a  watery  food,  the  chief 
ingredient  of  the  solid  matter  being  sugar.  Its  value,  therefore,  as  a  food  is 
more  condimental  than  nutritive. 

Horse-radish. — The  botanical  name  of  horse-radish  is  Cochlearia  armo- 
racia  L.  French,  raifort  sauvage;  German,  Meerrettig;  Italian,  rafano; 
Spanish,  taramago. 

The  horse-radish  is  prized  as  one  of  the  principal  condimental  vegetable 
substances  in  common  use  in  the  United  States.  It  is  particularly  used  with 
oysters  and  other  foods  of  similar  character  and  as  a  sauce  or  spice  in  a  salad. 
It  is  indigenous  to  Europe,  but  is  now  cultivated  everywhere.  There  are 
many  varieties,  but  they  are  all  characterized  by  a  sharp,  pungent  taste  and 
odor. 

Adulteration  of  Horse-radish. — Other  vegetable  substances,  as,  for  instance, 
the  more  highly  spiced  aromatic  turnips,  are  often  substituted  for  horse- 
radishi 

"Horse-radish  is  often  prepared  by  proper  grinding  mixed  with  vinegar 
and  sold  in  sealed  bottles.  There  is  no  objection  to  this  practice  provided  the 
samples  are  not  kept  too  long.  When  convenient,  however,  it  is  better  to 
purchase  the  plant  and  grate  it  immediately  before  using. 

Kale. — Kale  is  a  variety  of  cabbage  which  is  somewhat  different  botanically 
from  the  common  cabbage.  This  form  of  cabbage  does  not  make  a  firm  head, 
but  grows  only  with  free  leaves.  It  is  especially  adapted  for  use  in  much  the 
same  manner  as  the  common  substances  known  by  the  housewife  as  greens. 
It  is  a  hardy  plant  and  grows  well  even  in  cold  climates.  There  are  a  great 
many  varieties  of  kale,  and  the  composition  is  practically  that  of  the  cabbage. 


284  VEGETABLES,    CONDIMENTS,    FRUITS. 

Leek. — The  leek  is  of  the  same  variety  of  plant  as  the  garlic.  Its  botanical 
name  is  Allium  porriim  L.  French,  poireau;  German,  Lauch;  Italian,  porro; 
Spanish,  puerro. 

The  leek  is  thought  to  be  indigenous  to  Switzerland,  though  this  is  not  quite 
certain.  It  is  closely  related  to  the  garlic  and  onion  and  is  valued  for  the  same 
purposes,  namely,  its  highly  aromatic  condimental  character. 

Lettuce. — Among  the  most  valued  of  the  succulent  vegetables  is  the  lettuce. 
Its  botanical  name  is  Laduca  sativa  L.  French,  laitue  cultivee;  German,  Lat- 
tich;   Italian,  lattuga;   Spanish,  lechuga. 

Lettuce  is  thought  to  be  indigenous  to  India  or  Central  Asia.  It  has  been  cul- 
tivated, however,  for  so  long  that  its  origin  is  a  matter  of  doubt.  There  is  a 
legion  of  varieties  of  lettuce,  but  they  all  have  essentially  the  same  character-- 
istics  and  have  little  food  value.  Lettuce  is  now  found  practically  throughout 
the  whole  year  in  all  civilized  countries,  being  grown  under  glass  in  winter  so  as 
to  furnish  a  continuous  supply  for  the  markets  throughout  the  year.  It  is  used 
chiefly  as  salad,  and  among  the  varieties  which  are  most  highly  prized  for  this 
purpose  are  the  cabbage  lettuce  and  the  variety  known  as  Romaine.  The 
Romaine  is  distinguished  from  the  common  lettuce  by  the  shape  of  the  leaves, 
which  are  much  longer  and  narrower  than  those  of  ordinary  lettuce.  The  Ro- 
maine lettuce  is  more  highly  prized  by  most  connoisseurs  as  being  more  tender 
and  brittle  than  the  first  variety. 

Composition. — 

Water, 93-68  percent 

Ash, 1.61 

Protein, 1.41        " 

Fiber, 74       " 

Sugar,  starch,  etc., 2.18       " 

Fat, 38       " 

The  data  show  that  lettuce  is  a  highly  succulent  vegetable.  Its  chief  food 
constituents  are  protein  and  sugar.  Its  real  value  as  a  food  is  not  shown  by 
chemical  analysis  because  it  consists  in  a  delicate,  aromatic  flavor  which  is  not 
revealed  by  the  crucible. 

Melons. — There  are  two  kinds  of  melons  eaten  in  the  United  States, — the 
first  the  watermelon,  and  the  second  the  cantaloupe  or  muskmelon.  In  Europe 
the  principal  melon  which  is  used  is  one  having  deep  yellow  flesh  resembling  the 
color  of  a  pumpkin  and  known  as  the  French  melon.  The  botanical  name  is 
Cucumis  melo  L.  French,  melon;  German,  Melone;  Italian,  popone; 
Spanish,  melon. 

The  French  melon  is  indigenous  to  Asia,  but  only  the  cultivated  varieties  are 
known  now.  The  flesh  is  very  sweet  and  is,  as  has  already  been  said, 
usually  of  a  deep  yellow  color,  though  there  are  many  different  varieties. 

Cantaloupe. — This  is  a  general  name  given  to  the  melons  of  the  French  type 
or  varieties  thereof  growing  in  the  United  States.     It  is  supposed  to  have  had  its 


WATERMELONS. 


285 


origin  in  Italy,  though  there  is  some  doubt  on  the  subject.  The  cantaloupe  is 
of  various  sizes  and  shapes  and  various  degrees  of  sweetness.  In  the  United 
States  the  variety  grown  at  Rocky  Ford,  Colorado,  is  noted  for  its  sweetness 
and  general  palatability.  For  this  reason  many  melons  not  grown  at  Rock}- 
Ford  are  improperly  sold  under  that  liame.  There  are  a  great  many  varieties 
of  canteloupes.  Generally  the  flesh  of  the  cantaloupe  is  a  greenish  yellow 
instead  of  yellow.  The  muskmelon  is  quite  like  the  cantaloupe  in  appearance 
and  flavor. 

ANALYSIS  OF  JUICE  OF  MUSKMELOXS. 
From  Rind  of  Melon. 


Series  No. 


495' ' 

554, 

587, 

613, 

Average, 


1 

Brix. 

Nitrogen. 

Ash. 

SCCROSE. 

Percent. 

Percent. 

Percent. 

1        II-5 
i         8.4 

.106 
.018 

1.23 
0.66 

3-99 
2.47 

S-o 

•053 

0.47 

2.25 

IO-3 

.156 

0-93 

2.77 

1          8.8 

! 

.083 

0.82 

2.87         \ 

Reducing 
Sugar, 


Percent. 

3-97 
3.62 
2.84 
364 


3-52 


Juice  of  Edible  Portion  of  Melon. 


Series  No. 


495' 

554, 

587, 

^23, 

Average, 


Brix. 

Nitrogen. 

Ash. 

Sucrose. 

Percent. 

Percent. 

Percent. 

12.9 

.130 

1.20 

6.60 

8.2 

.069 

0.87 

4.96 

5-8 

043 

0.50 

2.26 

II-5 

•134 

0-95 

5-19 

9.6 

.094 

0.88 

4-75       ! 

Reducing 
Sugar. 


Percent. 
2.88 
2.47 
2.57 
2.25 


2-54 


Watermelons. — This  is  an  entirely  different  variety  from  the  French  melon 
or  cantaloupe.  Its  botanical  name  is  Citrullus  citrulliis  L.  French,  melon 
d'eau;   German,  Wasser-Melone;   Italian,  cocomero,  Spanish,  sandia. 

The  watermelon  is  said  to  be  indigenous  to  Africa.  It  is  grown  extensively 
in  the  United  States,  especially  in  the  southern  part.  It  is  a  field  crop  of  con- 
siderable importance,  especially  in  the  state  of  Georgia.  The  watermelon 
grows  best  on  a  sandy  soil,  though  it  requires  it  to  be  well  fertilized.  The  vines, 
when  they  reach  their  full  growth,  cover  the  entire  field.  The  melons  often 
grow  to  a  very  large  size, — specimens  weighing  from  50  to  60  pounds  being  not 
unusual.  The  average  size,  however,  is  much  less  than  that.  The  Georgia 
melon  is  somewhat  oval  in  shape,  reaching  generally  from  a  foot  to  eighteen 
inches  in  length  and  from  a  foot  to  fifteen  inches  in  diameter.  The  flesh  is 
generally  red  and  the  seeds  usually  black.  The  watermelon  is  in  the  market 
from  early  summer  until  the  late  autumn.      It  bears  shipping  quite  well, 


286  VEGETABLES,    CONDIMENTS,    FRUITS. 

and  is  sent  usually  in  box  cars  without  crating,  and,  if  kept  at  a  low  tempera- 
ture, will  remain  palatable  for  many  days  or  even  weeks.  The  fresh  ripe  melon, 
however,  is  far  superior  in  quality  to  any  that  are  harvested  partly  green  and 
kept  for  a  long  time.  About  forty  or  fifty  varieties  of  watermelons  grow  in  the 
United  States. 

Composition  0}  Melons. — The  following  data  show  the  composition  of  the 
flesh  of  the  muskmelon  and  the  watermelon: 

Muskmelon : 

Water, 89.50  percent 

Ash, 60 

Protein, 60 

Fiber, 92 

Starch,  sugar,  etc., 8.20 

Fat, 18 

Watermelon : 

Water, 91-87  percent 

Ash, 33  " 

Protein, 40  " 

Fiber, 55  " 

Starch,  sugar,  etc., 6.65  " 

Fat, 20  " 

The  above  data  show  that  the  edible  portion  of  the  muskmelon  contains  more 
nutrient  matter  than  that  of  the  watermelon,  the  difference  being  chiefly  in  the 
content  of  water  and  carbohydrates. 

Okra. — The  French  name  for  okra  is  gombo;  Italian,  ibisco;  Spanish^ 
gombo. 

Okra  is  a  vegetable  grown  very  largely  in  the  United  States  and  especially 
valued  for  use  in  soup  making.  For  this  purpose  the  young  seed-vessels  are 
employed.  The  seed  pods  of  the  okra  are  long,  tapering,  and  rigid  by  reason 
of  quite  sharp  angles.     The  okra  is  often  known  as  gombo  or  gumbo. 

Composition. — 

Water, 87.41  percent 

Ash, 74       " 

Protein, i  .99       " 

Fiber, 3.42       " 

Starch,  sugar,  etc., 6.04       " 

Fat, 40       " 

Onion. — The  botanical  name  of  the  onion  is  Allium  cepa  L.  The  French 
nameisognon;  German,  Zwiebel;  Italian,  cipoUa;  Spanish,  ceboUa. 

The  onion  is  a  plant  which  is  valued  for  edible  purposes  throughout  the 
whole  world.  It  is  supposed  to  have  been  indigenous  to  Asia,  but  its  exact 
origin  is  not  known  with  certainty.  Both  the  pulp  and  the  part  of  the  stem 
immediately  attached  thereto  are  edible.  In  fact  in  very  young  plants  the 
■  whole  plant  is  edible.  Its  highly  aromatic  character  and  flavor  rather  than 
its  nutritive  qualities  give  it  its  chief  value.     The  onion  is  eaten  both  raw  and  in 


PEAS.  287 

various  cooked  forms.  Cooking  the  onion,  especially  boiling,  expels  a  large 
part  of  its  most  pungent  character,  so  that  the  cooked  onion  does  not  manifest 
itself  so  unpleasantly  in  the  breath  when  eaten  as  is  the  case  with  the  raw  onion. 
The  onion  is  also  very  commonly  eaten  in  this  country  fried,  especially 
with  beefsteak.  The  variety  of  onions  cultivated  is  legion,  but  they  are 
due  rather  to  different  methods  of  cultivation,  etc.,  than  to  botanical  char- 
acter. 

Composition. — 

Water, 87.55  percent 

Ash, 57       " 

Protein, 1.40       " 

Fiber, 69       " 

Sugar,  starch,  etc., ."  9.53       " 

Fat, 26       " 

The  onion,  it  is  seen,  is  rather  poor  in  protein  but  rich  in  sugar  and  allied 
bodies. 

Parsnips. — The  botanical  name  of  the  parsnip  is  Pastinaca  sativa  L. 
French,  panais;    German,  Pastinake;    Italian,  pastinaca;    Spanish,  chirivia. 

The  parsnip  is  nearly  related  to  the  carrot  in  its  appearance  and  also  its  prop- 
erties. The  root  is  usually  long  and  straight  and  gradually  tapering.  It,  how- 
ever, often  has  other  shapes,  as  is  the  case  with  the  carrot  and  beet. 

Composition. — 

Water, 80.34  percent 

Ash, - 1.03       " 

Protein, 1.35       " 

Fiber,. 53       " 

Sugar,  starch,  etc., 16.09       " 

Fat, 66       " 

The  above  data  show  that  the  parsnip  is  not  much  richer  in  nutrients  than 
most  of  the  roots  grown,  except  in  sugar  and  starch  content.  The  large 
quantity  of  carbohydrates  gives  it  its  chief  food  value.  These  carbohydrates 
are  not  by  any  means  all  sugar  and  starch,  but  include  a  very  considerable  pro- 
portion of  cellulose  which  is  more  or  less  digestible. 

Peas. — The  botanical  name  of  the  pea  plant  is  Pisum  sativum  L.  French 
pois;  German,  Erbse;  Italian,  pisello;  Spanish,  guisante. 

The  pea  is  quite  as  highly  valued  for  table  use  as  the  bean,  and,  perhaps,  is 
almost  as  extensively  cultivated.  The  pea,  however,  is  not  usually  eaten  in  the 
pod.  It  is  probably  indigenous  to  Central  Europe,  but  has  been  so  long  culti- 
vated that  an  exact  history  of  its  original  distribution  is  not  known.  There, 
are  many  different  varieties  of  the  pea,  but  the  one  most  highly  prized  is  a  small 
and  very  sweet  pea.  The  larger  variety  does  not  have  the  palatability  and 
other  highly  prized  edible  qualities  that  distinguish  the  smaller  variety.  The 
pea  is  found  in  the  markets  of  the  United  States  throughout  the  whole  year, 
biiin^  grown  under  cover  in  the  winter  time.     It  becomes  an  abundant  crop 


288  VEGETABLES,   CONDIMENTS,    FRUITS. 

from  early  in  the  spring  until  very  late  in  the  autumn.     Immense  quantities 
of  peas  are  preserved  by  canning,  and  in  this  condition  they  retain  their  edible 
properties  almost  without  impairment  throughout  the  entire  winter.     The  pea 
is  valued  as  a  food  in  many  forms. 
Composition. — 

Starch, 
Water.       Ash.         Protein.    Fiber.      Sugar,  etc.      Fat. 

Percent.     Percent.        Percent.     Percent         Percent.       Percent. 

Green  pea, 79.93  .78  3.87        1.63  13.30  .49 

Dry  pea, 12.62        3. 11  27.04        3.90  51.75  1.58 

The  above  data  show  that  the  pea  is  a  markedly  nitrogenous  food,  especially 
the  dry  pea.     Even  in  the  green  pea  nearly  four  percent  of  its  weight  is  protein. 

A  comparison  of  the  composition  of  the  pea  with  that  of  the  bean  shows  that 
the  pea  is  even  more  nitrogenous  in  character  than  the  bean. 

Potatoes. — One  of  the  most  important  vegetables  as  well  as  food  prod- 
ucts in  general  is  that  class  of  products  to  which  the  name  potato  is  given. 
The  term  strictly  should  apply  only  to  that  class  known  as  white  or  Irish 
potato  {Solanum  tuberosum  L.).  The  potato,  as  indicated  by  the  name,  belongs 
to  a  family  of  plants  which  is  considered  poisonous,  but  in  the  cultivated  var- 
iety the  poisonous  principle  has  been  practically  eliminated.  The  potato 
belongs,  essentially,  to  the  starchy  group  of  foods.  If  we  assume,  which  is 
very  nearly  correct,  that  the  average  content  of  water  in  different  varieties 
of  potatoes  at  the  time  they  are  most  suitable  for  edible  purposes  is  80  per- 
cent, it  is  found  that  at  least  three-fourths  of  the  remaining  solid  dry  matter 
is  starch.  The  potato  contains  a  trace  of  sugar  and  notable  quantities  of 
other  carbohydrates  than  starch  and  sugar,  namely,  fiber.  It  also  contains 
a  very  small  proportion  of  nitrogen  and  mineral  matter. 

The  potato  is  grown  chiefly  in  temperate  climates.  It  flourishes  particu- 
larly well  in  the  northern  part  of  Europe,  in  England,  Scotland,  and  Ireland, 
and  in  the  northern  portion  of  the  United  States.  The  northern  part  of 
Maine,  especially,  is  noted  for  the  production  of  potatoes  of  high  edible  quali- 
ties. It  grows  very  well  also  in  the  southern  part  of  the  United  States.  The 
potato  may  be  produced  from  seed,  but  that  method  of  propagation  has 
long  since  ceased  to  be  practiced  for  agricultural  purposes.  The  potatoes 
of  commerce  are  produced  from  the  eyes  of  the  tubers.  The  best  results 
in  the  growth  of  potatoes  are  secured  in  the  loose  somewhat  sandy  soil  into 
which  the  roots  of  the  plant  can  easily  penetrate  and  which  gives  way  readily 
to  make  place  for  the  growing  tuber.  Hard,  clay  soils  are  unsuited  to  the 
growth  of  this  vegetable.  The  planting  is  accomplished  in  the  early  spring 
after  a  thorough  preparation  of  the  seed  bed  by  plowing  to  the  usual  depth, 
often  subsoiling  and  reducing  the  surface  of  the  soil  to  the  proper  tilth.  The 
cuttings  of  potatoes  or  the  whole  potatoes  are  planted  in  rows  to  a  depth  of 
two  or  three  inches,  where  they  may  sprout  and  even  reach  the  surface  at 


POTATOES.  289 

a  temperature  which  at  times  may  fall  below  the  frost  point  on  the  surface 
of  the  soil.  The  leaf  of  the  potato,  when  it  has  once  appeared  above  the  sur- 
face of  the  soil,  is  very  susceptible  to  the  action  of  frost.  If  killed  at  an  early 
stage  it  may  grow  again  without  replanting.  The  potato  is  a  crop  which 
the  farmer  may  plant  early  in  the  spring.  There  are  other  varieties  which 
are  planted  later,  even  in  the  middle  of  summer,  and  produce  good  results. 
The  planting  season  may  continue  over  a  period  of  two  or  three  months. 
During  the  growth  of  the  crop  by  the  cultivation  of  the  soil  the  surface  is 
kept  in  good  tilth,  the  weeds  and  grass  prevented  from  growing,  and  the  soil 
gradually  drawn  up  around  the  growing  tubers  with  the  hoe  or  plow  in  the 
form  of  ridges.  This  heaping  up  of  the  soil  tends  to  promote  the  develop- 
ment of  the  tubers,  affording  them  a  loose  and  more  abun'dant  bedding  and 
a  greater  supply  of  plant  food. 

The  greatest  enemies  to  which  the  potato  crop  is  obnoxious  rre  found  in 
the  various  forms  of  the  potato  bug  (Doryphora  decemlineaia),  which  feed  upon 
their  leaves.  To  prevent  the  ravages  of  these  insects  it  becomes  necessary 
to  dust  over  the  leaves  of  the  growing  plants  some  powerful  insecticide  which 
will,  destroy  the  life  of  the  insects  feeding  upon  them.  The  active  ingredient 
of  these  insecticides  is  usually  arsenic.  Fortunately  the  growing  tuber  does 
not  absorb,  so  far  as  known,  even  traces  of  arsenic,  or  at  least  not  more  than 
the  merest  trace,  which  may  be  used  for  insecticidal  purposes.  It  is  quite 
impossible  in  most  localities  to  secure  a  crop  of  potatoes  without  such  treat- 
ment. The  alternative  is  a  constant  inspection  of  the  growing  plant  and  the 
removal  and  killing  of  the  bugs  as  they  appear,  but  this  is  only  practicable 
over  very  small  areas  as  its  general  application  would  increase  the  cost  of 
the  product  beyond  the  reach  of  the  average  consumer. 

Yield. — Potatoes  are  produced  in  every  state  and  territory  of  the  United 
States.  The  statistics  for  the  year  ended  December  31,  1909,  show  that  the 
total  area  devoted  to  potatoes  in  the  United  States  is  3,525,000  acres.  The 
largest  area  in  any  one  State  is  found  in  New  York,  namely,  438,000  acres, 
and  the  smallest  area,  aside  from  Arizona,  not  reported,  is  found  in  New 
Mexico,  namely,  1000  acres.  The  yield  of  potatoes  for  the  year  is  given  as 
376,537,000  bushels,  the  average  yield  per  acre  for  the  country  being  107 
bushels.  The  largest  total  yield  was  in  New  York,  the  largest  yield  per  acre 
being  reported  from  Maine,  256  bushels,  while  the  smallest  yields  are  found 
in  some  of  the  southern  States.  The  average  price  per  bushel  for  the  whole 
country  at  the  farm  is  53.3  cents,  and  the  total  farm  value  of  the  crop  $206,545,- 
000.  Generally  potatoes  command  higher  prices  in  some  of  the  southern 
States,  while  the  lower  prices  are  found  in  Maine  and  the  central  west.  The 
weight  of  a  bushel  of  potatoes  is  60  pounds.  As  the  average  amount  of 
fermentable  matter  in  potatoes  grown  in  the  United   States  is  20  percent. 


290  VEGETABLES.    CONDIMENTS,    FRUITS. 

the  total  weight  of  fermentable  matter  in  a  bushel  of  potatoes  is  12  pounds, 
which  would  yield  approximately  6  pounds  or  3.6  quarts  of  alcohol. 

Composition. — Starch  content:  The  quantity  of  starch  in  American  grown 
potatoes  varies  from  15  to  20  percent.  Probably  18  percent  might  be  stated 
as  the  general  average  of  the  best  grades  of  potatoes.  In  this  connection  it 
must  be  remembered  that  at  the  present  time  potatoes  are  grown  in  the  United 
States  chiefly  for  table  use.  Generally,  only  the  imperfect  or  injured  samples 
are  used  for  stock  feeding  or  for  starch  making,  and  this  condition  will  prob- 
ably continue  as  long  as  good  edible  potatoes  bring  a  higher  price  for  table 
use  than  can  be  obtained  by  utiHzing  them  for  starch  or  for  feeding  purposes. 

Under  the  microscope  the  granules  of  potato  starch  have  a  distinctive 
appearance.  They  appear  as  egg-shaped  bodies  on  which,  especially  the 
larger  ones,  various  ring-like  lines  are  seen.  With  a  modified  (polarized) 
light  under  certain  conditions  of  observation  a  black  cross  is  developed  upon 
the  granule.  It  is  not  difficult  for  an  expert  microscopist  to  distinguish 
potato  from  other  forms  of  starch  by  its  appearance,  which  is  well  shown  in 
Figs.  39  and  40.  Many  of  the  granules  are  quite  large,  and  most  of  them 
are  ovoid  in  shape. 

The  quantity  of  protein  in  the  potato  is  quite  low  compared  with  that  of 
cereal  foods;  in  round  numbers  it  may  be  said  to  be  2.5  percent.  The  potato 
contains  very  little  material  which  is  capable  of  fermentation  aside  from 
starch  and  sugars. 

Sugar  content:  Although  the  potato  is  not  sweet  to  the  taste  in  a  fresh  state, 
it  contains  notable  quantities  of  sugar.  This  sugar  is  lost  whenever  the  potato 
is  used  for  starch-making  purposes,  but  is  utilized  when  it  is  used  for  the 
manufacture  of  industrial  alcohol.  The  percentage  of  sugar  of  all  kinds 
in  the  potato  rarely  goes  above  i  percent.  The  average  quantity  is  probably 
not  far  from  0.35  percent,  including  sugar,  reducing  sugar,  and  dextrin, 
all  of  which  are  soluble  in  water.  In  the  treatment  of  potatoes  for  starch 
making  therefore  it  may  be  estimated  that  0.35  percent  of  fermentable 
matter  is  lost  in  the  wash  water. 

One  German  author,  Saare,  claims  to  have  found  much  larger  quantities 
of  sugar  in  potatoes  than  those  just  mentioned.  The  minimum  quantity 
found  by  this  author  is  0.4  percent,  and  the  maximum  3.4  percent,  giving 
a  mean  of  1.9  percent.  Ten  varieties  of  potatoes  used  for  the  manufacture 
of  industrial  alcohol  were  examined  in  the  securing  of  these  data.  It  appears 
that  some  varieties  have  a  greater  tendency  to  produce  sugar  than  others. 
The  German  variety  known  as  "Daber"  contains  the  smallest  quantities 
of  sugar,  while  the  variety  known  as  ''Juno"  contains  the  largest  quantities. 
The  percentages  of  sugar,  as  reported  by  Saare,  however,  are  larger  than  those 
reported  by  other  observers,  and  probably  are  larger  than  are  usually  found. 

Average  composition:  Frazier,  of  the  Cornell  station,  has  collected  analyses 


POTATOES. 


291 


Fig.  39. — Potato  Starch  (X  200).— {Courtesy  Bureau  0/ Chemistry.) 


Fig.  40.— Potato  Starch  Under  Polarized  Light  (X  200). — {Courtesy  Bureau  of  Chemistry.) 


292 


VEGETABLES^   CONDIMENTS,    FRUITS. 


of  a  large  number  of  different  varieties  of  potatoes,  and  finds  them  to  have 

the  following  average  composition: 

Water, 75-oo  percent 

Starch, 19-87       " 

Sugars  and  dextrin, 77       " 

Fat, 08       " 

Cellulose, ^^       " 

Ash, 1. 00       " 

The  following  analyses  show  in  detail  the  composition  of  potatoes  from 
different  locaHties: 

Analysis  of  Maine  potatoes:  The  Bureau  of  Chemistry  a  few  years  ago 
made  an  investigation  in  connection  with  the  experiment  station  in  Maine 
of  the  composition  of  potatoes  grown  in  that  state  used  for  table  purposes 
and  for  starch  making.  Some  of  the  best  varieties  grown  in  different  parts 
of  the  state  were  subjected  to  analysis,  and  the  following  results  show  them 
to  be  of  quite  uniform  composition: 

Analyses  of  Maine  Potatoes.* 


Variety. 


Hebron, 

Do 

White  Elephant, 

Do 

Do 

Do 

Do 

Do 

Do 

Do 

Delaware, 

Do 

Do 

Do 

Carmen, 

Do 

Average, . 


Protein 

Water. 

Starch. 

Fiber. 

1  Nitrogen 
•X6.25). 

Ash. 

Percent. 

Percent. 

Percent. 

Percent. 

Percent. 

79.72 

16.94 

0.90 

2.12 

0.76 

78.13 

18.59 

•72 

2.06 

.78 

76.81 

19.96 

.84 

e.19 

•99 

76.92 

20.38 

.90 

2.31 

•87 

78.74 

15.96 

.64 

2.25 

.92 

75-21 

.  19-31 

.61 

2.12 

.83 

75.88 

18.81 

.56 

2.25 

.96 

77-44 

18.12 

•63 

2.06 

.88 

75-56 

18.14 

•56 

I.81 

1.04 

78-13 

18.62 

.63 

1-75 

.98 

76.02 

19.20 

.61 

2.06 

I.Ol 

76-93 

18.63 

.61 

2.19 

•94 

75-72 

18.63 

•55 

2.31 

.95 

77-64 

16.26 

.61 

2.56 

.91 

76.87 

18.03 

.66 

2.06 

.90 

76-57 

17.07 

•59 

2.38 

•76 

77.02 

18.29 

.66 

2.16 

.91 

Specific 

G  RAVITY. 


1.0604 

1-0795 

1.0867 

1.0742 

1 .0803 

1.1058 

1.0921 

1 .0906 

1129 

088 1 

0852 

0904 

0745 
1120 
0967 
0804 


.0881 


Analysis  of  Vermont  potatoes:  Analyses  made  in  Vermont  and  published 
in  the  report  of  the  Vermont  Experiment  Station  for  1901  show  an  average 
content  of  starch  considerably  less  than  that  above  given,  namely: 

Water, 79-41  percent 

Starch, 14-51  " 

Sugars  and  dextrins, 1 .44  " 

Cellulose, 36  " 

Protein, 2.28 

Ether  extract, 06  " 

Ash, 1.26 

Undetermined, 68  " 

*  Maine  Agr.  Exp.  Sta.,  Bui.  57,  p.  147. 


POTATOES. 


293 


Composition  of  Potatoes  used  in  France  for  Industrial  Purposes. — The  fol- 
lowing is  regarded  in  France  as  an  average  composition  of  the  potato  suitable 
for  industrial  purposes  :f 

Water, r 71.00  percent 

Starch, 18.00 

Sugar,  etc., ' 1.06 

Cellulose, 1.65 

Protein, 2.12 

Fat, II 

Ash, 1 .60 

The  total  fermentable  matter,  as  seen  above,  is  a  little  over  19  percent, 
not  allowing  anything  for  the  cellulose  which  is  fermented.  As  a  portion  of 
the  cellulose  may  also  become  a  source  of  alcohol,  it  is" observed  that  the 
average  percentage  of  fermented  matter  in  the  French  potato  used  for  indus- 
trial purposes  is  not  far  from  20  percent. 

The  following  varieties  show  a  variation  in  starch  content  of  6.8  percent, 

the  minimum  being  15.9  and  the  maximum  22.7  percent: 

Red  starchy, 22.7  percent  of  starch 

Shaw,.., 20.5 

Institute  of  Beauvais, 17.7 

Kernours, 1 7.9 

White  Elephant, 16.0 

British  Red, 16.0 

Giant  Blue, 15.9 

Analysis  of  Potatoes  from  German  Sources. — Average  composition  and 
starch  content:  .The  content  of  starch  in  potatoes  examined  in  the  laboratory 
of  the  Association  of  German  Spirit  Manufacturers  during  the  year  1905 
varied  from  12.1  to  25.1  percent.  Eleven  percent  of  the  total  number  ex- 
amined contained  between  12  and  14  percent  of  starch,  20  percent  between 
14  and  16  percent  of  starch,  13  percent  between  16  and  18  percent  of 
starch,  24  percent  between  18  and  20  percent,  24  percent  also  between 
20  and  22  percent,  and  8  percent  between  22  and  25.1  percent. 

These  data  show  that  56  percent  of  the  total  number  of  samples  examined 
contained  between  18  and  25  percent  of  starch.  It  is  evident,  therefore,  that 
the  general  average  content  of  starch  in  the  potatoes  used  in  the  German  dis- 
tilleries is  not  far  from  18  to  20  percent. 

The  mean  composition  of  potatoes  as  given  by  three  German  authorities, 
namely,  Konig,  Lintner,  and  Wolff,  is  as  follows: 

Average  Analysis  of  Potatoes  by  Three  German  Authorities. 

Konig. 
Constituent.  Percent. 

Water, 75.48 

Protein, i .95 

Fat, 15 

Starch  and  sugar, 20.69 

Crude  cellulose, 75 

Ash, 98 

t  "Encyclopedie  Agricole,"  E.  Saillard. 


Lintner. 

Percent. 

76.0 

2.1 

Wolff. 

Percent. 

75-0 

2.1 

.2 

.2 

19.7 
.8 

20.7 
I.I 

294  VEGETABLES,    CONDIMENTS,    FRUITS. 

The  above  data  show  the  average  content  of  fermentable  matter  in  German 
potatoes,  as  determined  by  three  of  their  leading  authorities,  to  be  about  20 
percent.  The  potatoes  used  for  the  manufacture  of  alcohol  in  Germany 
are  not  of  the  variety  raised  for  edible  purposes.  In  a  large  number  of  ex- 
periment stations  in  Germany  systematic  efforts  have  been  made  for  many 
years  to  grow  a  potato  rich  in  starch  without  respect  to  its  edible  qualities. 
These  potatoes  are  coarser  in  structure  and  less  palatable  than  those  grown 
for  the  table.  The  object  of  the  cultivation  of  this  class  of  potatoes  is  to 
produce  as  much  starch  and  other  fermentable  matters  per  acre  as  possible. 
It  is  evident  that  our  own  experiment  stations  should  undertake  work  of  a 
similar  character  if  the  potato  is  to  be  used  to  any  great  extent  in  the  manu- 
facture of  industrial  alcohol.  There  is  no  doubt  of  the  fact  that  success 
equal  to  that  attained  by  the  German  experimenters  will  attend  any  sys- 
tematic efforts  of  this  kind  in  our  country.  Not  only  will  larger  crops  per  acre 
of  potatoes  be  grown,  but  these  potatoes  will  contain  larger  quantities  of  starch 
and  other  fermentable  substances.  If  the  crop  of  potatoes  is  to  remain  at 
the  present  average,  namely,  less  than  100  bushels  per  acre,  profitable  returns 
for  alcohol  making  can  not  be  expected,  either  by  the  farmer  or  by  the  manu- 
facturer. A  much  larger  quantity  must  be  grown  and,  if  possible,  at  less 
expense,  in  order  that  encouraging  profits  may  be  realized. 

Maercker,  one  of  the  most  celebrated  qf  German  authors,  states  that  in 
certain  instances  the  potato  in  Germany  reaches  a  very  high  starch  content. 
Some  varieties,  in  exceptional  instances,  have  shown  as  high  as  29.4  percent, 
28.1  percent,  and  27.3  percent,  respectively.  In  warm,  dry  seasons  potatoes 
often  are  found  containing  from  25  to  27  percent  of  starch.  According  to 
Maercker,  the  sugar  content,  including  all  forms  of  sugar,  varies  greatly.  Per- 
fectly ripe  potatoes  contain  generally  no  sugar  or  only  a  fractional  percentage. 
When  potatoes  are  stored  under  unfavorable  conditions,  large  quantities  of 
sugar  may  be  developed,  amounting  to  as  high  as  5  percent  altogether.  In 
general,  it  may  be  stated  that  the  content  of  sugar  of  all  kinds  will  vary  from 
0.4  percent  to  3.4  percent,  according  to  conditions. 

While  potatoes  grown  thus  to  increase  the  content  of  starch  are  not  generally 
used  as  food,  yet  they  are  nutritious  but  not  as  palatable  as  those  grown  es- 
pecially for  table  purposes. 

Ash  analyses:  The  mineral  matters  which  the  potato  extracts  from  the 
soil  or  from  the  fertilizers  which  are  added  thereto  consist  chiefly  of  phosphate 
of  potash.  The  mean  average  composition  of  the  ash  of  the  potato  is  shown 
in  the  following  table:* 

Potash  (KgO), 60.37  percent 

SodaCNagO), 2.62       " 

Lime  (CaO), 2.57       " 

*  Maercker,  "  Handbuch  der  Spiritusfabrikation,"  p.  99. 


POTATOES. 


295 


Magnesia  (MgO) 4.69  percent 

Iron  oxid  (FegOg), 1.18 

Phosphoric  acid  (PgOg), i7-33 

Sulfuric  acid  (SO3), 6.49 

Sihcic  acid  (SiOg), 2.13 

Chlorin, 3. 1 1 

This  analysis  was  made  upon  the  so-called  pure  ash,  deprived  of  its  unburned 
carbon,  and  freed  of  sand  and  carbon  dioxid. 

Effect  of  fertilization  on  the  yield  and  starch  content:  Experience  in  Germany 
has  shown  not  only  that  liberal  fertilization  with  nitrogen  is  favorable  to  the 
production  of  a  large  crop  of  potatoes,  but  also  that  this  is  accompHshed  with- 
out decreasing  the  percentage  of  starch  therein.  The  following  table  shows 
the  increase  in  yield,  percentage  of  starch,  and  amount  of  -starch  obtained  by 
nitrogen  fertilization,  the  results  being  expressed  in  hectares*  and  kilograms: 

Effect  of  Nitrogen  Fertilization  on  Yield  and  Starch  Content  of  Potatoes. 


Variety  of  Potato. 


Seed, 

Champion, 

Imperator, 

Magnum  Bonum, 

Aurelie, 

Reichskanzler, 

Juno, 

Amaranth, 

Charlotte, 

G  elbfleischige  Z wiebel , . 

Dabersche, 

Weissfleischige  Z wiebel, 

Schneerose, 

Nassengrunder, 

Gelbe  Rose, 

Hortensie, 

Richter's  Lange  Weisse, 

Rosalie, 

Achilles, 

Alcohol, 

Average, 


Without  Nitrogen. 


Starch. 


Percent. 
18.01 

21.33 
19.00 
18.41 
19.47 
22.78 

19-33 
22.47 
19.42 
19.97 
21.82 
20.51 
18.84 
19.08 
21.09 
17.72 

19-37 
18.27 
21.02 
16.47 


19.77 


Yield  of         Yield  of 

tubers  per      starch  per 

hectare.  hectare. 


With  Nitrogen. 


Kilograms. 
20,900 
19,510 
22,560 
19,170 
18,950 
14,300 

17,590 

.  16,180 

17,041 

19,888 

17,377 
16,877 

19,653 
19,701 
16,847 
22,416 
22,134 
19,866 
18,886 
16,270 


:8,8o6 


Kilograms. 
3,780 
4,152 
4,235 
3,522 
3,653 
3,236 
3,422 

3,619 
3,305 
3,946 
3,778 
3,442 
3,724 
3,725 

3,547 
3,907 
4,267 

3,557 
3,962 

2,673 


3,673 


Starch. 


Percent. 
18.17 
21.48 
18.70 
18.07 

19-75 
22.61 
19.92 
22.84 
19.67 
19.91 
21.80 
20.58 
18.66 
22.12 
20.60 

17-45 
19.19 
18.25 
20.93 
16.31 


19.85 


Yield  of 

tubers  per 

hectare. 


Kilograms. 
24,870 
24,470 
26,830 
22,510 
23,550 
17,250 
20,900 
18,310 
20,774 
21,772 
20,313 
19,501 
22,343 
21,889 
20,177 
26,381 
24,490 
22,186 
20,913 
20,339 


21,998 


Yield  of 
starch  per 
hectare. 


Kilograms. 

4,507 
5,233 
5,007 
4,057 
4,609 

3,875 
4,199 
4,188 
4,081 
4,323 
4,399 
3,936 
4,186 

4,813 
4,129 
4,532 
4,664 
4,003 
4,376 
3,327 


4,332 


It  is  evident  from  the  data  given  in  the  table  that  the  liberal  application 
of  nitrogenous  fertilizers  increases  the  yield  per  acre  of  tubers  and  of  starch 
to  a  very  marked  extent,  although  the  average  percentage  of  starch  present  is 
increased  very  little.  Converting  the  average  data  given  in  the  foregoing 
table  into  their  equivalents  in  pounds  per  acre,  we  have  the  following 
*  I  hectare  =  2.471  acres,     i  kilogram  =  2.205  pounds. 


296  VEGETABLES,  CONDIMENTS,  FRUITS. 

results:  Without  nitrogen — yield  of  tubers,  16,781  pounds  per  acre;  yield 
of  starch,  3,277  pounds  per  acre.  With  nitrogen^yield  of  tubers,  19,629 
pounds  per  acre;    yield  of  starch,  3,856  pounds  per  acre. 

The  following  varieties  of  potatoes  are  considered  in  Germany  the  best  for 
the  manufacture  of  alcohol :  Wohltman,  Silesia,  Agricultural  Union,  Athe- 
nena,  Prince  Bismarck,  Richter's  Imperator,  and  Maercker.  A  recent  con- 
sular report  on  the  potato  as  a  source  of  alcohol  in  Germany  shows  the  following 
yields  per  acre  and  percentages  of  starch: 

Yield  and  Starch  Content  of  Potatoes  Grown  in  Germany  for  Alcohol 

Production. 

Varieties.  ^Acre''.''^  Starch. 

Kilograms.  Percent. 

Professor  Wohltman, 3,420  16.3 

Iduna, 2,845  16.4 

Topaz, 3,260  17.3 

Sas, 3,990  18.3 

Leo, 4,120  17.0 

Richter's  Imperator, 4,760  15.4 

Silesia, 3,675  16.3 

Professor  Maercker, 4,280  14.5 

Use  of  the  Potato. — In  addition  to  its  value  as  human  food  the  potato  has 
other  economical  relations.  It  is  used  in  many  countries  almost  exclusively 
in  the  production  of  starch  for  the  laundry  and  for  general  domestic  uses. 

The  potato  is  not  very  extensively  used  for  starch  production  in  the  United 
States  except  in  the  state  of  Maine  and  perhaps  in  one  or  two  other  localities. 
The  starch  of  the  potato  has  a  particular  value  for  use  in  the  textile  industry 
in  the  sizing  of  cloth.  Practically  all  of  the  potato  starch  which  is  produced 
in  the  United  States  is  devoted  to  that  purpose,  and  for  this  reason  it  brings 
a  higher  price  than  the  ordinary  starch  made  of  Indian  corn. 

Technique  oj  the  Production  of  Starch  from  Potatoes. — There  is  scarcely 
any  manufacturing  process  which  is  more  simple  in  its  method  than  the 
manufacture  of  starch  from  potatoes.  The  process  consists  simply  in  the 
rasping  or  grinding  of  the  potato  to  a  fine  pulp,  which  is  afterward  placed 
upon  sieves  in  a  thin  layer  and  sprinkled  with  water  which  detaches  the 
starch  granules  from  the  pulp  matter,  carries  them  through  the  sieve,  and  thus 
separates  them  from  the  fibrous  portion. 

It  will  be  interesting  to  the  general  reader,  on  account  of  the  importance 
of  this  product,  to  give  a  brief  description  of  the  method  employed  and  the 
results  obtained. 

Potato  Starch. — In  this  country  potato  starch  is  manufactured  chiefly  in 
Maine,  Wisconsin,  and  Colorado.  The  factories  are  of  a  very  primitive  type, 
the  machinery  consisting  of  a  rasper  constructed  usually  by  wrapping  a 
wooden  cylinder  with  sheet-iron  punctured  so  that  the  ragged  edges  of  the  hole 
are  on  the  exterior  surface  as  shown  in  Fig.  41.     Water  is  added  at  the  time  of 


POTATOES. 


297 


rasping,  and  the  starch  pulp  goes  onto  gauze  shaking  tables  where  the  starch 
grains  are  washed  through  the  sieve,  as  indicated  in  Figs.  42  and  43.     The 
separated  starch  and  water  go  into  settling .  tanks.     Where  the  starch  has 
settled  into  a  firm  mass  it  is  broken  up  and  sent  to  the  drymg  kiln.     Potato 
starch  is  highly  prized  as  a 
sizing  in  the  textile  industry. 
Use  of  the  Potato  in  the 
Maniijacture  of  Spirits. — A 
much  more  important  tech- 
nical use   of  the   potato  is 
in   the  manufacture  of  dis- 
tilled spirits.  Distilled  spirits 
made  from   the   potato  are 
not  generally  used   for  pot- 
able purposes   but  are  de- 
voted to  industrial  uses.     In  the  United  States,  very  little  if  any  distilled 
spirits  are  made  from  the  potato.     In  Europe,  however,  especially  in  Ger- 
many, the  industry  is  one  of  great  magnitude.     Practically  all  of  the  indus- 
trial  spirits  used  in    Germany  and  in    many  parts  of   Europe  are  made 
from  the  potato.     The  process  is  a  simple  one.     The  pulp  of  the  potato,  or 


Fig.  41.- 


■Rasping  Cylinder  for  Making  Starch.— (Cowr- 
iesy  Department  of  Agriculture.) 


Fig.  42. 


-Shaking  Table  for  Separating  the  Starch  from  the  Pulped  Y 01  kio— {Courtesy 
Department  of  Agriculture.) 


starch,  separated  therefrom  is  subjected  to  the  action  of  malt  or  other  diastatic 
action  for  the  purpose  of  converting  the  starch  into  sugar.  In  some  cases 
this  conversion  takes  place  by  more  strictly  chemical  means,  namely,  by 
heating  the  pulpy  matter  or  the  starch  separated  therefrom  in  a  proper 
state  of  dilution,  in  contact  with  an  acid  at  a  high  temperature  and  pressure. 


298 


VEGETABLES,    CONDIMENTS,    FRUITS. 


Hydrochloric  acid  or  sulfuric  acid  is  usually  employed  for  this  purpose. 
The  action  of  the  acid  converts  the  starch  into  fermentable  sugar,  namely, 
dextrose,  a  form  of  sugar  differing  in  its  quality  and  character  from  that  pro- 
duced by  malt  known  as  maltose.  Both  sugars,  however,  are  fermentable 
to  the  same  degree  and  produce,  for  equal  quantities  of  sugar,  the  same  quan- 
tity of  alcohol.  When  the  starch  is  converted  into  sugar  by  one  or  the  other 
of  these  methods  it  is  subjected  to  fermentation  by  an  appropriate  quantity 
of  yeast  which  is  of  the  same  family  as  that  used  in  the  alcoholic  fermenta- 
tion of  other  saccharine  products. 

Special  characters  of  yeast,  however,  are  reserv^ed  for  special  purposes, 

since  the  variety  of  yeast 
determines  to  a  certain  ex- 
tent the  character  of  the 
secondary  products  which 
are  formed  during  fermen- 
tation and  thus  determine 
the  character,  flavor,  and 
aroma  of  the  finished  prod- 
uct. After  the  fermenta- 
tion has  been  completed  the 
residue  is  technically  known 
as  beer,  and  is  subjected  to 
distillation  for  the  separa- 
tion of  the  spirit. 

A  description  of  the  proc- 
ess of  distillation  will  be 
found  in  the  second  volume 
of  this  manual  and  is  there- 
fore omitted  here. 

Radish. — The  botanical 
name  of  the  radish  is  Ra- 
phanus  sativus  L.  The 
French  name  is  radis;  Ger- 
man, Radies;    Italian,  rava- 


FlG. 


t 


-The  Potato  Rasping  Cylinder  Arranged  for 
ORK. — {Courtesy  Department  of  Agriculture.) 


nello;  Spanish,  rabanito. 
The  radish  is  a  vegetable  which  is  found  throughout  the  whole  year  in  all  the 
principal  markets  of  the  United  States,  being  grown  under  cover  during  the 
cold  weather.  It  is  ready  for  market  within  a  short  time  after  sowing,  so  that 
crop  after  crop  can  be  grown  during  the  year  on  the  same  soil.  It  is  most 
highly  prized  when  it  is  young,  as  it  tends  to  acquire  a  pungent  and  bitter  taste 
as  it  approaches  maturity.  The  two  principal  varieties  grown,  as  respects  the 
roots,  is  the  one  having  a  long,  tapering  root,  and  the  other  a  short,  spherical 


SWEET    POTATO.  299 

bulb.     The  latter  are  more  prized  for  eating  purposes.     There  are  many  va- 
rieties grown. 

Composition  oj  Edible  Portion. — 

Water, 91.8  percent 

Protein, 1.3       " 

Fat, 0.1       " 

Sugar,  and  other  carbohydrates, 5.8       " 

Ash, 0.7       " 

Rhubarb. — The  botanical  name  for  rhubarb  is  Rheum  L.  The  French 
name  is  rhubarbe;  German,  Rhabarber;  Italian,  rabarbaro;  Spanish, 
ruibarbo. 

Rhubarb  is  a  vegetable  which  is  widely  distributed  in  the  United  States  and 
grows  generally  very  early  in  the  spring.  It  is  a  highly  acid  plant,  and  is  used 
chiefly  as  a  sauce  and  for  making  pies.  It  requires  a  very  large  addition  of 
sugar  to  make  it  palatable.  It  has  medicinal  properties  which  give  it  addi- 
tional value.  There  are  many  varieties  grown.  It  is  a  plant  that  is  ready  for 
use  very  early  in  the  spring,  being  available  in  the  farmer's  garden  almost  be- 
fore any  other  vegetable,  and  this  makes  it  of  still  greater  value. 

Composition  of  the  Edible  Stem. — 

Water, 92.67  percent 

Ash, 94 

Protein, 83 

Fiber, i.ii 

Sugar,  starch,  etc., 3.26 

Fat, 1. 19 

The  above  data  show  that  the  rhubarb  is  practically  valueless  as  food  and  is 
chiefly  condimental.  In  regard  to  its  nutrients  the  fat  is  in  a  larger  proportion 
than  in  that  of  almost  any  other  succulent  vegetable. 

Squash. — Another  variety  of  the  gourd  family  which  is  highly  prized  as  a 
food  product  is  the  squash.  It  is  used  in  the  same  manner  as  the  pumpkin,  and 
is  highly  valued  both  as  a  food  for  man  and  domesticated  animals. 

Cofnposition  of  the  Flesh  oj  the  Squash. — 

Water, 88.09  percent 

Ash, 1.72 

Protein, 92 

Fiber, 1.04 

Sugar,  starch,  etc., 8.05 

Fat, 18 

The  above  data  show  that  the  squash  is  a  much  more  nutritive  substance 
than  the  pumpkin.  In  other  respects  it  is  little  different  in  its  composition, 
being  only  a  dryer  form  of  pumpkin. 

Sweet  Potato. — The  vegetable  known  as  sweet  potato  is  known  botani- 
cally  as  Convolvulus  batatas  L. 

From  the  name  it  is  seen  that  the  sweet  potato  does  not  belong  to  the  same 
botanical  family  as  the  potato  itself.     By  reason,  however,  of  its  similar 


300 

condition  of  growth  and,  to  a  certain  extent,  its  chemical  composition  and  uses, 
the  term  potato  has,  in  this  country  at  least,  become  to  be  universally  applied 
to  both,  although  the  prefix  "sweet"  is  quite  commonly  used  with  the  sweet 
potato,  whereas  if  any  prefix  is  used  with  the  potato,  properly  so-called,  it  is 
the  word  "white"  or  "Irish."  The  sweet  potato  is  grown  extensively  in  the 
United  States  and  in  other  respects,  agriculturally,  may  be  regarded  as  com- 
plemental  to  the  potato. 

While  the  potato  grows  best  in  the  northern  parts  of  the  country  and  in 
mild  climates,  the  sweet  potato  flourishes  in  the  greatest  abundance  in  the 
southern  and  warmer  portions.  In  respect  to  the  character  of  the  soil  the 
two  vegetables  are  quite  similar,  both  doing  best  in  a  sandy  or  loose  soil, 
provided  it  is  sufficiently  supplied  with  plant  food  for  the  use  of  the  growing 
plant.  The  sweet  potato  is  a  thickened  root,  and  is  propagated  almost  exclu- 
sively by  means  of  shoots  called  "slips." 

Planting  and  Cultivation. — There  is  a  very  distinct  difference  between  the 
planting  of  the  sweet  potato  and  that  of  the  potato.  The  former  are  rarely 
planted  in  the  field  where  the  crop  is  to  mature.  It  is  quite  a  universal  cus- 
tom to  plant  the  sweet  potato  in  beds  where  the  young  growth  can  be  forced 
both  by  means  of  artificial  heat  and  by  a  generous  mulch  of  highly  nutritious 
soil.  The  plants  can  then  be  set  very  early  in  the  spring  and  by  the  time  they 
are  ready  to  be  transplanted  to  the  field  have  acquired  a  considerable  size. 
When  ready  for  transplanting  the  seed  bed  is  prepared  with  the  same 
care  as  that  required  for  the  potato.  The  ridging  of  the  rows,  which  in  the 
case  of  potatoes  takes  place  during  cultivation,  is  accomplished  in  the  case 
of  sweet  potatoes  before  planting.  If  the  soil  is  moist  and  the  temperature 
not  too  high  the  young  plants  are  removed  from  the  seed  bed  and  set  on 
top  of  the  apexes  in  the  formed  rows.  The  cultivation  of  the  field  during 
the  growth  of  the  crop  is  sufficient  to  keep  the  surface  in  good  tilth  and 
prevent  the  growth  of  weeds,  grass,  etc.  Care  must  be  exercised  in  the  cul- 
tivation not  to  draw  the  earth  away  from  the  ridges  which  have  been  formed, 
but  to  increase  their  size  by  drawing  the  earth  more  and  more  toward  the 
apex  of  the  ridge.  The  cultivation  is  continued  until  the  growing  vines  prac- 
tically cover  the  surface  of  the  soil  and  thus  form  a  natural  mulch,  which  not 
only  conserves  the  moisture  and  tilth  of  the  soil  but  also  prevents  the  growth 
of  weeds  and  grass.  The  sweet  potato,  in  respect  of  its  flavor,  is  particularly 
sensitive  to  the  influence  of  frost,  also  the  leaves  are  niore  sensitive  to  frost 
than  those  of  the  potato.  If  a  heavy  frost  is  experienced  before  the  tubers 
are  harvested  it  is  apt  to  impart  an  unpleasant  taste  to  the  potato  and 
injure  its  edible  qualities.  For  this  reason,  if  it  is  not  possible  to  harvest 
the  potato  before  the  advent  of  frost,  it  is  advisable  to  cut  the  vines  at  the  point 
where  they  emerge  from  the  soil.  When  this  has  been  done  the  injurious 
effects  of  the  frost,  above  mentioned,  are  not  experienced.     In  the  southern 


SWEET    POTATO.  30I 

portion  of  the  country  the  sweet  potato  is  often  allowed  to  remain  in  the  soil 
during  the  greater  part  of  the  winter,  and,  if  the  vines  are  removed,  it  keeps 
in  excellent  condition. 

Yield  and  Composition  of  the  Sweet  Potato. — As  has  already  been  mentioned, 
there  is  a  general  resemblance,  in  so  far  as  chemical  and  nutritive  properties 
are  concerned,  between  the  sweet  potato  and  the  potato.  The  sweet  potato 
is  usually  colored  a  yellowish  tint,  due  to  the  distribution  of  more  or  less 
xanthophyll  throughout  its  substance.  The  sweet  potato  also  contains  not- 
able quantities  of  cane  sugar,  to  which  its  name  is  due.  •  It,  however,  contains 
large  quantities  of  starch  and  fiber  and  small  quantities  of  protein,  resem- 
bling in  this  general  manner  the  potato  itself.  The  sweet  potato  has  not 
been  used  in  the  United  States  for  the  making  of  alcohol.  In  the  Azores 
great  quantities  of  sweet  potatoes  are  grown  for  this  purpose,  and  make  an 
alcohol  of  fine  quality,  which  is  used  to  a  large  extent  in  fortifying  port  wines. 
There  are  large  areas  in  the  United  States,  especially  in  the  Southern  States, 
where  the  sweet  potato  can  be  grown  in  great  abundance.  The  experiments 
at  the  South  Carolina  station  show  that  as  high  as  ii,ooo  pounds  of  sweet 
potatoes  can  be  grown  per  acre.  The  percentage  of  starch  is  markedly  greater 
than  in  the  white  or  Irish  potato.  In  all  cases  over  20  percent  of  starch  was 
obtained  in  the  South  Carolina  sweet  potatoes,  and  in  one  instance  over  24 
percent.     As  high  as  2,600  pounds  of  starch  were  produced  per  acre. 

In  addition  to  starch,  the  sweet  potato  contains  notable  quantities  of  sugar, 
sometimes  as  high  as  six  percent  being  present,  so  that  the  total  fermentable 
matter  in  the  sweet  potato  may  be  reckoned  at  the  minimum  at  25  percent. 
A  bushel  of  sweet  potatoes  weighs  55  pounds,  and  one-quarter  of  this  is 
fermentable  matter,  or  nearly  14  pounds.  This  would  yield,  approximately, 
7  pounds,  or  a  little  over  one  gallon  of  95  percent  alcohol.  It  may  be  fairly 
stated,  therefore,  in  a  general  way,  that  a  bushel  of  sweet  potatoes  will  yield 
one  gallon  of  industrial  alcohol.  The  average  yield  of  sweet  potatoes,  of 
course,  is  very  much  less  than  that  given  in  the  South  Carolina  reports, 
where  heavy  fertilization  was  practised.  On  plots  to  which  no  fertilizer  was 
added  the  yield  was  about  8,000  pounds  of  sweet  potatoes  per  acre,  yield- 
ing in  round  numbers  1,900  pounds  of  starch.  The  quantity  of  sugar  in  the 
8,000  pounds  is  about  350  pounds,  which,  added  to  the  starch,  makes  2,250 
pounds  of  fermentable  matter  per  acre.  This  will  yield  1,125  pounds  of  in- 
dustrial alcohol  of  95  percent  strength,  or  approximately  160  gallons  per 
acre. 

The  yield  of  sweet  potatoes  in  the  above  computation  must  be  regarded 
as  exceptionally  high.  A  safer  calculation  will  be  based  upon  the  yield  of 
100  bushels  of  sweet  potatoes  per  acre,  a  little  above  the  average  of  the  yield  of 
the  potato,  or  a  total  of  5,500  pounds  per  acre.  One-quarter  of  this  amount 
is  fermentable  matter — about  1,400  pounds — which  would  yield,  approxi- 


502 


VEGETABLES,    CONDIMENTS,    FRUITS. 


mately,  700  pounds  of  95  percent  alcohol,  or  100  gallons  of  95  percent  alcohol 
per  acre.  In  addition  to  the  sugar  in  the  form  of  sucrose,  or  common  sugar, 
which  the  sweet  potato  contains,  there  is  also  an  appreciable  amount  of  non- 
crystallizable  sugars.  The  total  sugars  in  the  sweet  potato  have  not  been 
overstated  in  the  above  estimate.  In  fact,  the  contrary,  rather,  is  true,  since 
the  two  sugars  together  probably  average  about  six  percent  of  the  weight  of 
the  potato.  If  the  average  quantity  of  starch  in  the  sweet  potato  is  20  per- 
cent, which  is  rather  a  low  estimate,  the  total  fermentable  matter  in  the  sweet 
potato  is  26  percent  instead  of  25  percent,  as  estimated  above. 


Changes  in  Composition  or  the  Sweet  Potato  of  Different  Varieties  on  Storing.^ 
First  Lot  (November  28). 


Name  of  Variety. 


Georgia  Buck  . 
Bunch  Yam  .  . 
Do  ...  . 
Horton  Yam  . 
Georgia  Buck  . 
Vineless  Yam  . 
Hanover  Yam 
Georgia  Yam  . 

Average 


Per- 
cent. 
75-35 
7^-37 
67.99 
70.29 
71-56 
70.03 
76.16 
70.01 

71.72 


Original. 


Per- 
cent. 

13-13 
15.12 
19-58 
15.06 
I4-3S 
16.HS 
13.61 
1S.S7 


15.82 


Per- 
cent. 
0.77 
1.09 
.56 
1.05 
•73 
-54 
1. 10 
1. 00 


.86 


Per- 
cent. 
4-31 
4-45 
4-49 
6.23 
6.61 
5.01 
4.22 
4.08 


4-93 


Air-dry. 


Per- 
cent. 
6.79 
6.67 
7.24 
6.24 
6.88 
7.90 
7-37 
7-57 


Per- 
cent. 
49-65 
51.06 
56.70 
47-5^ 
46.98 
5178 
52.89 
58.17 


51.84 


Per- 
cent. 
2.93 
3-67 
1.61 

3-31 
2.40 
1.67 
4.29 
3-07 


Per- 
cent. 
16.31 
15.04 
13.02 
19.67 
21.63 
15.40 
16.40 
12.59 


2.87 


16.26 


Water-free, 


Per- 
cent. 
53-27 
54-71 
61.18 
50.68 
50.45 
56.22 
57-10 
62.93 


55.82 


Per- 
cent. 
3-14 
3-93 
1-74 
3-53 
2.58 
1.81 
4-63 
3-32 


3-09 


Per- 
cent. 
17.50 
16.11 
14.04 
20.98 

13-23 
16.72 
17.70 
13.62 


16.16 


Second  Lot  (January  7). 


Name  of  Variety. 


Original. 


Air-dry. 


Water-free. 


Georgia  Buck  . 
Bunch  Yam  .  . 
Do  ...  . 
Horton  Yam  . 
Georgia  Buck  . 
Vineless  Yam  . 
Hanover  Yam  . 
Georgia  Yam  . 

Average 


Per- 
cent. 
69-74 
67-31 
67.29 

71-39 
67.63 

67-33 
70.13 
71.78 


Per- 
cent. 
12.72 
13-66 
13.83 
9-57 
14-43 
12.03 
14.13 
II. 21 


Per- 
cent. 

1-75 
2.02 
2.40 
2.57 
2.12 
2.90 
1.66 
2.26 


Per- 
cent. 
9-25 
9.90 
9-43 
9.69 
7-85 
10.09 
6.58 
8.10 


Per- 
cent. 
8.80 

9-49 
10.00 
7.18 
8.46 
7.90 
9-29 
8.62 


Per- 
cent. 
38.'S4 
37.83 
38.04 
31.05 
40.80 
33-90 
42.90 
36-30 


Per- 
cent. 
5-27 
5-60 
6.61 

8-35 
6.00 
8.19 
5-05 
7-31 


Per- 
cent. 
27.87 
27.40 
25.94 
31-43 
22.21 
28.44 
19.99 
26.24 


Per- 
cent. 
42.04 
41.80 
42.27 
33.45 
44-57 
36.81 

47-29 
39-72 


Per- 
cent. 


Per- 
cent. 
30.56 
30.27 
28.82 
33.86 
24.26 
30.88 
22.04 
28.72 


69.08  \  12.70 


2.21 


8.86 


8.72 


37-40 


6-55 


26.19 


40.99 


7.17 


28.68 


E^ect  oj  Storage  on  Composition. — Experiments  have  shown  that  the  quan- 
tity of  starch  diminishes  and  the  quantity  of  sugar  increases   on   storing. 
*  South  Carolina  Agr.  Exp.  Sta.,  Bui.  63,  p.  25. 


SWEET    POTATO. 


303 


Further,  it  may  be  stated  that  in  the  varieties  of  sweet  potatoes  which  are 
most  esteemed  for  table  use  there  is  less  starch  and  perhaps  more  sugar  than 
are  stated  in  the  above  examples.  In  one  instance  of  an  analysis  made  on 
the  7th  of  January  of  stored  potatoes,  the  starch  had  fallen  to  a  little  less  than 
13  percent,  while  the  sugars  had  increased  to  over  11  percent  in  less  than  six 
weeks.  The  total  quantity  of  fermentable  matter,  however,  as  will  be  seen, 
had  not  been  greatly  changed,  although  there  was  probably  a  slight  loss.  In 
the  southern  agricultural  work  referred  to,  the  yam  and  the  sweet  potato  are 
considered  together.  The  composition  and  the  changes  on  keeping  are  well 
illustrated  by  the  preceding  data. 

The  above  data  apparently  are  sufficient  to  show  the  high  value  which 
attaches  to  the  sweet  potato  and  the  yam,  not  only  as  edibles,  but  especially 
for  the  purpose  of  making  alcohol.  It  is  also  seen  that  the  sweet  potato 
would  not  be  a  valuable  material  for  making  starch  alone,  because  in 
starch  making  the  sugar  which  the  sweet  potato  contains  is  lost,  whereas  in 
the  manufacture  of  alcohol  the  sugar  and  the  starch,  as  well  as  any  fer- 
mentable celluloses  or  gums  in  the  potato,  are  utilized.  The  following 
table  shows  the  extent  to  which  this  crop  is  grown  in  the  United  States: 


Acreage  and  Production  of  Sweet  Potatoes  (Including  Yams)  in  the  United 
States  by  States,  in  1899,  as  Reported  by  the  Twelfth  Census. 


States. 


United  States 


Alabama 

Arizona 

Arkansas 

California  .   . 

Colorado 

Connecticut 

Delaware 

District  of  Columbia 

Florida 

Georgia 

Hawaii 

Idaho  

Illinois 

Indiana 

Indian  Territory    .   . 

Iowa 

Kansas 

Kentucky 

Louisiana 

Maryland 

Massachusetts    .   .   . 

Michigan 

Minnesota 


Acres. 

Bushels. 

537,447 

42,526,696 

50,865 

3,457',386 

51 

4,299 

13,271 

998,767 

1,607 

239,029 

20 

2,291 

2 

130 

2,265 

222,165 

5 

19,936 

22,791 

2,049,784 

70,620 

5,087,674 

135 

9,284 

6 

413 

7,534 

511,695 

3,989 

239,487 

1,064 

80,364 

2,688 

24,622 

4,570 

74,810 

14.178 

925,786 

27,372 

1,865,482 

6,469 

677,848 

23 

3,242 

71 

4 

136 

States. 


Mississippi     .   . 
Missouri      .    . 
Nebraska    .   .    . 
Nevada    .... 
New  Hampshire 
New  Jersey    .    . 
New  Mexico 
New  York  . 
North  Carolina 
North  Dakota  . 
Ohio.   .       ... 
Oklahoma  .    .   . 

Tegon     .    . 

innsylvania     . 

lode  Island     . 

iuth  Carolina 
South  Dakota  . 
Tennessee  .    .   . 

Texas 

Utah 

Vermont  .... 
Virginia  .... 
Washington  .  . 
West  Virginia  . 
Wisconsin  .    .    . 


Acres. 


Bushels. 


38,169 

2,817,386 

9,844 

743,377 

551 

48,224 

5 

923 

I 

6 

20,588 

2,418,641 

47 

6,180 

73 

8,681 

68.730 

5,781,587 

3,796 

249,767 

2,512 

195,799 

27 

2,825 

3,443 

234,724 

I 

102 

48,831 

3,369,957 

3 

105 

23,374 

1,571,575 

43,561 

3,299,135 

40 

4,958 

4 

306 

40,681 

4,470,602 

52 

4,672 

3,393 

202,424 

4 

86 

Average  Composition  of  Sweet  Potatoes. — The  mean  composition  of  varieties 
of  sweet  potatoes  as  determined  by  the  California  and  Texas  Experiment 
stations  is  shown  in  the  following  data: 


304  VEGETABLES,  CONDIMENTS,  FRUITS. 

California  Station  Texas  Station 

(17  varieties).  (21  varieties). 

Water, 69.00  percent  70.27  percent 

Ash, 1. 15       "  1. 14       " 

Protein, 2.08       "  2.41        " 

Fat,.. 1. 00       "  O.Q9       " 

Total  sugars, 5.55       "  6.81        " 

Starch,  etc., 24.23       "  24.00       " 

Crude  fiber,.. " 2.62       "  1.26       " 

Included  in  the  starch  of  the  above  data  are  the  substances  soluble  in  boil- 
ing dilute  acid  and  alkali. 

Turnip. — The  botanical  name  of  the  turnip  is  Brassica  napus  L.  The 
French  name  is  navet;  German,  Herbst-RUbe;  Italian,  navone;  Spanish, 
nabo. 

The  turnip  is  grown  very  largely  in  the  United  States  both  as  a  vegetable  and 
as  a  field  crop  for  feeding  purposes.  The  turnip  used  as  a  vegetable  usually 
has  a  spherical  bulb.  It  is  a  crop  that  grows  late  in  the  autumn.  In  the  cen- 
tral part  of  the  country  it  is  usually  sown  as  a  field  crop  after  the  harvesting  of 
some  of  the  early  crops  as,  for  instance,  early  potatoes,  and  is  ready  for  har- 
vest late  in  the  autumn,  just  before  freezing  weather  begins.  Grown  as  a 
vegetable,  however,  it  is  grown  early  as  well  as  late.  It  has  a  spicy,  pun- 
gent taste  which  makes  it  extremely  palatable.  It  is  sometimes  eaten  raw, 
but  generally  stewed. 

Composition. — 

Water, 90.46  percent 

Ash, : 80 

Protein, 1.14 

Fiber, 1.15 

Sugar,  starch,  etc., 6.27 

Fat, 18 

The  above  data  show  that  the  turnip  is  not  a  very  nutritious  vegetable  and 
that  its  chief  nutrients  are  carbohydrates. 

Yam. — Another  variety  of  edible  root  or  substance  belonging  to  the  sweet 
potato  class  is  known  as  the  yam.  It  is  also,  like  the  sweet  potato,  particu- 
larly suited  to  growing  in  the  subtropical  or  warm  climates.  The  name 
yam  properly  belongs  to  a  tropical  root  similar  in  appearance  to  the  sweet 
potato  but  produced  by  various  species  of  vines  of  the  genus  Dioscorea,  not 
belonging  even  to  the  same  family  as  the  sweet  potato.  In  the  southern 
United  States,  however,  the  name  yam  is  applied  to  certain  varieties  of  the 
sweet  potato  with  large  coarse  stems.  It  is  cultivated  extensively  in  the 
southern  part  of  the  United  States,  and  is  valued  both  as  a  food  for  man  and 
specially  for  domesticated  animals.  The  character  of  the  soil,  method  of 
planting,  and  cultivation  are  the  same  as  in  the  case  of  the  sweet  potato. 
It  is  particularly  valued  for  fattening  the  variety  of  swine  so  common  in  the 
South,  known  as  the  ''razor-back"  hog.     This  animal  does  his  own  harvest- 


CANNED  VEGETABLES.  305 

ing,  and  thus  takes  away  from  the  agriculturist  a  portion  of  his  labor  which  is 
not  of  the  most  agreeable  kind. 

Composition  oj  Yams. — The  composition  of  yams  does  not  differ  to  any 
notable  extent  from  that  of  the  sweet  potato. 

Other  Uses  of  the  Yam  and  Sweet  Potato. — In  addition  to  the  use  of  the  yam 
and  sweet  potato  for  human  food,  reference  has  already  been  made  to  their 
value  as  food  for  domesticated  animals.  These  bodies  are  particularly  relished 
by  hogs  and  cattle.  The  feeding  of  sweet  potatoes  or  yams  to  milk  cows 
insures  a  healthy  condition  of  the  body,  and  also  imparts  to  the  milk,  cream, 
and  butter  the  distinct  amber  tint  which  is  regarded  as  a  mark  of  excellence. 
Thus  even  in  the  winter  months  the  butter  which  is  made  from  milk  produced 
in  this  way  will  have  the  light  amber  tint,  which  should  distinguish  it  from 
the  highly  tinted  artificially  colored  product  which  does  so  much  to  bring  good 
butter  into  bad  repute.  Both  sweet  potatoes  and  yams  are  capable  of  yield- 
ing abundant  supplies  of  distilled  spirits.  It  is  probable  that  under  the  new 
law  which  permits  the  use  of  denatured  alcohol  free  of  taxation  in  the  arts  an 
abundant  supply  of  this  product  can  be  secured  from  the  sweet  potato  and 
the  yam.  There  are  millions  of  acres  of  cheap  land  of  a  sandy  character 
in  the  South  Atlantic  and  Gulf  states  where  potatoes  and  yams  can  be  suc- 
cessfully grown  under  scientific  principles  of  agriculture.  If  not  needed 
for  food  purposes  as  above  mentioned,  the  residue  can  be  very  profitably 
devoted  to  the  manufacture  of  industrial  alcohol. 

Canned  Vegetables. 
It  probably  will  excite  no  opposition  to  state  that  if  fresh,  succulent 
vegetables  can  be  placed  upon  the  table  of  the  consumer  they  are  to  be  preferred 
to  the  same  kind  of  vegetables  preserved  in  any  manner.  There  are  many 
circumstances,  however,  which  render  it  difficult,  if  not  impossible,  to  secure  a 
regular  supply  of  fresh,  succulent  vegetables  upon  the  consumer's  table.  Those 
who  possess  abundant  wealth  may  have  a  proper  supply  of  vegetables  at  all 
seasons  of  the  year  without  resorting  to  any  preserving  process  other  than  the 
refrigeration  incident  to  transportation.  But  the  great  majority  of  con- 
sumers must  of  necessity  adapt  themselves  to  the  conditions  of  the  market  and 
the  proximity  of  supply.  Succulent  vegetables  properly  harvested  and  re- 
frigerated may  be  sent  long  distances,  involving  a  considerable  period  of  time, 
and  reach  the  consumer  in  practically  the  same  state  of  freshness  and 
palatability  as  when  first  harvested.  Owing  to  the  exigencies  of  intermediary 
supply  and  the  cost  of  transportation  the  great  industry  of  keeping  succulent 
vegetables  by  sterilization  has  been  founded.  Commonly  vegetables  prepared 
in  this  way  are  known  as  "  canned"  vegetables  in  this  country  and  ''tinned"  in 
England.     By  availing  hiniself  of  this  process  the  consumer,  even  of  moderate 


3o6  VEGETABLES,  CONDIMENTS,  FRUITS. 

means,  is  able  to  command  at  all  seasons  of  the  year  and  in  all  locations  an 
abundant  supply  of  wholesome,  fresh,  succulent  vegetable  materials. 

Principles  and  Process  of  Canning. — The  sterilization  of  succulent  vege- 
tables depends  upon  the  same  principles  as  that  of  meat,  already  described. 
The  decay  of  these  vegetable  substances  is  due  to  the  action  of  certain  fer- 
ments, either  organic  or  inorganic,  which  act  as  agents  in  effecting  the  oxidation 
and  decay  of  the  organic  material.  If  the  action  of  these  organisms  can  be 
prevented  or  inhibited  the  food  material  will  remain  for  a  certain  length  of  time, 
not  yet  definitely  determined,  in  an  excellent,  almost  perfect  state  of  pres- 
ervation and  without  losing,  notably,  any  of  its  nutritive  or  palatable  properties. 

It  is  not  the  purpose  of  this  manual  to  describe  the  technique  of  canning, 
further  than  to  illustrate  the  principles  thereof  in  their  relations  to  wholesome 
and  nutritive  food. 

Selection  of  Materials. — It  is  of  the  highest  importance  in  the  canning  in- 
dustry, both  for  the  reputation  of  the  manufacturer  and  the  health  and  com- 
fort of  the  consumer,  that  the  vegetables  selected  for  canning  be  fresh,  free  from 
disease,  and  prepared  in  such  a  way  that  all  adhering  dirt  or  other  foreign  sub- 
stances be  excluded.  The  process  of  preparation  for  canning  should  begin  as 
soon  as  possible  after  the  harvesting  of  the  vegetables,  since  a  delay,  especially 
at  the  high  temperature  which  usually  prevails  at  the  time  of  cannings 
produces  rapid  deterioration,  both  as  respects  the  quality  of  the  vegetable  and 
its  flavor.  After  the  proper  cleaning  and  preparation  of  the  fresh  vegetables 
they  are  next  subjected  to  the  process  of  canning.  It  is  then  the  vegetables  are 
heated  to  a  temperature  of,  or  above,  that  of  boiling  water  for  a  sufficient  length 
of  time  to  thoroughly  destroy  all  the  living  germs  and  spores  contained  there- 
in. The  degree  of  temperature  and  the  length  of  time  of  heating  depend  upon 
the  nature  of  the  vegetable  substance,  the  size  of  its  particles  and  of  the  package 
and  the  relative  difficulty  of  preservation.  Where  only  living  organisms  are 
present  the  proper  temperature  is  that  which  will  destroy  the  life  of  the  germ. 
It  is  well  known  that  spores  from  which  fermentative  germs  may  be  developed 
are  more  resistant  to  the  action  of  heat  than  the  germ  itself.  When,  therefore, 
spores  of  this  kind  are  present,  the  temperature  of  heating  must  be  higher  and 
the  time  more  prolonged,  or,  in  lieu  of  this,  the  food  should  be  heated  on  two  or 
three  consecutive  days  during  which  time  any  spores  which  may  have  been 
present  will  have  developed  into  organisms  and  been  killed.  Some  forms  of 
vegetable  materials  are  sterilized  much  more  readily  than  others.  For  instance, 
the  kernels  of  green  Indian  corn  are  of  such  a  character  and  degree  of  hardness 
as  to  resist,  with  a  considerable  degree  of  success,  the  influence  of  heat  on  the 
life  of  the  germs  which  they  contain.  In  such  cases  it  is  customary  to  pre- 
viously cook  the  vegetable  substance  before  placing  it  in  the  cans.  The  cans 
should  contain  enough  water  to  fill  the  interstices  between  the  particles  of 
vegetable  matter.     It  is  the  practice  in  many  instances  to  add  a  little  salt  and 


COMPOSITION    OF   TYPICAL   SAMPLES    OF   CANNED   BEANS, 


307 


sometimes  also  sugar  to  this  liquid.  When  the  can  is  filled  and  closed  the 
sterilizing  is  best  completed  by  placing  it  in  a  strong  boiler,  which  is  then  closed 
and  heated  by  steam  under  a  pressure  of  two  or  three  atmospheres  or  even 
higher,  namely,  from  30  to  45  pounds  and  over  per  square  inch.  By  heating 
under  pressure  in  this  way  the  development  of  any  pressure  in  the  can  due  to  the 
production  of  steam  is  counterbalanced  by  the  pressure  without  the  can,  so  that 
a  swelling  or  cracking  of  the  can  cannot  take  place.  If  the  cans  are  heated  in 
an  open  bath  of  water  or  brine  it  is  customary  to  leave  a  small  perforation  in  the 
top  of  the  can  through  which  the  combined  gas  of  the  interior  of  the  can  may 
escape,  and  this  vent  is  closed  by  a  small  drop  of  solder  applied  before  or  at  the 
time  of  taking  the  cans  from  the  bath.  The  canning  of  vegetables  may  also  be 
done  in  a  small  way  in  the  household  and  the  principle  on  w'Kich  this  process  is 
based  is  exactly  the  same  as  that  set  forth.  The  vegetables  must  be  properly 
prepared,  placed  in  the  cans,  and  heated  a  sufficient  length  of  time  to  destroy 
germs  and  spores,  and  the  vent  in  the  can  stopped  with  solder.  For  family  pur- 
poses the  use  of  closed  boilers  for  heating  is  not  practical  on  account  of  the  ex- 
pense of  securing  such  apparatus.  All  kinds  of  vegetables  which  are  eaten  in  a 
cooked  state  can  be  preserved  by  the  canning  process.  This  cannot  be  applied, 
however,  to  those  forms  of  vegetables  which  are  eaten  raw,  such  as  lettuce, 
radishes,  etc. 

The  principal  forms  of  canned  vegetables  are  described  below : 
Canned  Beans. — Fresh,  green  beans  used  for  canning  purposes  are  generally 
preserved  in  the  pod  and  not  shelled,  as  is  the  case  with  the  pea.  The  raw  material 
should  be  selected  with  the  same  care  as  that  which  attends  the  selection  of 
other  vegetable  products  intended  for  preserving  purposes.  If  the  pods  are 
small  they  may  be  placed  whole  in  the  can.  Sometimes  they  are  cut  into 
small  lengths  in  order  to  fit  better  in  the  package.  As  in  the  case  of  peas, 
the  interstices  between  the  particles  of  beans  are  filled  by  the  addition  of  a 
sufficient  quantity  of  brine  of  the  proper  strength  to  fill  the  can  to  the  top. 
The  process  of  sterilization  is  the  same  as  that  for  other  vegetable  substances. 
Cooked  beans  are  also  preserved  by  canning  and  are  often  improperly  called 
baked  beans. 

Composition  of  Typical  Samples  of  Canned  Beans. — The  composition 
of  typical  samples  of  canned  beans  is  shown  in  the  following  table: 


Substance, 


String  beans, 

Unstringed  beans , . . 

Lima  beans, 

Canned  baked  beans. 


Water. 


Per- 
cent. 

94.33 
93-91 
79.68 
67.19 


Fat. 


Per- 
cent. 
.06 

.07 

•30 
3.18 


Fiber. 


Per- 
cent. 

•51 

•58 

1. 16 

2.46 


Starch 

AND 
SUOAR. 


Per- 
cent. 

3-03 
2.91 

13.24 
17.88 


Protein. 


Per- 
cent. 
.92 
1. 14 
4.00 
7.14 


Ash.       Salt. 


Per- 
cent. 
1. 16 
1.40 
1.62 
2.15 


Per- 
cent. 
.80 
.92 

•77 
1.03 


3o8 


VEGETABLES,    CONDIMENTS,    FRUITS. 


As  in  the  case  of  peas  it  is  noticed  that  the  beans  in  the  hull  are  not  a  par- 
ticularly nutritious  vegetable  in  proportion  to  the  quantity  consumed  and  that 
the  protein  is  the  most  valuable  constituent  in  the  dry  matter. 

Adulteration  of  Canned  Beans. — The  same  adulterations  may  be  found  in 
canned  beans  as  in  canned  peas.  No  additional  remarks,  therefore,  are 
needed  on  this  point. 

Both  canned  peas  and  beans  form  condimental,  palatable,  wholesome,  and 
desirable  forms  of  these  leguminous  vegetables.  The  great  cheapness  with 
which  they  can  be  grown  and  the  improved  method  of  canning  make  it 
possible  to  produce  these  articles  of  food  in  quantities,  and  for  a  price  which 
bring  them  within  the  reach  of  those  even  in  the  most  humble  circumstances. 


Fig.  44.— View  of  Indian  Corn  Canning  Factory,  Showing  Accumulation  of  Husks  and  Cobs. 


As  soon  as  the  manufacturer  restores  absolute  confidence  in  the  purity 
of  his  products  by  completely  excluding  all  adulterations  the  trade  in  these 
articles  will  be  greatly  increased  and  immensely  greater  quantities  thereof 
consumed. 

Canned  Indian  Com. — In  the  United  States  a  dish  which  is  very  ex- 
tensively consumed  throughout  all  parts  of  the  country  is  one  almost  unknown 
in  Europe,  namely,  succulent  Indian  corn.  In  the  growth  of  Indian  corn, 
at  the  period  when  the  starch  is  formed  in  the  grain  and  before  it  becomes  set 
or  hard,  the  immature  grains  make  a  palatable  and  excellent  food  product.  In 
the  appropriate  season  this  delicious  vegetable  substance  is  eaten  principally 
on  the  cob.     A  variety  of  Indian  corn,which  has  already  been  described,  namely, 


CANNED   INDIAN  CORN.  309 

sweet  corn,  is  the  one  chiefly  used  for  edible  purposes  in  this  immature  state. 
The  Indian  corn  canning  industry  is  a  most  extensive  one  in  this  country. 
The  estimate  of  the  number  of  cans  of  Indian  corn  produced  during  the  year 
ended  Dec.  31,  1905,  is  13,939,683  cases  of  24  cans  each. 

The  principal  centers  of  the  industry  are  found  in  the  New  England 
States,  especially  in  Maine,  New  Jersey,  Maryland,  New  York,  Ohio,  Iowa, 
Illinois,  and  Indiana.  By  planting  different  varieties  of  Indian  corn  which 
mature  at  different  ages  and  extending  the  planting  season  over  a  long  period, 
the  canning  season,  for  instance,  in  Mar>4and,  may  be  continued  from  the  last 
of  July  to  the  advent  of  killing  frost,  usually  the  middle  or  last  of  October. 

Technique  of  the  Process. — The  ears  of  sweet  Indian  corn  are  plucked  from 
the  stalk  together  wuth  the  husks,  and  brought  in  wagons  in  tliis  condition  to  the 
factory.  The  husks  are  removed  by  hand  or  machinery  and  the  ears  passed 
through  machinery  by  means  of  which,  owing  to  the  operation  of  knives,  the 
grains  are  removed  from  the  cob  as  evenly  as  possible.  Care  is  taken  not  to 
cut  too  close  to  the  cob  so  as  to  avoid  mingling  any  of  its  particles  with  the  corn. 
The  separated  grains  are  put  into  cans,  treated  with  a  sufficient  quantity  of 
water  to  fill  the  interstices,  soldered,  and  subjected  to  sterilization.  Nearly 
all  of  these  operations  are  conducted  by  machinery.  The  sterilization  is  often 
effected  by  placing  the  cans  upon  an  endless  conveyer  dipping  into  water  or 
brine  of  the  proper  temperature  and  moving  slowly  through  this  bath  at  a  pace 
determined  by  the  length  and  temperature  thereof,  so  that  upon  emerging  the 
sterilization  is  complete.  The  cans  may  also  be  heated  in  closed  vessels  as 
already  described.  A  typical  view  of  a  factory  employed  in  the  canning  of 
Indian  corn  is  given  in  the  accompanying  illustration.  Fig.  44. 

Composition  of  Canned  Indian  Corn. — The  composition  of  canned  Indian 
corn  varies  so  greatly  that  it  is  only  possible  to  give  analyses  of  a  somewhat 
general  character,  without  attempting  to  express  the  extremes  of  composition 
which  may  be  found.  The  immature  Indian  corn  differs  from  the  dry  mature 
variety  principally  in  the  following  respects :  There  is  usually  more  sugar,  as 
compared  with  the  same  amount  of  dry  substance,  and  less  starch  and  protein 
than  in  the  matured  variety.  In  fact,  the  constituent  which  is  of  chief  value 
in  the  green  Indian  corn  is  the  natural  sugar  which  it  contains.  This  natural 
sweetening  cannot  be  imitated  by  the  addition  of  sugar  although  the  mixture 
may  be  made  very  sweet  by  this  method.  There  is  a  delicacy  of  flavor  and  a 
peculiar  palatability  in  the  natural  sweetness  of  Indian  corn  which  must 
necessarily  be  due  to  the  form  of  combination  with  other  natural  ingredients  in 
which  the  sugar  is  found,  and  not  solely  to  the  sugar  itself,  which  is  practically 
ordinary  sugar,  sucrose,  or  its  inverted  product.  While  there  is  less  starch  in 
the  immature  kernel  of  Indian  corn  the  starch  is  in  a  different  physical 
state.  In  other  words,  it  has  not  become  solidified  into  aggregates  of  solid 
particles.     The  starch  in  this  form  also  appears  to  be  more  palatable,  and 


3IO  VEGETABLES,  CONDIMENTS,  FRUITS. 

perhaps  somewhat  more  digestible,  than  in  its  aggregate  and  solidified  condi- 
tion. As  a  nutrient  the  green  corn  is  not  so  valuable  by  any  means  as  its 
equal  weight  when  dry.  The  percentage  of  water  in  green  corn  is  many  times 
as  great  as  in  the  dry  variety.  For  mere  nutritive  purposes,  therefore,  it 
would  not  be  worth  while  to  go  to  the  trouble  of  canning  green  Indian  corn. 
Its  value  is  that  which  is  attached  to  a  succulent  fresh  vegetable,  that  is,  it  is 
condimental  and  hygienic  as  well  as  nutritive. 

The  mean  analysis  of  many  samples  of  canned  sweet  Indian  corn  is  given 
below : 

Water, 75-5°  percent 

Dry  matter, • 24.50       " 

Oil  and  fat, 1.26 

Cellulose, 79  " 

Ash, 93  " 

Salt, 23  " 

Protein, 3-5 1  " 

Sugar  and  starch, i7-58 

These  data  were  obtained  on  samples  bought  in  the  open  market,  some  of 
which  had  been  artificially  sweetened  and  to  some  of  which  starch  had  probably 
been  added.     The  analysis  of  the  fresh  green  corn  is  pjiven  on  page  227. 

Adulteration  oj  Canned  Corn. — Unfortunately  many  adulterations  have  been 
practiced  in  connection  with  the  canning  of  Indian  corn  which,  while  not  exten- 
sive or  applicable  to  the  great  mass  of  material,  have  cast  an  unjust  suspicion 
on  the  unadulterated  product.  The  trade  in  this  canned  product  would  be 
vastly  increased  if  the  consumer  could  be  assured  that  all  forms  of  adulteration 
had  been  eliminated  from  the  industry.  The  principal  adulterants  used  are 
mentioned  on  page  228,  but  the  following  additional  statements  are  perti- 
nent: 

Adulteration  with  Starch. — In  order  to  make  a  more  creamy  liquid  in  the  can 
the  addition  of  starch  has  been  largely  practiced.  There  are  two  objections  to 
the  addition  of  starch  to  canned  corn.  In  the  first  place  it  unbalances  the 
ration  and  makes  it  more  or  less  unwholesome.  Starch  itself  is  an  unbal- 
anced food  product,  but  Nature  has  so  distributed  the  starches  in  various 
foods  as  to  present  them  in  the  most  favorable  form  for  digestion  and  as- 
similation, and  when  this  natural  balance  is  disturbed  by  artificial  means  the 
result  is  more  or  less  injurious  to  the  organs  of  digestion.  There  are  many 
persons  to  whom  starchy  foods  are  not  nutritious  nor  easily  digested,  and  when 
persons  of  this  kind  consume  canned  Indian  corn  to  which  starch  has  been 
added  their  health  may  be  injured.  The  addition  of  starch,  therefore,  is 
reprehensible  for  hygienic  reasons.  In  the  second  place  it  is  objectionable 
because  it  is  deceptive,  since  the  canned  product  has  a  richer  and  better  ap- 
pearance to  the  eye  by  this  addition  than  it  otherwise  would  have,  and  because 
more  water  can  be  used  in  the  can. 


CANNED   INDIAN   CORN.  311 

Adulteration  with  Sugar. — It  seems  strange  to  speak  of  adulterating  with 
sugar,  and  yet  the  addition  of  sugar  without  notice  to  canned  Indian  corn  may 
become  an  adukeration.  It  has  already  been  mentioned  that  the  nature  of 
Indian  corn  for  canning  purposes  depends  very  largely  upon  its  natural  sugar 
content,  and  when  corn  of  the  proper  sweet  variety  is  selected  the  addition  of 
other  sweetening  material  is  unnecessary.  The  use  of  sugar,  therefore,  in  con- 
nection with  canned  Indian  corn  serves  to  cover  up  the  defects  of  a  corn  whose 
natural  sweetness  is  below  the  standard  and  thus  the  consumer  is  deceived. 
In  addition  to  this,  attention  is  also  called  to  the  fact  already  stated  that  no 
artificial  sweetening,  even  with  sugar,  can  produce  that  delicate  and  desired 
saccharine  quality  which  the  natural  sweet  corn  possesses.  The  addition 
of  sugar,  therefore,  to  canned  Indian  corn  without  the  nottce  thereof  being 
plainly  stated  on  the  label  is  not  to  be  encouraged. 

Addition  of  Saccharin. — The  use  of  benzoic  sulfinid,  or,  as  it  is  com- 
monly known,  saccharin,  to  canned  corn  unhappily  is  too  often  practiced. 
This  body,  which  has  no  relation  chemically  or  hygienically  to  sugar,  which  is 
not  a  food,  which  is  wholly  indigestible,  and  which  the  majority  of  experts  re- 
gard as  harmful  to  health,  should  never  be  placed  in  canned  Indian  corn, 
even  if  its  use  is  stated  upon  the  label.  It  produces  an  intense,  but  not  agree- 
able, sweet  taste  and  yet  one  which  the  unwary  consumer  would  naturally 
attribute  to  the  sugar  present  in  the  corn  itself.  Thus  the  consumer  is  de- 
ceived, and  at  the  same  time  he  is  consuming  a  drug  which  has  valuable  uses 
in  medicine  but  which  should  only  be  administered  with  the  consent  and  by 
the  advice  of  a  physician.  It  is  believed  that  under  the  scrutiny  of  municipal, 
state,  and  national  inspection  the  use  of  saccharin  in  food  products  will 
disappear.  Moreover,  the  name  saccharin  itself  is  misleading.  It  is  an 
application  of  a  word  which  by  common  usage  is  attributed  to  natural  sugar 
substances  to  a  substance  which  has  no  relation  of  any  kind  to  sugar.  The 
use  of  a  word  of  this  kind  is  evidently  objectionable.  The  canner  himself 
who  uses  this  product  often  buys  it  under  another  name,  which  gives  no  indi- 
cation of  its  true  character. 

Character  of  the  Cans. — It  is  important  that  the  containers  in  which  canned 
vegetables  are  preserved  should  be  of  a  character  to  yield  no  poisonous  or 
injurious  substance  to  the  contents  therein.  What  is  said  here  in  respect  of 
canned  Indian  corn  is  generally  applicable  to  canned  products  of  all  descrip- 
tions. 

The  approved  standards  for  food  products  in  the  United  States  require  the 
following  properties  for  the  containers: 

''I.  Suitable  containers  for  keeping  moist  food  products  such  as  sirups, 
honey,  condensed  milk,  soups,  meat  extracts,  meats,  manufactured  meats, 
and  undried  fruits  and  vegetables  and  wrappers  in  contact  with  food  products 
contain  on  their  surfaces,  in  contact  with  the  food  products,  no  lead,  antimony, 


312  VEGETABLES,    CONDIMENTS,    FRUITS. 

arsenic,  zinc,  or  copper  or  any  compounds  thereof  or  any  other  poisonous  or 
injurious  substance.  If  the  containers  are  made  of  tin  plate  they  are  outside 
soldered  and  the  plate  in  no  case  contains  less  than  one  hundred  and  thirteen 
(113)  milligrams  of  tin  on  a  piece  five  (5)  centimeters  square  or  one  and  eight- 
tenths  (1.8)  grains  on  a  piece  two  (2)  inches  square.  The  inner  coating  of 
the  containers  is  free  from  pin-holes,  blisters,  and  cracks. 

"  If  the  tin  plate  is  lacquered,  the  lacquer  completely  covers  the  tinned 
surface  within  the  container  and  yields  to  the  contents  of  the  container  no 
lead,  antimony,  arsenic,  zinc,  copper,  tin,  or  any  compounds  thereof." 

Souring  and  Swelling  of  Canned  Corn. — In  all  cases  where  steriKzation 
is  not  complete,  or  where  spores  remain  undestroyed  which  afterward  develop 
and  produce  various  kinds  of  ferments,  the  canned  corn  spoils.  The  contents 
usually  become  sour  and  acquire  a  bad  taste,  and,  in  many  cases,  on  puncturing 
the  container  gas  escapes.  The  pressure  of  this  gas  in  the  can  is  sometimes 
great  enough  to  produce  a  swelling,  and  hence  the  technical  term  "swelled" 
applied  to  cans  of  this  kind.  Various  forms  of  ferments  are  active  in  pro- 
ducing these  conditions.  The  common  alcoholic  ferment  does  not  usually  oc- 
cur by  reason  of  the  fact  that  the  yeasts  which  produce  this  form  of  fermentation 
are  readily  destroyed  in  the  sterilizing  process.  Ferments  which  produce 
lactic,  butyric,  and  other  acids,  and  those  which  act  upon  the  nitrogenous 
matter  and  tend  to  form  various  decomposition  products  are  the  most 
common. 

In  the  case  of  canned  corn  and  other  canned  vegetables  the  nitrogenous 
iecomposed  products  are  not  usually  very  poisonous.  On  the  other  hand 
in  the  case  of  meat,  and  especially  of  fish  and  crustaceans,  the  degradation 
products  from  the  nitrogen  constituents  of  the  food  become  poisonous  and 
ire  known  collectively  under  the  name  of  ptomains. 

If  the  sterilization  has  not  been  complete  at  the  time  of  preparation,  sweet 
corn,  as  well  as  other  foodstuffs  in  similar  circumstances,  undergoes  a  kind 
of  fermentation  which  renders  it  unfit  for. food.  The  fermentation  is  usu- 
ally due  to  the  greater  vitality  of  spores  and  fungi,  the  real  bacteria  usually 
succumbing  to  the  heat  of  preparation.  Various  gases  beside  carbon  dioxid 
are  produced,  causing  the  corn  to  swell.  All  swelled  goods  should  be 
rejected  for  food  purposes. 

Canned  Peas  and  Beans. — These  leguminous  products  lend  themselves 
readily  to  canning  purposes,  and  are  preserved  in  great  quantities  in  the 
United  States  in  this  way.  Peas  are  always  shelled  before  canning,  and  are 
harvested  at  a  time  to  secure  their  greatest  succulence.  If  the  peas  be  too 
ripe  they  make  a  hard,  unpalatat)le  berry  which  detracts  from  the  value  cf 
the  canned  product.  The  smaller  variety  of  pea  is  preferred  to  the  larger 
for  canning,  but,  irrespective  of  size,  they  should  be  fresh,  succulent,  and  not 
too  mature.  In  the  large  canning  factories  the  peas  are  harvested  with 
machines  such  as  are  used  for  the  cereals.     The  harvested  material  is  passed 


CANNED    PEAS   AND   BEANS.  313 

through  a  shelling  machine,  by  means  of  which  the  pods  are  opened  and  the 
peas  separated.  The  rest  of  the  pods,  stalks,  leaves,  etc.,  are  very  valuable 
for  cattle  food  or  fertilizing  purposes.  Peas,  before  canning,  should  be  separ- 
ated into  different  sizes  so  that  all  those  entering  one  can  may  be  as  nearly  uni- 
form in  size  as  possible.  This  separation  not  only  makes  the  contents  of 
the  can  appear  more  attractive  but  also  renders  the  sterilization  more  certain 
and  easy.  If  large  and  small  peas  are  put  in  the  same  can  the  heat  of  sterili- 
zation must  be  high  enough  and  continue  long  enough  to  sterilize  completely 
the  large  peas,  and  this  might  induce  an  over-cooking  and  impair  the  edible 
properties  of  the  small  ones. 

The  technique  of  the  canning  process  is  not  at  all  different  except  in  the 
preparation  of  the  material,  as  described  above,  from  thaf  of  other  vegetable 
canning  factories. 

Composition  of  Canned  Peas. — The  composition  of  typical  varieties  of 
canned  peas  compiled  from  a  large  number  of  analyses  is  shown  in  the 
following  table: 

Water, 85.47  percent 

Fat, : 21 

Fiber, 1.18       " 

Protein, ^ 3.57        " 

Starch  and  sugar, 7.79       " 

Ash, I. II 

Salt, 67 

From  the  above  data  it  is  seen  that  the  canned  pea  does  not  have  a  high 
nutritive  value,  considering  its  bulk.  In  the  canned  pea  one  of  the  prin- 
cipal food  elements  in  the  wet  material  is  the  protein  which  it  contains, 
both  the  pea  and  the  bean  being  very  rich  in  this  important  food  material. 

Adulteration  of  Canned  Peas. — The  principal  form  of  adulteration  which 
is  practiced  in  the  canning  of  peas  is  the  addition  of  sulfate  of  copper  for  the 
purpose  of  producing  an  intense  green  color.  The  dehcate  shade  of  green 
of  the  fresh,  succulent  pea  tends  to  assume  a  yellowish  tint  on  canning,  and 
especially  after  keeping  for  some  time.  To  such  an  extent  does  this  oxidation 
of  the  natural  chlorophyl  go  on  that  in  many  samples  when  opened,  instead 
of  a  green,  we  discover  a  decidedly  yellowish  tint.  When  a  copper  salt,  such 
as  sulfate,  is  heated  in  contact  with  a  nitrogenous  substance,  such  as  that 
which  exists  in  the  pea,  a  chemical  combination  is  formed  between  the  cop- 
per and  nitrogenous  bodies  which  has  an  intensely  green  tint. 

It  is  often  supposed  that  the  sulfate  of  copper  is  added  to  canned  peas 
to  preserve  their  natural  color.  This,  however,  is  not  the  case.  The  copper 
combination,  as  above  mentioned,  produces  a  dye  of  a  very  bright  green  hue. 
Sulfate  of  copper  is  a  highly  poisonous  substance,  and  for  this  reason  should 
be  excluded  from  food  products.  It  is  only  fair  to  state  that  those  who  use 
this  material  claim  that  in  the  form  of  the  combination  produced  it  remains 


314  VEGETABLES,    CONDIMENTS,    FRUITS. 

insoluble  during  the  process  of  digestion,  and  therefore  the  copper  is  inert. 
This  claim  is  not  sustained  by  the  facts  in  the  case.  It  is  quite  certain  that 
the  copper  product  forming  the  dye  or  the  excess  of  the  copper  which  is  used 
remains  in  a  state  of  very  unstable  composition  which  is  easily  broken  up 
under  the  action  of  the  acids  and  enzymes  in  the  digestive  organs. 

It  is  greatly  to  the  credit  of  the  canners  of  the  United  States  that  the  use 
of  sulfate  of  copper  has  never  come  into  use  in  this  country. 

Tests  for  Copper. — Fortunately  the  presence  of  copper  in  canned  peas  is 
easily  ascertained  even  by  the  novice.  If  a  portion  of  the  peas  be  rubbed 
in  a  mortar  to  a  fine  paste  and  mixed  with  water  acidulated  with  two  or  three 
drops  of  hydrochloric  acid,  a  paste  will  be  formed  which  on  boiling  will  de- 
posit copper  on  a  clean  metallic  substance  such  as  silver,  steel,  or  iron.  If  a 
bright  steel  knife  or  a  clean  iron  nail  be  placed  in  this  paste,  the  surface  will  soon 
be  covered  with  metallic  copper.  This  simple  test  shows  that  the  copper  is 
not  combined  in  any  such  permanent  form  as  is  claimed. 

Saccharin. — The  use  of  saccharin  as  an  imitation  of  the  natural  sweet 
of  the  pea  is,  unfortunately,  very  largely  practiced  and  is  open  to  the  same 
objections  as  were  pointed  out  in  the  case  of  Indian  corn.  The  use  of  sugar, 
salt,  and  other  condimental  substances  in  canned  peas  cannot  be  regarded 
as  an  adulteration  unless  deception  results  therefrom.  It  is  claimed  there  is  no 
special  variety  of  pea  distinguished  by  its  content  of  sugar,  and  therefore  the 
addition  of  sugar  does  not  cause  one  variety  of  pea  to  imitate  the  properties  of 
another.  If  this  be  true  no  deception  is  practiced,  and,  if  the  sugar  is  pure,  no 
injury  is  done.  In  all  cases  of  this  kind,  perhaps,  it  would  be  better  if  the 
manufacturer  would  plainly  mark  on  the  label  the  name  of  the  added  materials. 
Then  there  could  be  no  question  of  the  nature  of  the  product. 

Canned  Tomatoes. — Next,  perhaps,  in  importance  to  the  industry  of 
canned  corn,  is  the  preservation  of  tomatoes.  Immense  quantities  of  these 
goods  are  produced  annually  in  the  United  States.  The  technique  of  the 
canning  process  is  not  at  all  different  from  that  of  canned  corn.  By  reason 
of  the  pulpy  condition  of  the  material  and  its  freedom  from  hard  and  impene- 
trable matter  in  the  preparation  for  canning,  the  sterilization  is  accomplished 
in  less  time  and  with  greater  certainty  than  in  the  case  of  Indian  corn. 

Preparation  of  the  Raw  Material. — Only  fresh,  ripe,  mature,  and  sound 
tomatoes  should  be  used  in  the  preparation  of  the  canned  goods.  These 
are  deUvered  by  the  farmer  or  contractor  in  baskets  or  otherwise  to  the  factory. 
After  sorting  and  rejecting  all  those  that  are  unfit,  the  portions  selected  for 
preservation  are  treated  in  the  usual  manner  to  secure  sterilization. 

The  skins,  cores,  and  rejected  portions  of  the  tomatoes  should  be  removed 
to  a  sufficient  distance  from  the  factory  to  prevent  any  bad  odor  or  danger 
of  infection. 


CANNED   TOMATOES.  315 

Composition  of  Canned  Tomatoes. — The  chemical  composition  of  canned 
tomatoes  is  shown  in  the  following  analysis : 

Water, 93-59  percent 

Fat, 23 

Fiber, 60 

Starch  and  sugar, 3.47         " 

Protein, 1.29        " 

Ash, 66 

S^lt, 14        " 

From  the  above  data  it  is  seen  that  the  tomato  is  not  particularly  valuable 
on  account  of  its  nutrient  properties.  It  consists  chiefly  of  water,  and  its 
value  as  a  food  product  is  principally  condimental.  It  must  not  be  denied, 
however,  that  it  has  that  peculiar  value  which  is  possessed'by  all  edible  suc- 
culent vegetables  and  fruits,  namely,  it  is  a  means  of  keeping  the  digestive 
processes  in  good  form,  preventing  constipation,  and  promoting  the  general 
metabolic  activity.  In  this  sense  it  is  seen  that  it  is  more  than  condimental. 
It  also,  of  course,  has  a  distinct  food  value,  due  chiefly  to  the  carbohydrates 
it  contains. 

Addition  oj  Sugar  and  Spices. — Sugar  and  other  condimental  substances 
are  often  used  in  the  preparation  of  tomatoes.  In  this  case  it  is  doubtful 
whether  the  addition  of  pure  sugar  can  be  regarded  in  any  sense  as  an  adul- 
teration if  properly  stated  on  the  label.  It  is  claimed  that  there  is  no  dis- 
tinction in  the  classification  of  tomatoes  based  upon  their  sugar  content.  If 
there  were  a  variety  of  distinctly  sweet  tomato  as  distinguished  from  the  or- 
dinary field  crop,  then  the  addition  of  sugar  to  the  field  crop  to  imitate  the 
sweet  of  the  naturally  sweet  article  would  be  an  adulteration.  But  even  in  this 
case  unripe  or  imperfect  tomatoes  may  be  used  and  sugar  added  to  conceal 
inferiority.  The  use  of  common  condimental  substances,  such  as  salt,  spices, 
vinegar,  etc.,  in  the  preparation  of  various  products  of  tomatoes  must  be  re- 
garded as  a  perfectly  legitimate  operation. 

Adidteration  oj  Canned  Tomatoes. — Fortunately  there  are  few  adulterations 
practiced  in  the  case  of  canned  tomatoes.  The  use  of  antiseptics  to  insure 
the  conservation  of  the  contents  of  the  can  was  formerly  practiced  to  some 
extent,  salicyUc  and  benzoic  acids  being  the  chief  antiseptics  employed. 
Since  it  has  been  made  possible  to  easily,  speedily,  and  economically  sterilize 
the  contents  of  the  cans,  the  use  of  antiseptics  is  practically  a  thing  of  the  past. 
The  most  common  adulteration  of  tomatoes,  perhaps,  has  been  artificial  color- 
ing. The  use  of  artificial  coloring  is  resorted  to  solely  for  deceptive  pur- 
poses. Where  green  or  immature  tomatoes  are  used,  or  other  portions  and 
parts  of  such  fruits  as  are  not  suitable  for  the  production  of  the  highest 
grade  products,  the  naturally  red  color  of  the  tomato  is  imitated  artificially, 
usually  by  the  addition  of  cochineal  or  a  coal  tar  dye.  The  use  of  artificial 
color  in  canned  tomatoes  has  almost  ceased  in  this  country. 


3l6  VEGETABLES,    CONDIMENTS,    FRUITS. 

Saccharin  is  also  sometimes  used  as  an  adulterant  to  imitate  the  proper- 
ties of  pure  sugar. 

It  has  already  been  intimated  that  green  or  unfit  tomatoes  or  the  residue 
of  better  grades  are  sometimes  prepared  and  sold  as  the  real  article.  This 
is  a  form  of  adulteration  which  is  most  reprehensible.  Unfortunately,  except 
in  so  far  as  the  artificial  color  is  concerned,  this  adulteration  is  not  readily 
revealed  by  either  chemical  or  microscopic  examination,  although  the  latter 
is  exceedingly  valuable  in  detecting  certain  forms  of  this  kind  of  material. 
Only  by  a  rigid  inspection  of  the  factories  can  this  form  of  adulteration  be 
excluded  with  certainty.  The  use  of  such  immature  fruits  or  scraps  without 
notice  to  the  consumer  is,  without  doubt,  an  adulteration  of  an  exceedingly 
bad  type.  If  there  be  a  desire  to  make  a  very  cheap  grade  of  the  product 
out  of  these  materials  the  nature  of  them  should  be  plainly  stated  upon  the 
label  and  then,  perhaps,  there  would  be  a  valid  excuse  for  their  appearance 
on  the  market. 

Other  Canned  Vegetables. — There  is  no  necessity  to  enter  into  the  detail 
of  the  preparation  of  other  canned  vegetables  further  than  to  say  that  practi- 
cally all  vegetables  which  are  offered  on  the  market,  except  those  which  are 
necessarily  eaten  in  a  raw  state,  are  preserved  or  can  be  preserved  by  the 
sterilizing  process. 

Tomato  Ketchup. — A  sauce  which  is  used  in  large  quantities  in  the  United 
States  and  in  other  countries  is  known  as  tpmato  ketchup  and  is  manufac- 
tured in  many  parts  of  the  country.  Tomato  ketchup  is  the  pulp  of  sound, 
ripe  tomatoes  mixed  with  various  condimental  substances  and  flavoring 
matters  to  make  it  palatable  and  desirable  as  a  sauce.  The  character  of 
flavor  and  condimental  substances  employed  is  left  to  the  judgment  of  the 
manufacturer  and  the  taste  of  the  consumer,  provided  the  materials  are 
wholesome  and  sanitary.  It  has  been  claimed  by  some  manufacturers  that 
it  is  impracticable  to  place  this  desirable  product  upon  the  market  without 
the  use  of  chemical  antiseptics.  They  admit,  as  in  the  case  of  the  manu- 
facture of  fruit  sirups,  that  tomato  ketchup  can  be  sterilized  and  kept  properly 
until  the  bottle  is  opened  for  consumption;  but,  inasmuch  as  it  is  used  in 
small  quantities  and  a  bottle  of  it  lasts  for  many  days,  it  cannot  be  kept  in  a 
proper  state  except  by  the  use  of  such  preservatives.  The  principal  antisep- 
tics which  are  used  in  connection  with  tomato  ketchup  are  salicylic  and 
benzoic  acids. 

Experience  has  shown  that  these  claims  are  not  of  sufficient  value  to  war- 
rant the  exception  of  tomato  ketchup  from  the  ordinary  regulations  respect- 
ing pure  food.  The  habit  of  leaving  a  tomato  ketchup  bottle  upon  the  table 
where  the  material  adheres  to  the  rim  and  becomes  hardened  to  a  gummy 
paste,  serving  as  a  pabulum  for  flies,  does  not  appeal  with  any  great  force  to 
the   aesthetic  sense  relative  to  dining  rooms.     A  ketchup  bottle  carefully 


EDIBLE    STARCHES.  317 

opened  and  used  in  such  a  way  as  to  avoid  infection  and  then  returned  to  the 
ice  box  can  be  kept  for  many  days  without  danger  of  fermentation. 

Arii/icial  Colors. — Tomato  ketchup  is  sometimes  subjected  to  artificial 
coloring.  This  is  done  to  imitate  the  color  of  the  best  raw  material.  If 
red,  ripe,  sound  tomatoes  are  used  no  artificial  color  is  necessary. 

Use  of  Refuse  for  Making  Ketchup. — It  has  been  stated  that  the  unripe,  imper- 
fect tomatoes  at  the  time  of  harvesting  are  cooked  in  large  quantities  and  treated 
with  benzoic  acid  and  stored  in  large  containers  until  the  canning  season  is 
over,  after  which  this  material  is  made  into  ketchup  and  artificially  colored. 
Further  statements  have  also  been  made  to  the  effect  that  the  skins,  cores, 
and  refuse  of  the  cannery  have  been  treated  in  the  same  wav  as  indicated 
below.  The  proper  inspection  of  the  factories  would  exclude  from  the 
preparation  of  ketchup  unfit  material  of  the  kind  mentioned.  It  is  doubt- 
less true  that  when  the  people  are  finally  convinced  that  the  ketchup  which  is 
used  is  made  of  the  best  material  and  contains  no  artificial  color  or  no  harmful 
antiseptic,  its  use  will  be  immensely  increased. 

A  manufacturer  of  ketchup  recently  made  the  following  statement  respect- 
ing the  utilization  of  the  refuse  matter  at  the  cannery : 

"We  use  in  our  standard  catsup  the  peelings  and  small  tomatoes.  We 
preserve  the  pulp  with  four  ounces  of  sodium  benzoate  to  each  50  gallon  barrel, 
cooked  and  whipped  through  a  cyclone  pulp  machine.  It  takes  two  barrels 
of  this  stock  to  produce  60  gallons  of  catsup,  and  we  use  eight  ounces  more  of 
sodium  benzoate  to  preserve  it." 

If  waste  material  of  this  kind  is  sound  and  wholesome,  there  can  be  no 
valid  objection  to  its  use  if  the  product  be  preserved  by  sterilization  alone, 
and  offered  for  sale  under  its  proper  designation. 

STARCHES  USED  AS  FOODS. 

Edible  Starches. — Attention  has  already  been  called  to  the  fact  that  starch 
is  the  principal  constituent  of  many  of  the  common  foods,  such  as  cereals 
and  the  different  varieties  of  the  potato  and  other  vegetables.  Starch  is  often 
separated  from  the  part  of  the  plant  producing  it,  and  is  then  largely  consumed 
as  food  in  practically  a  pure  state.  Starches  used  in  this  way  are  presented 
in  the  form  of  pudding  or  desserts  of  some  kind,  and  are  often  richly  spiced, 
highly  sweetened,  and  often  eaten  with  cream..  Starch  also  appears  in  the 
market  under  other  names  such  as  tapioca,  arrowroot,  etc. 

Arrowroot. — The  plant  which  furnishes  the  substance  known  as  arrow- 
root belongs  to  the  natural  family  Cannaceae  and  is  principally  native  of 
tropical  regions.  The  most  important  source  of  the  arrowroot  of  commerce 
is  the  Canna  indica.  The  starch  of  this  plant  exhibits  in  a  strong  degree 
certain  characteristic  qualities  of  starches  derived  from  this  natural  family. 
The  hilum  in  this  starch  is  round  and  in  some  varieties  double.     The  ap- 


3l8  VEGETABLES,    CONDIMENTS,    FRUITS. 

pearance  of  this  starch  under  the  microscope  is  shown  in  Fig.  45.     The  product 
of  commerce  is  obtained  from  the  rhizome  and  tubers. 

Bermuda  Arrowroot. — The  Bermuda  arrowroot  is  obtained  principally  from 
the  Maranta  arimdinacea.  This  arrowroot  is  also  produced  very  largely 
in  St.  Vincent  and  other  West  Indian  localities.  The  granules  of  the  starch 
are  very  much  smaller  than  in  the  two  species  just  described.  The  hilum 
is  prominent,  and  frequently  takes  the  shape  of  a  well  defined  slit  instead  of 
the  usual  round  spot.  These  arrowroots  and  those  of  South  African  origin 
are  very  extensively  used  for  invalid  foods  where  starchy  foods  are  indicated, 


00  0 


>Q.cB^< 


Fig.  45.— Maranta  (ARROWROdx)  Starch  (X  200).— {Couries^  Bureau  of  Chemistry.) 

which,  howTver,  is  not  very  often  the  case.  These  starches  form  a  firm  and 
semi  translucent  jelly-like  body  when  heated  to  the  boiling  point  in  a  small 
quantity  of  water.  The  term  arrowroot  is  applied  to  starch  from  plants  of 
the  origin  mentioned  because  the  natives  of  the  country  producing  them  use 
the  bruised  rhizomes  as  a  poultice  for  wounds  caused  by  arrows. 

Canna  edulis. — This  species  of  Cannaceae  also  furnishes  a  starch  of  com- 
merce nearly  allied  to  the  Canna  indica.  The  common  commercial  name 
of  this  variety  of  starch  is  "Tous  le  mois."  The  starch  granules  of  this  species 
are  rather  larger  than  those  of  the  Canna  indica,  and  the  concentric  markings 
are  more  delicate  and  regular. 


EDIBLE   STARCHES. 


319 


Madagascar  Arrowroot. — There  is  also  produced  in  Madagascar  an  arrow- 
root from  a  different  form  of  plant,  namely  Tacca  pinnaiifida.  It  is  not, 
however,  of  any  very  great  commercial  importance.  A  similar  starch  is 
made  from  the  same  plant  in  Otaheite. 

Plantain  Meal. — The  plants  of  the  natural  family  Musaceae  are  important 
articles  of  food  in  many  tropical  regions,  the  plant  yielding  also,  in  addition 
to  the  starch,  fibers  suitable  for  textile  use.     The  fruit  of  the  Musa  paradi- 


FiG.  46.— A  Cassava  Field  in  Georgia. — (^Photograph  by  H.  W.  Wiley.) 


saica  is  chiefly  employed  for  this  purpose.  It  is  quite  similar  in  its  character 
to  the  fruit  of  the  allied  species,  Musa  sapientum,  or  common  banana.  The 
starch  granules  which  make  up  the  plantain  meal  are  remarkable  for  their 
long  and  narrow  shape.  The  lines  marking  their  surface  are  only  faintly  dis- 
tinguishable, and  the  hilum  is  small  and  somewhat  indistinct.  Plantain 
meal  is  not  used  to  any  very  great  extent  outside  of  the  country  where  it  is 
produced. 


320  VEGETABLES,    CONDIMENTS,    FRUITS. 

Sago. — Another  form  of  starch  which  has  a  high  value  as  a  food  product 
is  made  from  the  natural  family  Palmaceae.  The  palm  starch  or  sago  is 
consumed  in  immense  quantities  in  many  parts  of  the  world,  and  is  probably 
in  importance  only  second  to  the  starch  derived  from  the  cereals  as  human 
food.  The  starch  granules  are  rather  large  and  coarse,  although  very  many 
small  granules  are  found  mixed  with  them.  Some  of  the  larger  granules 
appear  to  be  partially  divided  or  broken.  The  hilum  is  distinct  and  very 
long.  The  sago  of  commerce  is  like  a  tapioca  made  from  the  palm  starch. 
It  has  been  subjected  to  heat  while  still  moist  in  the  process  of  manufacture, 
so  that  it  is  quite  difficult,  as  a  rule,  to  find  the  distinct  starch  granules  of 
the  palm  in  the  commercial  article.  Sago  is  grown  principally  in  the  Moluc- 
cas and  Sumatra. 

South  African  Arrowroot. — There  are  many  species  of  Marantaceae 
cultivated  in  South  Africa  from  which  arrowroot  is  manufactured.  They 
are  of  the  same  variety  as  that  used  in  Bermuda  and  the  West  Indies.  The 
cultivation  of  the  plant  has  modified  to  some  extent  the  action  of  the  starch 
granules  as  originally  found  in  the  uncultivated  plant.  The  starch  granules 
in  the  cultivated  variety  approach  more  nearly  a  spherical  form.  The  con- 
centric lines  are  much  more  distinct  and  the  hilum  more  prominent  than  in 
the  wild  variety. 

Tapioca. — The  most  important  of  the  starch  products  used  as  food  is  the 
tapioca.  It  is  made  from  the  plant  belonging  to  the  natural  family  Euphor- 
biaceae,  and  is  derived  particularly  from  the  variety  of  cassava  plant  known 
as  Manihot.  Attention  has  been  called  to  the  fact  that  many  of  the  varieties 
of  cassava  plant  are  highly  poisonous,  due  to  the  natural  development  dur- 
ing growth  of  hydrocyanic  acid,  one  of  the  most  violent  of  known  poisons. 
This  substance,  however,  is  of  quite  a  volatile  character,  and  when  com- 
minuted cassava  root  is  heated  or  boiled,  all  or  at  least  the  principal  part  of 
the  hydrocyanic  acid  (prussic  acid)  disappears.  None  of  it  or  at  least  not 
more  than  a  trace  is  found  in  the  food  product  tapioca.  A  comparatively 
sweet  variety  of  cassava  that  contains  but  a  small  proportion  of  prussic  acid 
is  grown  in  Florida  and  Georgia.  The  appearance  of  a  field  of  cassava  is 
shown  in  Fig.  46.  The  tapioca  of  commerce  is  prepared  by  the  separation  of 
the  starch  in  the  usual  way  by  grinding  and  washing  with  water.  Before  the 
starch  becomes  dry,  in  fact,  while  it  still  contains  its  maximum  degree  of 
moisture,  it  is  subjected  first  to  a  low  temperature  which  is  gradually  in- 
creased until  the  starch  granules  are  disintegrated  or  agglutinated  into  a  some- 
what firm  and  gelatinous  mass.  The  heat  is  then  continued  at  the  proper 
temperature  until  the  water  is  nearly  all  driven  off.  The  starch  from  this  plant 
is  sometimes  known  as  Brazilian  arrowroot. 

The  starch  granules  of  the  bitter  cassava  are  very  small  and  often  angular 
in  shape,  although  some  of  them  appear  as  well  rounded  spheroids.     The 


EDIBLE    STARCHES. 


321 


hilum  is,  as  a  rule,  clearly  distinguished.  The  microscopic  appearance  of  the 
grains  of  cassava  starch  is  shown  in  Fig.  47. 

Adulteration  of  Tapioca. — The  true  tapioca  should  only  be  made  from 
starch  of  the  cassava.  Any  starch,  derived  from  any  source  whatever,  if 
taken  in  the  moist  state  may  be  subjected  to  the  same  process  of  heating, 
and  forms  an  imitation  tapioca  which  possesses  many  of  the  physical  and 
probably  all  of  the  edible  properties  of  the  genuine  article.  The  substi- 
tution, however,  of  any  of  the  other  starches  for  that  of  the  cassava  is  at 
least  an  imitation,  if  not  an  adulteration,  of  the  genuine  article. 

Food  Starches  Derived  from  Cereals. — The  starches  which  are  derived  from 


0 


cb 


0^     Sd 

OOcQ 


"?    ^^oV>     ^„ 


z 


0     £ 


00 


Fig.  47.— Cassava  Starch  (X  200)  .—(Couriesj  Bureau  of  Chemistry.) 

the  common  cereals  are  also  extensively  used  as  food  products,  especially 
the  maize  starch  in  the  United  States.  It  is  commonly  sold  as  "corn"  starch, 
and  is  largely  used  for  the  purpose  already  mentioned.  It  may  be  in  its 
natural  state  or  it  may  be  previously  submitted  to  the  action  of  heat  while 
still  moist,  so  that  it  takes  on  the  character  of  tapioca  or  sago.  In  the  United 
States  the  Indian  corn  is  practically  the  only  cereal  which  furnishes  the  food 
starch  in  very  large  quantities,  although  rye  starch  is  extensively  used  for 
this  purpose  in  other  countries. 

The  starches  of  certain  of  the  legumes,  such  as  peas  and  beans,  have  also 
been  separated  and  used  for  food  purposes.     They  are  not,  however,  used 


to  any  such  extent  as  would  warrant  any  especial  reference  to  them  at  this 
point. 

Starch  from  the  Peanut. — The  peanut  also  yields  a  starch  which  has  some- 
times been  separated  and  used  for  food  purposes.  The  quantity  so  employed, 
however,  is  not  large  enough  to  be  of  commercial  importance. 

Food  Starch  Derived  from  the  Potato. — Potato  starch  is  also  used  very  ex- 
tensively for  food  purposes,  either  in  its  natural  form  or  when  subjected  to 
heat  while  still  moist,  as  in  the  preparation  of  tapioca  and  sago. 

Adulteration  of  Starches. — The  most  common  adulteration  of  starches  is 
rather  a  misbranding  than  adulteration.  The  practice  of  adding  inert  white 
powdered  mineral  matters  to  starches  is  practically  unknown  in  this  country. 
Starch  sometimes  contains  siilfurous  acid  used  as  a  bleach  in  its  preparation. 
This  is  an  injurious  substance  and  should  be  excluded  from  edible  starches. 
The  naming  of  a  starch  of  one  kind  by  the  name  of  another  and  more  valuable 
kind  is  simple  deception.  It  is  practiced  to  some  extent  in  this  and  other 
countries.  Starch  itself  may  be  used  as  an  adulterant,  as  when  maize  starch 
is  mixed  with  wheat  flour  or  powdered  starch  mixed  with  granulated  sugar. 
This  kind  of  adulteration  is  quite  unknown  in  this  country.  The  selHng  of 
cheaper  starches  for  tapioca  and  sago  is  more  common  than  it  should  be. 

CONDIMENTS. 

Condiments  other  than  Sugar,  Salt,  Vinegar,  and  Wood  Smoke. — The 

principal  condimental  substances  which  are  used  for  food  are  of  vegetable 
origin  and  of  a  highly  aromatic  character.  Condimental  substances  them- 
selves may  have  food  value,  that  is,  contain  digestible  material  which  takes 
part  in  the  metabolic  processes.  Their  utility,  however,  and  their  value 
do  not  depend  upon  the  amount  of  food  which  they  contain,  but  upon  their 
aromatic  and  condimental  principles  above  mentioned.  Condimental  sub- 
stances are  used  in  a  variety  of  ways,  but  in  general  it  may  be  said  that  in 
an  air-dried  state  they  are  reduced  to  a  fine  powder  and  employed  in  this 
form.  Extracts  may  also  be  made  from  these  condimental  substances,  either 
with  water  or  usually  with  alcohol,  and  this  extractable  matter  used  as  a 
condiment.  The  essential  oils  which  they  contain  are  also  frequently  separ- 
ated by  distillation,  and  in  this  purified  and  concentrated  state  are,  after 
dilution  with  alcohol,  used  for  condimental  purposes.  Peppermint  oil  is  a 
type  of  this  character  of  condiments. 

It  will  be  sufficient  for  the  purpose  of  this  manual  to  mention  the  principal 
condimental  substances  and  refer  for  the  character  of  their  composition  to 
the  standards  of  purity  established  for  them  under  authority  of  Congress  in 
Circular  19,  Office  of  the  Secretary,  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture. 

Alls  pice  J  also  known  as  pimento,  is  the  dried  fruit  of  the  Pimenta  pimenta  L. 


CONDIMENTS.  323 

Anise. — The  anise  is  a  plant  which  grows  from  14  to  16  inches  in  height. 
Its  botanical  name  is  Pimpinella  anisum  L.  French,  anis;  German,  Anis; 
Itahan,  aniso;   Spanish,  anis. 

The  anise  produces  abundant  seeds,  which  are  the  principal  condimental 
part.  The  seeds  are  used  either  directly  in  bread  and  other  foods  or  espe- 
cially in  the  manufacture  of  liqueurs  and  confections.  Anise  seed  is-  one  of 
the  oldest  of  condimental  substances  of  which  historical  account  has  been 
preserved. 

Bay  leaf  is  the  dried  leaf  of  the  Laurus  nohilis  L.  In  a  powdered  form 
it  is  used  as  a  condimental  substance  in  food,  but  it  is  chiefly  employed  in 
flavoring  alcohol  in  the  manufacture  of  the  material  known  as  bay  rum. 

Capers. — The  capers  are  obtained  by  drying  the  flower 'buds  of  the  caper 
bush.  The  botanical  name  is  Capparis  spinosa  L.  French,  caprier;  Ger- 
man, Kapernstrauch;  Italian,  cappero;   Spanish,  alcaparra. 

The  caper  is  a  plant  which  is  a  native  of  southern  Europe  of  shrub-like 
proportions,  growing  to  a  height  of  from  three  to  five  feet.  The  flower  buds 
are  gathered  when  they  are  about  as  large  as  peas  and  are  preserved  by. 
pickHng  in  vinegar. 

Caraway. — This  i^  a  plant  which  is  native  to  Europe,  is  either  annual  or 
biennial,  and  belongs  to  the  botanical  species  Cariim  Carol  L.  French, 
carvi;    German,  Feld-Kiimmel;   Italian,  carvi;    Spanish,  alcaravea. 

The  seeds  contain  the  aromatic  principles  which  make  the  caraway  valu- 
able as  a  condiment.  The  plant  often  grows  wild.  The  roots  have  some  value 
as  food  and  are  also  highly  spiced,  but  are  seldom  eaten.  The  seeds  are  used 
very  largely  for  flavoring  bread,  especially  among  the  Germans.  They  are 
also  used  in  certain  varieties  of  cheese,  especially  that  made  in  Holland. 
Often  they  are  found  in  certain  candies  and  other  confections. 

Cassia  is  that  variety  of  cinnamon  obtained  from  other  species  of  cinnamon 
than  Cinnamomiim  zeylanicum,  and  is  not  so  highly  valued  for  condimental 
and  other  purposes  as  the  true  cinnamon. 

Cassia  buds,  which  are  often  used  for  condimental  purposes,  are  the  dried 
immature  fruit  of  any  species  of  the  cinnamomum  plant.  The  cinnamon, 
as  it  is  offered  for  condimental  purposes,  is  usually  finely  ground,  and  the  same 
is  true  of  cassia. 

Celery  Seed. — The  seeds  of  celery  are  highly  prized  for  condimental  pur- 
poses, either  as  seeds  or  in  the  form  of  an  extract.  Both  are  also  often  recom- 
mended for  medicinal  purposes. 

Cinnamon. — The  cinnamon  is  the  bark  of  various  species  of  plants  belong- 
ing to  the  genus  Cinnamomum.  The  true  cinnamon  is  derived  solely  from 
the  bark  of  Cinnamomum  zeylanicum  Breyne. 

Cloves. — Cloves  are  dried  buds  of  the  Caryophylliis  aromaticus  L.  They 
are  used  either  in  the  original  dried  state  or  as  a  finely  ground  powder. 


324  VEGETABLES,    CONDIMENTS,    FRUITS. 

Coriander. — The  aromatic  principles  of  coriander  employed  for  condi- 
mental  purposes  are  found  in  the  dried  seeds  of  the  Coriandrum  sativum  L. 
This  is  a  plant  which  is  indigenous  to  southern  Europe,  growing  from  two  to 
two  and  a  half  feet  high.  The  seeds  are  used  in  the  manufacture  of  liqueurs 
and  for  seasoning  a  great  number  of  culinary  preparations.  It  is  stated  by 
some  authorities  that  the  leaves  are  used  for  condimental  purposes,  but  this 
is  not  the  case.  The  leaves  as  well  as  the  other  green  parts  of  this  plant  have 
a  very  unpleasant  odor  from  which  the  name  of  the  plant  is  derived.  This 
odor  is  of  a  character  which  would  exclude  the  leaves  from  use  for  condi- 
mental purposes. 

Cumin  Seed. — The  cumin  plant  (Cuminum  cyminum  L.)  is  thought  to  be 
indigenous  to  Egypt.  It  is  an  annual  plant,  sometimes  growing  from  four 
to  five  inches  high.  The  seeds  are  the  aromatic  part  and  are  used  for  con- 
dimental purposes.  They  have  a  hot,  acrid  taste  and  a  strong  aromatic 
flavor.  They  are  used  chiefly  for  flavoring  soups  and  in  the  manufacture 
of  pastry  of  all  kinds.     They  are  also  found  in  many  kinds  of  liqueurs. 

Dill. — The  dill  plant  (Anethum  graveolens  L.)  is  indigenous  to  southern 
Europe.  It  is  an  annual  plant  ^nd  grows  from  two  to  two  and  a  half  feet 
high.  The  seeds,  which  are  the  condimental  part  of  the  plant,  are  flat  and 
have  a  strong  and  bitter  flavor.  They  are  used  in  this  country  principally 
for  flavoring  a  kind  of  pickle  known  as  the  dill  pickle. 

Fennel. — The  fennel  plant  (Fceniculum  joeniculum  L.)  is  indigenous  to 
southern  Europe.  It  grows  both  wild  and  under  cultivation.  The  common 
garden  fennel  is  biennial  in  its  habits.  The  seeds  contain  the  condimental 
properties  of  the  plant,  and  the  seeds  of  the  cultivated  fennel  are  usually 
about  twice  as  long  as  those  of  the  wild  variety.  They  are  flat  on  one  side 
and  convex  on  the  other  and  crossed  by  thick  yellow-colored  ribs.  The 
seeds  are  used  chiefly  in  the  manufacture  of  liqueurs. 

Ginger. — The  ginger  is  the  root  of  the  plant  Zingiber  zingiber  L.,  and  is 
one  of  the  most  highly  prized  of  the  condimental  substances.  It  is  a  plant 
which  naturally  contains  a  large  amount  of  starch,  which  forms  nearly  half 
of  its  weight  in  the  dried  state.  The  roots  are  often  sent  into  commerce  covered 
with  lime,  either  for  the  purpose  of  preserving  them  or  bleaching  them.  This 
is  such  a  common  condition  that  the  limed  ginger  or  bleached  ginger  is  recog- 
nized as  a  legitimate  article  of  commerce. 

Mace. — The  mace  of  commerce  is  composed  of  the  dried  arillus  of  Myristica 
jragrans  Honttyn.  Mace  contains  a  large  quantity  of  fatty  substance,  usu- 
ally not  less  than  20  nor  more  than  30  percent  of  its  total  weight.  There 
are  several  varieties  of  mace  on  the  market,  the  principal  one  being  Ma- 
cassar mace,  which  is  obtained  from  the  dried  arillus  of  Myristica  argentea 
Warb.  The  Bombay  mace  is  derived  from  the  dried  arillus  of  Myristica 
malabarica. 


MUSTARD,    NUTMEG,   PEPPER.  325 

Marjoram  is  the  dried  leaf  of  the  plant  known  by  the  botanical  name  of 
Majorana  majorana  (L.)  Karst.  or  Origanum  viilgare  L.  This  plant  is  a 
native  of  Europe  and  is  a  very  common  wild  plant  in  France,  especially 
on  the  borders  of  the  forests.  It  is  also  extensively  cultivated.  It  is  a  per- 
ennial. The  leaves  of  the  plant  are  the  condimental  portions.  A  plant 
known  as  mountain  mint  is  frequently  sold  as  marjoram  and  has  some  of 
its  condimental  properties. 

Mustard. — The  mustard  seed  is  derived  from  various  species,  distinguished 
largely  by  the  color  of  the  seeds.  For  instance,  the  white  mustard  is  the  seed 
of  Sinapis  alba  L.,  the  black  mustard  the  seed  of  Brassica  nigra  (L.)  Koch, 
and  the  black  or  brown  mustard  the  seed  of  Brassica  jimcea  (L.)  Casson. 
The  mustard  is  a  widely  distributed  plant  probably  indigenous  to  Europe. 
It  grows  extensively  wild  and  is  also  largely  cultivated.  The  mustard  seed 
forms  one  of  the  most  important  condiments  of  commerce.  The  mustard  is 
often  ground  before  it  is  sold,  and  frequently  it  is  mixed  with  other  spices 
and  wath  oils  and  is  known  as  prepared  mustard.  This  latter  variety  is 
subjected  to  all  kinds  of  adulterations,  frequently  containing  very  little 
mustard  but  with  enough  turmeric  to  give  the  preparation  a  yellow  color 
resembling  that  attributed  to  the  pure  article.  Prepared  mustard  should  be 
a  thick  paste  composed  largely  of  ground  mustard  seed  together  with  salt, 
spices  of  different  kinds,  and  vinegar.     It  may  also  be  ground  in  oil. 

Nutmeg. — Nutmeg  is  the  seed  of  Myristica  jragrans.  The  seed  is 
sent  into  commerce  with  a  thin  coating  of  lime,  which,  of  course,  must  be 
removed  before  the  nutmeg  is  used.  It  is  principally  used  as  the  unground 
nut  and  by  grating  it  into  the  food  which  is  to  be  flavored  at  the  time  of  use. 
The  nut  thus  retains  its  flavor  much  better  than  when  all  ground  at  once 
and  kept  for  some  time.  There  are  many  varieties  of  nutmeg  on  the  market, 
the  principal  ones  being  the  Macassar,  Papua,  male,  and  long  nutmegs. 
These  are  all  the  dried  seeds  of  the  Myristica  argentea. 

Pepper. — Pepper  is  one  of  the  most  important  of  the  principal  aromatic 
condimental  substances.  There  are  many  standard  varieties  which  are 
known  to  the  trade  and  which  are  derived  from  distinct  botanical  species. 
The  principal  varieties  are  black  pepper,  white  pepper,  and  paprika  pepper. 
Black  pepper  is  the  dried  immature  berry  of  Piper  nigrum  L.  White  pepper 
is  the  dried  mature  berry  of  Piper  nigrum  L.  from  which  the  outer  and  the 
inner  coatings  of  the  seed  have  been  removed.  Paprika  pepper  is  a  red 
pepper  of  very  mild  aromatic  qualities  grown  chiefly  in  Hungary  and  in 
Spain. 

Cayenne  pepper  is  a  very  active  aromatic  red  pepper  which  is  the  dried 
fruit  of  Capsicum  jrutescens  L.  or  Capsicum  haccatum  L. 

The  red  peppers,  therefore,  may  be  divided  into  two  distinct  classes,  namely, 
cayenne  or  hot,  acrid  pepper  and  the  paprika  or  mild-flavored  pepper.     There 


326  VEGETABLES,    CONDIMENTS,    FRUITS. 

is  another  variety  of  pepper  known  on  the  market  as  long  pepper  which  is  the 
dried  fruit  of  Piper  longum  L. 

Safjron  is  the  dried  stigma  of  Crocus  sativiis  L. 

Sage  is  a  common  garden  plant  which  is  very  extensively  used  for  condi- 
mental  purposes,  belonging  to  the  species  Salvia  officinalis  L,  Sage  is 
used  very  extensively  by  the  housewife  in  the  preparation  of  domestic  sausage, 
and  is  perhaps  more  commonly  used  in  meat  products  of  this  description 
than  in  other  foods. 

Savory  or  summer  savory  is  a  preparation  from  the  leaf,  the  blossom,  and 
tender  tips  of  the  branches  of  Satureja  hortensis  L. 

Sweet  Basil. — This  plant  is  indigenous  to  India,  growing  usually  about  one 
foot  high.  The  botanical  name  is  Ocymiim  basilicum  L.  French,  basilic 
grand;    German,  BasiHkum;    Italian,  basilico;    Spanish,  albaca. 

The  leaves  of  the  plant  are  the  aromatic  part  and  are  extensively  used  for 
condimental  purposes  of  different  kinds.  There  are  many  varieties  of  basil 
in  use. 

Thyme. — Thyme  is  a  plant  indigenous  to  southern  Europe  and  belongs 
to  the  botanical  species  Thymus  vulgaris  L.  It  is  a  perennial  plant  and 
grows  in  the  form  of  a  small  dwarf  shrub.  The  plant  may  be  propagated 
either  by  cuttings  or  may  be  grown  from  the  seed.  The  leaves  and  young 
shoots  of  the  thyme  may  be  used  for  condimental  purposes.  Some  other 
species  of  the  thyme  are  also  used  for  condimental  purposes,  especially  the 
varieties  known  as  lemon  thyme  and  mother-of-thyme. 

Vegetable  Flavoring  Extracts. — In  speaking  of  condimental  substances  it 
was  stated  that  they  were  either  used  directly  in  a  state  of  fine  subdivision 
for  flavoring  purposes  or  their  extracts  were  employed.  The  use  of  the 
extract  is  often  more  convenient  than  the  use  of  the  powdered  material,  and, 
also,  it  secures  a  more  even  distribution  of  the  flavoring  principal  throughout 
the  food  product.  It  is  doubtful,  however,  if  for  really  condimental  purposes 
there  is  any  advantage  in  the  use  of  the  extracted  materials.  Nevertheless 
there  are  many  food  products  in  which  it  would  be  inconvenient  to  use  the 
powdered  aromatic  substance  itself  and  the  flavoring  extract  has  become 
established  as  a  legitimate  article  of  a  condimental  nature. 

All  the  common  extracts  used  in  foods  are  described  in  the  standards  of 
purity  established  by  the  Secretary  of  Agriculture  by  authority  of  Congress, 
and  issued  as  Circular  19. 


FRUITS. 
Definition. — Under  the  term  ''fruit"  is  included  the  edible  products  of 
many  trees  and  shrubs.     The  term  ''fruit"  in  its  general  sense  can  be  ap- 
plied to  any  kind  of  a  food  product,  as  for  instance  the  fruit  of  the  farm, 


GENERAL   CHARACTERISTICS   OF   FRUITS.  327 

the  fields,  and  the  forest,  but  in  a  restricted  sense,  as  it  will  be  used 
here,  it  is  applied  to  the  class  of  orchard  products  represented  by  apples, 
peaches,  pears,  etc.  Fruits,  in  a  general  sense,  include  also  that  class  of 
wild  or  cultivated  edible  bodies  known  as  berries.  The  term  "berry'"  is 
restricted  in  its  present  sense  to  the  products  of  certain  small  shrubs  or 
vines,  such  as  gooseberries,  blackberries,  raspberries,  etc.  The  fruits  that 
grow  upon  small  bushes,  such  as  the  currant  and  gooseberr}^  occupy  an  in- 
termediate position  bet^xen  the  orchard  fruits  which  have  been  mentioned 
and  berries.  Orchard  fruits  are  conveniently  divided  into  large  and  small 
fruits,  the  large  fruits  being  represented  by  the  apple,  pear,  peach,  quince, 
€tc.,  and  the  small  fruit  by  the  cherr}^  and  plum.  Fruits  were  doubtless 
among  the  earliest  foods  of  man,  and  this  leads  to  anothet  classification  of 
fruits,  namely,  wild  and  cultivated.  Wild  fruits,  at  the  present  time,  do  not 
include  any  large  proportion  of  human  foods.  There  are  certain  trees  growing 
wild,  such  as  the  mulberry,  the  wild  cherr}-,  and  others,  which  produce  delicious 
fruits,  usually  of  small  size.  The  term  "fruit"  as  used  herein  does  not  in- 
clude that  very  valuable  class  of  foods  known  as  nuts,  which  is  considered 
under  a  separate  classification. 

General  Characteristics  of  Fruits. — The  general  characteristics  of  fruits 
include  their  color,  flavor,  odor,  and  nutritive  properties  in  so  far  as  we  are  con- 
cerned with  them  in  this  manual.  They  are  composed  very  largely  of  water, 
perhaps  80  percent  or  more.  The  solid  matter  consists  of  the  usual  cellulose 
structure  of  vegetable  bodies,  sugars,  gums,  organic  acids,  and  mineral  matters. 
Fruits  are  all  succulent,  that  is,  by  reason  of  their  high  content  of  water,  com- 
posed chiefly  of  matters  in  solution  which  constitute  their  juices.  All  fruits, 
therefore,  when  subjected  to  pressure  yield  a  juice  which  contains  the  principal 
portion  of  their  dietetic  constituents.  The  study  of  the  composition  of  the 
fruit  juices  would,  therefore,  naturally  accompany  a  study  of  the  fruits  them- 
selves. The  chief  characteristics  of  fruit  from  a  dietetic  point  of  view  and 
also  as  to  palatability  are  derived-  from  their  sugars  and  acids.  The 
taste  also  is  largely  due  to  these  components.  In  addition  to  this 
the  fruits  contain  aromatic  substances  belonging  to  the  class  of  essential 
oils  and  compound  ethers  which  give  to  them  the  agreeable  odor  which  adds 
so  much  to  their  value.  Fruits  are  naturally  colored  and  these  colors,  to 
which  the  eye  is  accustomed,  become  marks  of  distinction  and  excellence 
in  many  cases.  The  prevailing  colors  of  fruits  are  red,  yellow,  and  green.  All 
shades  of  colors,  however,  are  represented  by  the  mingling  of  the  primary 
tints.  Certain  colors  are  associated  with  certain  fruits  as,  for  instance,  red 
with  the  cherry,  raspberry,  etc.,  green,  red,  and  yellow  with  apples,  and 
shades  of  red  and  yellow  with  peaches.  These  colors  are  due  to  the  different 
conditions  of  the  chlorophyll  or  vegetable  coloring  matter  which  the  skin  of 
the  fruit  contains.     The  three  principal  color  tints  which  are  produced  are 


328  VEGETABLES,    CONDIMENTS,    FRUITS. 

known  as  chlorophyll  (green),  xanthophyll  (yellow),  and  erythrophyll  (red),. 
The  mingling  of  these  three  distinct  colors  in  the  plant  coloring  matter  forms 
the  various  tints  which  are  seen  in  fruits  and  which  render  them  so  attractive 
to  the  eye. 

The  sugars  in  fruit  include  both  the  common  sugar  (sucrose)  and 
invert  sugar,  which  contains  equal  quantities  of  dextrose  and  levulose.  As 
the  sugar  is  more  or  less  abundant  in  proportion  to  the  other  ingredients  the 
fruit  is  more  or  less  sweet.  The  different  fruits  contain  different  quantities 
of  sugar, — the  richest  perhaps  is  the  grape  which  often  in  a  state  of  complete 
maturity  may  have  from  25  to  30  percent  of  sugar.  Apples  contain  from 
five  to  15  percent  of  sugar,  and  peaches  and  pears  somewhat  less.  In  fact 
this  range  in  sugar  will  cover  nearly  all  the  fruits,  large  and  small,  as  well  as 
most  of  the  berries.  The  quantity  of  sugar  contained  in  each  of  the  fruits 
will  be  especially  noted  in  treating  of  them  individually.  One  of  the  most 
important  constituents  of  fruit  from  a  palatable  point  of  view  is  found  in  its 
organic  acids.  These  vary  in  different  classes  of  fruits.  The  most  common 
organic  acid  in  fruit  is  malic,  which  is  the  chief  acid  in  the  apple  and  allied 
forms.  In  citrus  fruits,  such  as  the  lemon  and  orange,  citric  acid  is  the  principal 
organic  acid.  In  grapes  the  principal  organic  acid  is  tartaric.  More  than 
one  of  these  acids  is,  however,  usually  contained  in  a  single  fruit,  and  other 
organic  acids  than  those  named  are  found  in  small  quantities  in  various  fruits. 
The  three  mentioned  may  be  regarded  as  the  typical  acids  in  fruits.  These 
acids,  if  prepared  chemically  and  administered  in  a  pure  state,  have  practically 
no  food  value  at  all,  and  cannot  be  considered  as  wholesome  material  to  place 
in  the  stomach.  When,  however,  they  are  eaten  in  their  natural  state  in 
combination  with  the  potash  and  other  bases  which  fruits  contain,  and  mingled, 
as  Nature  has  done,  with  the  other  constituents,  they  add  not  only  to  the  pala- 
tability  but  also  to  the  wholesomeness  of  the  product.  This  is  only  another 
illustration  of  the  fact  that  natural  products  are  often  wholesome  and  desirable 
where  artificial  products  of  the  same  kind  chemically  are  hurtful  and  unde- 
sirable. Many  fruits  contain  considerable  quantities  of  a  carbohydrate 
allied  to  some  extent  in  its  composition  to  sugar  and  starch  but  which 
has  the  property  of  setting  to  a  semi-resilient  mass  known  as  jelly.  This 
constituent  in  fruit  is  known  as  pectin  or  pectose  and  is  present  in  greater  or 
less  quantities  in  almost  all  fruits.  It  is  by  the  utilization  of  this  component 
of  fruit  that  the  jellies  which  are  so  common  an  article  of  food  are  prepared. 
While  in  its  physical  properties  the  jelly  of  fruits  has  some  resemblance  to  the 
gelatine  or  jelly  of  animals,  its  chemical  composition  and  nutritive  values 
are  entirely  different.  The  gelatine  or  jelly  of  animals  is  essentially  a  nitrog- 
enous product  while  the  pectin  or  jelly  of  fruit  is  essentially  a  carbohydrate 
product.     The  two,  therefore,  are  not  to  be  confounded. 

Nutritive  Uses. — The  edible  fruits  are  not  only  valuable  on  account  of 


NUTRITIVE  USES.  329 

the  nourishment  they  contain  but  particularly  so  because  of  the  general 
effect  which  they  have  upon  the  digestive  operations.  Their  judicious  use 
is  conducive  to  health  in  many  ways.  The  fruits  are  mildly  laxative,  as  a 
rule,  although  there  are  some  exceptions  to  this.  For  instance,  in  some  berries, 
like  the  blackberry,  the  quantity  of  tannin  present  is  sufficient  to  cause  a 
styptic  or  binding  action.  While  all  the  fruits  contain  tannin  it  is  usually 
not  in  such  proportions  as  to  produce  a  constipating  effect.  On  the  other 
hand  the  combination  of  the  acids,  bases,  pectins,  and  sugars  favors  a  free  and 
natural  progress  of  the  food  through  the  alimentary  canal.  The  entire  with- 
drawal of  fruit  from  the  dietary,  even  if  the  nourishment  it  supplies  be  provided 
in  some  other  way,  would  work  great  damage  to  health.  There  are  certain 
dangers,  however,  to  be  avoided  in  the  general  use  of-  fruit.  Immature 
and  imperfect  fruits  are  unwholesome.  Fruits  are  often  subjected,  moreover, 
to  infection  with  eggs  of  various  kinds  of  insects,  and  these  organisms  and  the 
larvae  or  eggs  thereof  may  be  introduced  into  the  stomach  with  more  or  less 
injurious  effects.  In  the  eating  of  fruit,  care  should  be  exercised  in  the 
inspection  and  proper  preparation  of  the  article;  it  should  be  free  from  infec- 
tion, decay,  and  insect  life.  The  natural  condition  in  which  fruit  is  eaten  is 
in  the  raw  state,  and  in  general  it  may  be  said  that  this  is  the  more  wholesome 
and  preferable  way  of  eating  it.  On  the  other  hand  the  cooking  of  fruit  ster- 
ilizes it  and  makes  the  consumer  secure  against  any  infection  from  bacteria  and 
insect  life,  and  in  some  ways  promotes  to  a  certain  degree  the  digestive  processes. 
This  is  especially  true  of  fruits  of  a  hard  or  unyielding  nature.  Cooked 
fruits,  as  a  rule,  may  be  considered  less  desirable  than  the  natural  article,  but 
they  deserve  mention  on  account  of  their  freedom  from  infection,  wholesome- 
ness,  and  general  dietetic  value.  Some  fruits,  such  as  apples  and  pears,  con- 
tain notable  quantities  of  starch,  especially  in  the  immature  state,  and  this 
disappears  to  a  greater  or  less  extent  during  the  process  of  ripening.  At  the 
period  of  complete  maturity  the  starch  is  reduced  to  a  minimum  and  the  sugar 
in  the  fruit  reaches  a  maximum.  After  this  period  the  fruit  begins  to  lose  in 
dietetic  value,  due  to  the  natural  process  of  decay,  which  is  not  even  entirely 
checked  by  placing  the  fruit  in  cold  storage.  The  sugar  gradually  ferments  and 
disappears.  The  fruit  becomes  more  spongy  and  less  palatable  and  its  general 
properties  are  impaired.  Other  fruits,  such  as  the  orange  and  lemon,  berries, 
etc.,  contain  little  or  no  starch  at  any  period  of  their  growth.  By  careful 
storage  the  period  of  maturity  may  be  prolonged  for  weeks  or  even  months,  and 
thus  the  fruit  made  available  over  a  very  much  longer  period  than  would  other- 
wise be  the  case.  Under  the  existing  conditions  of  communication  with  all 
parts  of  the  world  it  is  not  impracticable  for  even  those  who  are  not  blest  with 
wealth  to  have  a  daily  supply  of  fresh  fruits  grown  in  different  parts  of  the  world. 
In  temperate  climes  fresh  fruits  are  available  from  June  until  May  of  the  fol- 


33©  VEGETABLES,    CONDIMENTS,    FRUITS. 

lowing  year,  either  furnished  directly  from  the  orchard  or  properly  preserved 
by  storage. 

Apples. — The  apple  is  one  of  the  principal  fruits  in  the  market  both 
because  of  its  crop  value  and  its  general  properties. 

It  is  the  most  abundant  as  well  as  the  most  valuable  of  fruits.  The  apple 
is  grown  practically  in  all  parts  of  the  United  States,  but  there  are  some  locali- 
ties in  which  apple  trees  are  grown  with  special  success.  Among  the  states 
which  are  famous  for  apple  growing  may  be  mentioned  New  York,  Virginia, 
Michigan,  and  Missouri. 

The  varieties  of  apples  are  so  numerous  that  it  will  be  useless  to  attempt 
to  mention  them.  Some  of  the  most  important  are  the  Ben  Davis,  the  Pippin, 
the  Winesap,  Jonathan,  Rhode  Island  Greening,  York,  Albemarle  Pippin, 
Clayton,  Early  Harvester,  Sweet  June,  Tompkins  King,  Northern  Spy, 
Russet,  Yellow  Bellflower,  etc. 

Acidity  oj  Apples. — One  of  the  chief  points  in  the  palatability  of  apples  as 
well  as  in  their  general  character  is  their  acidity.  While  apples  are  not  relished 
when  too  sour  they  are  as  little  relished  when  too  sweet.  The  sugar  and 
acid  in  apples  are  the  chief  factors  in  their  palatability,  not  excluding  the 
delicate  flavor  imparted  by  essential  oils  and  ethereal  substances  which, 
though  present  in  such  small  quantities  as  not  to  be  measured  chemically, 
nevertheless  are  highly  important  in  making  up  the  total  ejffect  of  palatability 
and  wholesomeness.  The  chief  acid  in  apples  is  malic.  It  exists  during 
all  periods  of  the  growth  of  the  apple,  but  is  more  apparent  in  the  green  and 
immature  state  than  in  the  ripe  fruit.  The  relative  quantity  of  malic  acid 
in  respect  of  sugar  and  starch  is  given  under  the  heading  of  "  Behavior  of  Apples 
During  Storage." 

Adulteration  of  Apples. — There  is,  of  course,  no  adulteration  of  apples 
in  their  natural  state  except  the  attempt  which  is  sometimes  made  to  deceive 
the  purchaser  respecting  the  character  of  the  whole  package  by  placing  the 
best  and  most  attractive  fruit  on  the  top.  This  is  such  a  well  known  practice, 
though  regrettable,  as  not  to  demand  any  particular  comment.  The  purchaser 
who  has  his  own  interest  at  stake  will  usually  inspect  the  bottom  as  well  as 
the  top  of  the  package  before  buying.  The  chief  forms  of  debasement  are 
those  which  are  not  practiced  with  any  attempt  to  deceive.  They  consist 
in  offering  apples  which  are  bruised  by  carelessness  in  gathering,  or  which 
are  infected  by  insect  life.  In  fact  the  greatest  damage  to  which  the  apple 
is  subject  is  that  of  the  ravages  of  insects.  There  are  certain  kinds  of  insects 
which  naturally  breed  in  the  apple.  The  egg  is  often  laid  in  the  early  develop- 
ment of  the  fruit  and  by  the  time  the  apples  are  ready  for  consumption  the 
larvae  stage  has  been  reached  and  the  worm  has  produced  ravages  to  a  great 
extent  which  are  often  not  indicated  by  any  external  appearance.  It  is 
evident  that  the  farmer  cannot  be  held  responsible  in  all  cases  for  this  condition 


APPLES. 


331 


of  the  fruit.  Nevertheless  it  is  only  fair  to  state  that  in  the  modern  develop- 
ment of  the  spraying  industry  the  ravages  of  insect  pests  can  be  restrained 
and  controlled,  if  not  entirely  prevented,  by  the  proper  spraying  of  the  fruit. 
This  spraying  introduces  another  danger  which  cannot  be  forgotten,  namely, 
the  remaining  upon  the  surface  of  the  fruit  of  some  of  the  spraying  material 
itself.  If  present  at  all  this  material  is  apt  to  be  either  at  the  point  of  the 
junction  of  the  stem  with  the  fruit  or  at  the  opposite  extremity  of  the  apple. 
For  this  reason  the  fruit  when  eaten  raw  should  be  peeled  in  order  that  any 
remaining  particles  of  the  poisonous  material  used  in  spraying  may  be  removed. 
It  is  to  the  interest  of  the  merchant  to  present  fruit  of  this  kind  in  the  most 
attractive  form,  by  the  exclusion  of  bruised,  rotten,  or  infected  apples  and 
the  offering  of  the  sound,  ripe  fruit  in  as  presentable  a  condition  as  possible. 
Composition  of  Apples  at  Various  Stages  of  Maturity.-^ — The  following  table 
shows  the  analysis  made  of  one  variety  of  apple,  the  Baldwin,  at  various 
stages  of  maturity: 


Condition. 


Percenl. 

18.47 

20.19 

19.64 

Overripe, I     19.70 


Very  green, . 

Green, 

Ripe,. 


Solids.        J^JVert 
Sugar. 


Percent. 
6.40 
6.46 

7-70 
8.81 


Cane 
Sugar. 


Percent. 
1.63 
4-05 
6.81 
5.26 


Starch. 


Percent. 

4.14 

3-67 

.17 

None 


Acidity  as 
Malic  Acid. 


Percent. 
1. 14 


•65 
.48 


Ash. 


Percent. 
0.27 


.27 
.28 


The  chief  point  of  interest  in  the  above  analysis  is  the  gradual  decline 
•of  the  starch.  When  the  apple  is  overripe  the  starch  is  entirely  gone.  When 
the  apple  is  ripe  only  a  small  part  of  the  starch  is  found.  In  the  green  apple 
very  large  quantities  of  starch  are  found.  The  sugar  increases  as  the  starch 
diminishes.  There  is  a  little  over  14  percent  of  sugar  in  the  perfectly  ripe 
apple  but  much  less  in  the  green.  The  acidity  calculated  as  malic  acid  dimin- 
ishes as  maturity  is  approached.  In  general  it  may  be  said  that  in  the  ripening 
■of  an  apple  the  starch  is  converted  into  sugar  and  the  acidity  is  diminished. 

The  composition  of  apples  varies  very  greatly,  as  may  be  easily  understood, 
with  the  variety  of  the  apple  examined,  the  character  of  the  season  in  which 
it  grew,  and  with  the  individual  apple  or  sample.  The  best  that  can  be  done 
in  showing  the  composition  of  apples  is  to  give  some  of  the  most  reliable  analy- 
ses, covering  the  largest  range  of  examinations  in  this  and  other  countries. 
In  the  following  table  are  given  three  sets  of  analyses  of  American  apples 
and  two  sets  of  foreign  apples,  the  first  three  being  American  and  the  second 
series  being  foreign. 

The  table  gives  the  number  of  samples  included  in  the  analytical  data, 
and  the  mean,  maximum,  and  minimum  results  of  the  analyses. 


332 


VEGETABLES,    CONDIMENTS,    FRUITS. 


Series  i : 

Average, 

Maximum, 

Minimum, 

Series  2 : 

Average, 

Maximum, 

Minimum, . 

Series  3 : 

Average, 

Maximum, 

Minimum, 

Foreign  Variety 

Series  i : 

Series  2 : 

Average, 

Maximum, 

Minimum 


y 

ill 

2«^ 

IS 

Per. 
cent. 

Per- 
cent. 

Per- 
cent. 

Per- 
cent. 

Per. 

cent. 

13 

16.4? 

9-37 

.240 
.320 
.170 

.376 
.670 
.190 

:i?6 
■356 

7.04 

27 

16.43 
13.46 

.27 
-34 
•17 

.486 
.811 
•073 

— 

7-92 

11-75 

5-34 

23 

13-65 
16.5S 
10.60 

.288 
.404 
.228 

.452 
.863 

•139 

.694 

1.094 

.421 

8.73 

10.80 
6.89 

17 

16.42 

.310 

.614 

-39 

7-73 

5 

15-07 
16.03 
14.04 

.290 
.360 
.240 

.234 
•329 
.190 

.... 

10.12 

10.69 

9-77 

Per- 
cent. 

4-59 

7-79 
1.80 


3-99 
6.81 
1.74 


1-53 
2.81 


•15 


•55 

I. II 

None 


Per- 
cent. 


0.96 

1.29 

.70 

1.98 


The  combination  of  the  average  data  of  the  American  series  shows  a  mean 
percentage  of  reducing  or  invert  sugar  of  7.90  and  of  cane  sugar  of  3.40. 
The  average  American  apple  therefore  contains  11.30  percent  sugar. 

Dietetic  Value. — The  wholesomeness  of  apples  is  well  recognized  by  all 
authors  on  physiology  and  hygiene,  and  the  necessity  of  at  least  a  partial 
fruit  diet  is  acknowledged  by  all.  Inasmuch  as  the  apple  is  one  of  the  most 
abundant  of  fruits,  being  produced  in  enormous  quantities  and  sold  often 
at  a  very  low  rate,  its  value  as  a  food  product  is  probably  not  as  fully  acknowl- 
edged by  our  own  people  as  it  should  be.  Through  a  greater  part  of  the  year 
apples  can  be  made  a  staple  article  of  diet.  They  are,  of  course,  to  be  most 
highly  recommended  uncooked,  and  especially  those  varieties  which  have  high 
palatable  qualities  and  a  suitable  softness  of  texture.  Very  hard  apples, 
even  if  palatable,  are  not  recommended  for  eating  raw.  In  a  cooked  state 
the  apples  are  scarcely  less  wholesome  and  nutritious  than  in  the  raw  state. 
It  is  true  that  in  pastry  their  good  qualities  are  often  counteracted  by  the 
poor  quality  of  the  pastry  envelop  which,  by  reason  of  the  method  of  its  prep- 
aration, usually  with  an  excessive  quantity  of  lard  or  some  other  oil  or  fat,  is 
rendered  sometimes  not  only  unpalatable  but  also  difficult  of  digestion.  In  a 
stewed  condition  or  prepared  in  some  other  unobjectionable  manner  no  ad- 
verse criticism  can  be  made  upon  the  quality  of  the  apple  as  an  edible 
product.  It  may  also  be  preserved  in  cans  by  sterilization  by  the  process 
described  under  canned  fruits.     In  this  condition  the  product  is  known  as 


APPLES. 


333 


*'  canned  apples."  When  prepared  in  this  way  the  apples  are  often  fiavored 
with  sugar  and  sometimes  with  spices. 

Many  suggestions  are  often  given  as  to  the  proper  time  for  eating  apples, 
but  it  probably  makes  little  difference,  so  far  as  their  dietary  or  hygienic 
character  is  concerned,  whether  they  are  eaten  before  or  after  meals  or  during 
meals.  Since  it  is  advisable,  as  a  rule,  not  to  introduce  into  the  stomach 
continually  fresh  portions  of  food,  it  may  be  regarded  as  safe  advice  to  suggest 
that  the  consumption  of  fruit  be  made  practically  a  function  of  the  meal 
and  that  it  be  not  used  indiscriminately,  loading  the  stomach  between  meals 
with  additional  quantities  of  material  which  require  digestion. 

Length  of  Hardest. — By  selecting  varieties  that  mature  early  in  the  summer, 
in  the  early  autumn,  and  in  the  late  autumn  the  period  for  Kanesting  apples 
may  be  prolonged  in  the  northern  states  from  August  to  November.  During 
this  period,  if  the  different  varieties  are  properly  selected  for  the  maturing  time, 
the  ripe  apple  can  be  offered  to  the  markets  fresh  from  the  tree  during  the 
entire  season.  As  a  rule  the  later  maturing  varieties  are  more  palatable,  more 
aromatic,  and  more  nutritious  than  those  that  mature  early. 

Pedose  Content  oj  Apples. — The  juice  of  apples  like  the  juice  of  many  other 
fruits  has  the  property  of  coagulating  to  a  solid  or  semi-solid  material  on 
boiling  to  a  proper  consistence  and  allowing  to  stand.  It  is  due,  essentially, 
to  the  existence  of  pectin  or  pectose  bodies  as  described  in  the  introduction 
to  the  chapter  on  fruits.  This  is  a  body  allied  to  the  carbohydrates  and 
must  be  regarded  as  one  of  the  essential  constituents  of  apples  and  as 
imparting  to  them  a  characteristic  flavor  and  quality. 

Picking  and  Care  of  Apples. — ^The  greatest  difficulty  experienced  in  market- 
ing apples  is  in  the  danger  of  bruising  either  at  the  time  of  picking  or  during 
transportation.  The  apple  when  removed  from  the  tree  still  remains  a 
living  organism  with  all  of  its  functional  activities,  except  additional  growth, 
continuing  in  full  power.  As  a  rule,  at  the  time  of  picking  the  apple  is  not 
yet  mature,  and  unless  intended  for  immediate  consumption  the  utmost  care 
should  be  exercised  that  the  skin  be  not  broken  or  the  flesh  bruised.  WTierever 
the  flesh  of  the  apple  is  bruised  it  lessens  its  vitality  and  decay  soon  begins. 
This  is  shown  very  conclusively  in  the  studies  in  the  Bureau  of  Chemistry, 
where  it  was  found  that  the  starch  which  is  still  present  in  apples  at  the  time 
of  picking  is  gradually  converted  into  sugar  during  the  storage  of  the  apple, 
thus  increasing  the  palatability  of  the  fruit.  In  those  parts  of  the  flesh  that 
have  been  bruised  and  the  vitality  impaired  the  starch  remains  unchanged 
during  the  process  of  ripening.  By  the  careful  picking  of  the  fruit  and  WTap- 
ping  in  soft  papers,  so  as  to  prevent  bruising  in  transit,  apples  of  the  proper 
character  can  be  transported  long  distances,  even  beyond  the  seas,  and  arrive 
in  good  condition.  This  is  an  especially  important  fact  in  the  American 
market,  because  our  foreign  trade  in  fresh  apples  is  very  large  and  constantly 


334 

growing.  It  is  useless  to  attempt  to  send  a  bruised  or  decaying  apple  on  a. 
long  journey,  since  it  will  arrive  in  a  condition  unfit  for  consumption  and^ 
further  than  this,  the  organisms  which  are  active  in  decay  are  conveyed  to 
the  sound  fruit,  and  thus  a  whole  package  may  be  infected  from  a  single 
apple  in  bad  condition. 

Storage  of  Apples. — The  apple  is  a  crop  which  is  capable  of  being  stored 
through  many  months,  especially  in  winter  time,  without  any  material  dete- 
rioration. The  subject  of  the  storage  of  apples  has  been  carefully  studied  in 
the  Bureau  of  Chemistry  and  the  Bureau  of  Plant  Industry,  and  the  following 
are  some  of  the  conclusions  which  have  been  reached : 

Tannin  Principle. — Apples,  as  is  the  case  with  other  fruits,  have  a  notable 
content  of  tannin  in  some  form.  This  constituent  of  apples  is  also  active 
in  giving  flavor  and  palatability  to  the  product.  It  is  not  present  in  quan- 
tities which  render  the  apple  unusually  bitter  or  styptic  in  its  character.  Inas- 
much as  tannin  is  practically  a  universal  constituent  of  all  vegetable  sub- 
stances it  must  not  be  neglected  as  a  normal  constituent  of  fruit,  while  some 
of  the  fruits,  especially  the  grape,  owe  some  of  their  chief  characteristics 
as  to  flavor  and  palatability  to  their  tannin  content. 

Preparation  of  Apples  for  Drying. — The  apples  usually  are  brought  to  the 
large  factories  in  wagons  or  by  railway  and  are  pared  and  sliced  by  machinery. 
Where  proper  control  is  exercised  all  the  imperfect,  rotten,  and  infected 
apples  are  rejected,  and  are  used  either  for  cattle  feeding  or  sometimes,  un- 
fortunately, in  cider  making.  The  sound  apples,  after  they  are  pared  and 
sliced,  are  placed  in  trays  and  passed  to  a  sulfuring  apparatus  where  they 
are  exposed  to  the  fumes  of  burning  sulfur  to  prevent  their  becoming 
dark  upon  evaporation.  In  other  words  it  is  essentially  a  bleaching  process. 
The  fumes  of  sulfur  are  also  strongly  antiseptic  in  character,  and  thus  the 
finished  product  is  less  likely  to  decay  or  become  infected  with  mould 
than  a  similar  product  not  exposed  to  the  fumes  of  sulfur.  This  process 
is  extensively  practiced,  but  its  extent  does  not  render  it  immune  from  proper 
criticism.  Of  24  samples  of  evaporated  fruits  purchased  on  the  open  market 
13  samples  had  been  treated  with  sulfur  fumes.  This  shows  that  over  50  per- 
cent of  evaporated  fruits  are  sulfured  during  the  process  of  preparation  and 
evaporation.  The  greater  number  of  physiological  and  hygienic  experts 
agree  that  the  fumes  of  burning  sulfur,  commonly  known  as  sulfurous  acid, 
are  injurious  to  health.  It  has  been  shown  by  researches  in  the  Bureau  of 
Chemistry  that  sulfurous  acid  or  sulfites  have  a  specific  influence  upon  the 
red  corpuscles  of  the  blood,  tending  to  diminish  them  very  largely  in  relative 
numbers.  This  acid  has  also  many  other  influences  upon  metabolism  of  an 
objectionable  character.  The  question  is  one  worthy  of  very  careful  con- 
sideration— whether  for  the  sake  of  preserving  a  light  color  and  securing 
immunity  from  mould  or  decay  it  is  advisable  to  introduce  into  a  food  prod- 


APPLES.  335 

uct  any  quantity  whatever  of  a  substance  injurious  to  health.  The  answer 
to  this  question  seems  almost  unavoidable,  and  it  is,  and  should  be,  negative. 
It  is  highly  advisable  that  the  manufacturer  of  evaporated  apples,  as  well 
as  other  fruits  treated  in  a  similar  manner,  should  at  once  begin  a  series 
of  experimental  determinations  for  the  purpose  of  ascertaining  whether 
or  not  a  product  equally  as  palatable  and  more  wholesome  cannot  be  made 
without  the  use  of  sulfurous  acid.  The  result  of  this  investigation  cannot 
be  doubted.  There  is  no  doubt  whatever,  even  at  the  present  time,  that 
by  the  elimination  of  the  sulfuring  process  a  product  can  be  made  which  is 
far  more  wholesome,  although  perhaps  not  so  presentable  as  that  which  is 
now  made.  If  all  manufacturers  of  evaporated  fruits  practice  the  same 
method  there  can  be  no  financial  injury  as  a  result  of  the  darker  color  which 
the  finished  product  would  assume.  On  the  contrary  the  consumer  of  this 
product  would  soon  understand  that  a  different  color  was  due  to  a  more 
hygienic  method  of  preparation,  and  hence  the  product  would  be  commended 
in  such  a  way  as  doubtless  would  largely  increase  its  consumption.  Instead 
of  the  manufacturer  being  injured  by  the  prohibition  of  the  use  of  sulfur 
he  would  in  a  very  short  time  be  greatly  benefited.  It  is  hoped  that  by 
the  means  of  general  information  which  is  spread  abroad  concerning 
matters  of  this  kind  among  our  people  and  also  through  the  operations  of 
national  and  state  laws  the  use  of  injurious  substances,  such  as  the  fumes 
of  burning  sulfur,  in  connection  with  food  products,  may  be  entirely  dis- 
continued. 

Dried  Apples. — A  very  important  industry  in  this  country  is  the  preserva- 
tion of  apples  by  drying  or  evaporation.  The  term  "dried"  apples  is 
usually  applied  to  the  product  which  is  naturally  dried  by  cutting  the 
apples  into  convenient  sizes  and  exposing  them  to  the  action  of  the  sun. 
This  is  more  of  a  domestic  than  a  commercial  industry,  and  until 
the  introduction  of  artificial  drj'ing  was  practiced  very  generally  by  the 
farmers'  wives  of  the  country.  It  was  not  an  unusual  thing  in  the  autumn 
to  see  the  roofs  of  smoke  houses  or  kitchens  practically  covered  with 
sliced  apples  exposed  to  the  drying  influence  of  the  autumnal  sun.  In  such 
cases  care  must  be  exercised  always  to  have  the  exposed  articles  under  such 
control  as  to  enable  them  to  be  gathered  up  and  put  away  when  rain  is  threaten- 
ing. The  dried  apple  is  a  wholesome  fruit,  although  somewhat  unattractive  in 
appearance  owing  to  the  darkening  of  the  surface  during  the  long  exposure 
necessary  to  secure  the  proper  degree  of  evaporation.  When  properly  pre- 
pared the  dried  apple  has  its  moisture  content  reduced  to  approximately  30 
percent  or  less. 

Evaporated  Apples, — The  term  "evaporated"  is  applied  to  apples  produced 
on  the  same  principle  as  those  ''dried,"  but  instead  of  being  exposed  to  the  sun's 
heat  they  are  artificially  dried  by  evaporation.     This  industry  has  reached 


33^ 


VEGETABLES,    CONDIMENTS,    FRUITS. 


a  great  magnitude  in  this  country,  and  Wayne  Co.,  New  York,  especially, 
may  be  regarded  as  one  of  the  centers  of  the  evaporating  industry. 

Cherries. — The  cultivated  cherry  tree  is  believed  by  Bailey  and  Powell  to 
have  been  derived  from  its  ancestral  type,  the  sour  cherry  (Prunus  cerasus  L.), 
which  is  characterized  by  a  diffuse  and  mostly  low,  round-headed  growth 
with  fruit  which  is  always  red,  with  soft  flesh  and  very  sour  taste,  and  from 
the  sweet  cherry  {Prunus  avium  L.),  a  tall  growing  tree  with  the  bark  tending 
to  peel  off  in  birch-like  rings  and  with  variously  colored  fruit,  spherical  or 
heart-shaped,  with  the  flesh  hard  or  soft  and  generally  sweet.  There  are  a 
great  many  varieties  of  these  trees.  The  cherry  orchard  begins  to  bear 
profitably  at  about  the  age  of  five  years;  the  trees  often  live  to  a  great  age 
and  continue  to  bear  fruit.  Records  of  cherry  trees  over  a  hundred  years  old 
are  known.  However,  it  is  believed  that  about  thirty  years  is  the  limit  for 
profitable  bearing.  Cherries  grow  in  all  parts  of  the  United  States.  Formerly 
the  crop  was  a  very  important  one  in  the  East,  especially  New  York,  but  of 
late  years  the  California  cherries  have  been  more  and  more  occupying  the 
market.  As  a  rule  the  California  cherries  are  finer  in  appearance,  larger, 
and  freer  from  worms  and  imperfections,  and  possess  a  flavor  which  is  often 
equal  to  that  of  the  best  flavored  cherries  grown  in  the  East. 

Composition  of  Cherries. — What  has  been  said  respecting  the  variations 
in  the  composition  of  apples  is  applicable  with  equal  force  to  cherries.  In 
the  following  table  is  given  first  the  mean  composition  of  six  samples  of  cherries 
of  American  origin  with  the  maximum  and  minimum.  Following  this  is 
the  mean  composition  of  nine  samples  of  foreign  cherries. 


Origin. 


American 

Average, . . 

Maximum 

Minimum, 
Foreign 

Average, . . 


No.  OF 
Sam- 
ples. 


Total 
Solids. 


Per- 
cent. 


20.13 
38.84 
11.46 

19.74 


Ash. 


Per- 
cent. 

•443 
.521 

•403 
•73 


Acidity 

Ex- 
pressed 

AS  H2SO4. 


Per- 
cent. 


•432 
.605 
.328 

.665 


Protein 

NX6.25. 


Per- 
cent. 


1-425 
1.727 
1. 100 

.620 


Total 
Sugars. 


Per- 
cent. 


12.75 
8.08 


10.24 


The  data  show  that  the  average  quantity  of  insoluble  matter  in  cherries 
is  about  the  same  whether  of  American  or  foreign  origin.  The  total  solids 
represent  that  part  of  the  cherry  which  is  not  water,  including  principally 
the  cellulose,  the  ash,  and  the  protein.  The  quantity  of  protein,  as  is  seen,  is 
quite  small,  the  average  being  a  little  less  than  \\  percent.  The  total  sugar 
present,  including  cane  sugar  and  reducing  sugar,  is  a  little  over  11  per- 
cent.    The  analytical  table  does  not  give  the  minute  portions  of  essential 


GRAPES.  337 

oils,  ethereal  substances,  and  acids  to  which  the  juice  owes  its  distinctive 
flavor. 

Varieties. — There  are  a  great  many  trade-names  given  to  different  varieties 
of  cherries.  In  New  York  the  common  varieties  are  the  Black  Tartarian, 
Black  Eagle,  Napoleon,  Yellow  Spanish,  Windsor,  May  Duke,  Robert's 
Red  Heart,  Governor  Wood,  Early  Richmond,  etc. 

A  great  many  cherry  trees  are  also  grown  in  Iowa.  The  varieties  most 
prized  in  Iowa  are  the  Malaheb,  the  Mazzard,  Wild  Bird  Cherry,  Sand 
Cherry,  American  Morello,  Russian  Seedling,  Northwest,  Duchess  d'Angou- 
leme,  and  very  many  others. 

In  Virginia  the  principal  varieties,  in  addition  to  those  mentioned,  which 
are  cultivated,  are  the  Coe,  Early  Purple,  Kirtland  Mary,  Rockport,  Olivet, 
Philippe,  etc. 

The  cherry  owes  one  of  its  chief  values  to  the  fact  that  it  is  one  of  the 
first  orchard  fruits  to  ripen.  In  the  vicinity  of  Washington  cherries  ripen  in 
May,  and  further  north  not  later  than  June.  The  cherry,  therefore,  offers 
a  delicious  and  wholesome  fruit  early  in  the  season,  and  is  the  precursor  of 
the  crops  of  orchard  fruits  which  begin  early  in  May  and  last  until  the  frosts 
of  autumn.  It  is  eaten  raw,  stewed,  or  in  the  form  of  pie  or  pudding.  For 
cooking  purposes  it  is  desirable  that  the  pit  of  the  cherry  be  removed. 

Grapes. — There  is  no  fruit  more  highly  esteemed  in  this  and  other  countries 
than  grapes.  The  utilization  of  grapes  for  wine  making  is  reserved  for  dis- 
cussion in  the  companion  volume  to  the  present  manual  devoted  to  beverages. 
Table  grapes  are  grown  extensively  in  this  country  in  New  York,  Ohio,  Vir- 
ginia, Missouri,  and  California.  In  fact,  such  grapes  are  grown  in  almost 
every  state,  but  those  mentioned  embrace  the  principal  grape-growing  districts. 
The  Catawba  and  Delaware  varieties  are  the  chief  products  of  the  northern 
vineyards.  Many  other  varieties  are  produced  in  California,  such  as  the 
Tokay,  Muscat,  and  Malaga,  while  in  the  South  one  of  the  principal  varieties 
is  the  Scuppernong.  The  oldest  grape  vine  known  in  the  United  States  is  the 
original  Scuppernong  stock. 

I  am  indebted  to  Dr.  B.  W.  Kilgore,  of  Raleigh,  N.  C,  for  the  following 
description  of  the  vine  and  also  for  Fig.  48. 

"The  Scuppernong  Vine  on  Roanoke  Island,  North  Carolina. 

"The  old  scuppernong  grape  vine  on  Roanoke  Island  is  probably  the 
oldest  fruiting  plant  in  America — certainly  one  of  the  oldest  of  which  there 
is  definite  knowledge.  A  clear  record  of  it  begins  in  1797,  when  the  land  on 
which  it  was  growing  was  purchased  by  Maurice  Baum.  Previous  to  his 
purchase  nothing  definite  is  known  as  to  its  age  or  to  whom  it  belonged,  save 
the  fact  that  it  was  then  a  very  old  vine,  as  Maurice  Baum  was  told  by  his  father 
that  he  had  eaten  grapes  from  it  when  a  boy.  From  Maurice  Baum  the  estate, 
23 


33^ 


VEGETABLES,  CONDIMENTS,  FRUITS. 


of  which  the  vine  was  a  part,  descended  to  his  daughter,  Mahala,  and  from  her 
to  Benjamin  F.  Meekins,  her  son,  who  is  the  present  owner. 

"The  vine  is  situated  on  the  northern  end  and  on  the  eastern  shore  of  the 
island,  about  two  miles  south  of  the  supposed  site  of  Fort  Raleigh.  It  covers 
an  area  of  abou4;  one-fourth  of  an  acre,  and  as  far  back  as  can  be  remembered 
its  growth  has  been  stationary,  probably  due  to  a  lack  of  proper  training  and 
inducement  to  spread.  The  vine  has  five  large  trunks  averaging  tv^o  feet  in 
circumference  which  are  indescribably  gnarled  and  twisted.     It  is  still  vigorous 


Fig.  48.— Scuppernong  Grape  Vine,  Roanoke  Island. — {Courtesy  B.  IV.  Kilgore.) 


and  yields  abundantly,  seemingly  unaffected  by  age  in  this  respect.  A  con- 
servative estimate  of  its  yield  is  an  average  of  sixty  bushels  of  grapes  a  season." 

There  is  no  part  of  the  country,  however,  that  grows  grapes  so  abundantly 
as  California.  Many  thousands  of  acres  are  covered  with  vines,  both  for  table 
use  and  wine  making.  The  climate  is  remarkably  well  suited  to  produce  a 
grape  very  rich  in  sugar.  The  edible  grapes  do  not  have  so  high  a  content  of 
sugar  as  those  used  for  wine  making,  as  is  shown  by  the  data  below. 

Composition  oj  California  Grapes  (three  samples)  (edible  portion): 

Water, '.80,12  percent 

Protein, 1.26       " 

Sugar, 16.50       " 

Pure  ash, 0.50       " 

Fat,  fiber,  etc., '. 1.62       " 


PEACHES. 


339 


The  preceding  analyses  are  evidently  of  grapes  for  table  use.  The  juice 
of  the  wine-making  grapes  of  California,  according  to  the  composition  of  the 
wine,  contains  about  24  percent  of  sugars. 

The  luxurious  growth  of  the  vine  in  California  is  illustrated  by  Fig.  49, 
showing  a  scene  in  a  vineyard  near  Fresno,  California. 

Peaches. — One  of  the  most  valued  orchard  fruits  in  the  United  States 
is  the  peach.  The  peach  is  a  tree  which  is  particularly  sensitive 
to  the  environment  in  respect  of  bearing  a  crop.     In  many  localities  where 


Fig.  49.— Vineyard  Near  Fresno,  California. — {Photograph  by  H.  IV.  Wiley.) 


peaches  have  once  been  valuable  they  have  ceased  to  produce  with  any  regu- 
larity, which  renders  the  planting  of  an  orchard  inadvisable.  The  principal 
danger  in  the  peach  tree  is  the  too  early  blooming  and  the  exposure  of  the 
tender  fruit  to  late  frosts.  The  peach  tree  is  also  subject  to  many  forms 
of  disease,  one  of  which,  namely,  the  yellows,  has  baffled  up  to  the  present 
time  the  efforts  of  the  experts  to  diagnose  and  treat.  In  planting  a  peach 
orchard  experience  has  shown  that  it  is  well  to  plant  the  trees  upon  high 
ground  or  upon  the  sides  of  hills.  By  being  placed  on  high  ground  near  deep 
ravines  it  has  been  found  that  the  chilling  of  the  air,  which  would  naturally 


340  VEGETABLES,   CONDIMENTS,    FRUITS. 

come  with  frosts,  makes  the  air  heavier,  so  that  it  rolls  down  into  the  valleys, 
replacing  the  air  on  the  hills  with  fresh  portions  unchilled  and  thus  protecting 
the  high  ground  from  frost  while  the  low  ground  is  chilled  below  the  freezing 
point.  Everyone  must  have  noticed,  especially  in  the  autumn  at  the  time 
of  the  first  frosts,  that  the  vegetation  in  low  lying  land  is  usually  killed  before 
that  on  the  adjacent  hills.  The  peculiar  susceptibility  of  the  peach  tree  to 
the  environment  mentioned  above  has  practically  confined  the  culture  of 
peaches  to  certain  definite  localities,  as  for  instance  to  Michigan,  Connecticut, 
Delaware,  Maryland,  Tennessee,  and  Georgia.  The  danger  of  late  frosts 
of  course  does  not  attach  to  the  peach  tree  grown  in  California  and  similarly 
situated  localities.  At  the  present  time  Georgia  is  probably  the  most  impor- 
tant peach-growing  state  in  the  Union,  both  on  account  of  the  reasonable 
certainly  of  the  crop  and  also  because  of  the  early  date  at  which  the  peach 
can  reach  the  markets  of  the  large  cities  of  the  east  and  central  portions  of 
our  country. 

Many  attempts  have  been  made  to  protect  the  peach  tree  against  the  danger 
of  premature  blossoming  and  consequent  exposure  to  the  late  frosts.  In 
the  cultivation  of  the  trees  it  has  been  desirable  to  secure  a  variety  which 
blooms  as  late  in  the  spring  as  possible.  The  building  of  fires  around  a  peach 
orchard  in  the  spring  when  a  frost  is  imminent  has  sometimes  protected  the 
orchard  from  disaster.  This  process  is  known  as  smudging.  Another  method 
of  protecting  the  trees  frorri.the  danger  of  late  frosts  is  by  whitewashing. 
The  colors  which  absorb  heat  most  readily  are  black  and  purple.  White 
is  one  of  the  best  protections  by  reason  of  its  reflective  power.  A  white- 
washing of  the  branches  of  the  trees  and  in  fact  of  all  the  tree  has  been  prac- 
ticed with  some  success  as  retarding  the  early  bloom  of  the  buds.  Elaborate 
studies  of  this  method  of  treatment  have  been  carried  on  by  the  Missouri 
station,  and  it  has  been  developed  that  there  is  a  considerable  difference  be- 
tween the  temperature  of  whitewashed  and  unwhitewashed  peach  twigs. 
The  whitewash  is  therefore  recommended  as  a  means  of  retarding  the  devel- 
opment of  the  buds.  The  whitewashed  trees  bloom  from  a  week  to  ten  days 
later  than  those  which  are  not  thus  treated.  It  is  reasonably  certain  that 
by  means  of  this  kind  or  by  cultivation  a  peach  tree  may  be  produced  in  any 
given  locality  which  will  put  forth  its  buds  from  a  week  to  ten  days  later 
than  the  normal  period  of  blooming  in  that  neighborhood.  In  regions  where 
the  winters  are  severe,  the  development  of  the  tree  in  the  early  spring  may 
also  be  prevented  by  placing  straw  round  about  it  when  the  ground  is  frozen. 
The  straw  protects  the  frozen  ground  from  rapid  thawing  and  thus  delays 
the  development  of  the  buds.  The  varieties  of  peach  trees  are  legion,  and 
it  is  useless  to  try  to  name  them  here.  Some  of  the  varieties  most  prized  in 
Georgia  are  the  Bishop,  Champion,  Crawford's  Early,  Chinese  Free,  Crimson 
Beauty,  Crosby,  etc. 


PLUMS.  341 

Composition  of  the  Peach. — Naturally,  the  peach  varies  greatly  in  its 
composition  according  to  the  variety,  environment,  and  general  accidental 
conditions.  Its  chief  characteristics,  of  course,  are  the  acid  which  it  con- 
tains, its  sugar  content,  and  the  taste  and  aroma  due  to  the  essential  oils, 
ethers,  etc.,  which  are  developed  with  proper  delicacy  in  the  fruit.  The  peach 
also  has  a  distinct  flavor  associated  with  small  quantities  of  hydrocyanic  acid. 
This  poisonous  compound  is  developed  in  considerable  quantities  in  the 
kernel  of  the  fruit,  and  there  are  sufficient  traces  of  the  flavor  above  mentioned 
in  the  fruit  itself  to  give  a  distinct  and  characteristic  taste.  The  mean  com- 
position of  some  of  the  different  varieties  of  peaches  is  given  below: 

Water, ".  .88.1  percent 

Protein, 7        " 

Fat, I 

Ash, 7 

Sugar  and  other  carbohydrates, 10.8        " 

Free  and  Cling  Peach. — Peaches  may  be  divided  into  two  great  classes  in 
respect  of  persistence  with  which  the  flesh  adheres  to  the  pit  of  the  fruit. 
Peaches  in  which  the  flesh  is  separated  easily  from  the  pit,  leaving  the  external 
surface  of  the  pit  dry  and  clean,  are  called  freestones,  while  in  the  other  variety, 
where  the  flesh  is  firmly  attached  to  the  pit  and  on  the  removal  of  the  flesh 
a  portion  adheres  thereto,  the  term  "clingstone"  is  applied.  There  is  prob- 
ably no  difference  in  the  value  of  the  two  varieties,  but  by  reason  of  the  ease 
with  which  the  freestone  peach  can  be  utilized  for  eating  and  cooking  purposes 
it  is  sometimes  preferred. 

Since  the  development  of  rapid  means  of  transportation  and  the  effective 
applications  of  cold  storage  the  peach  is  found  in  city  markets  from  early 
spring  to  late  autumn.  The  peaches  in  Florida  are  ready  for  the  market 
in  May  and  in  Georgia  from  June  on,  while  in  the  north  the  peach  ripens  at 
later  periods  up  to  October.  In  fact  in  the  north  the  late  peaches  are  esteemed 
as  better  in  flavor  and  quality,  and  especially  suitable  for  canning  and  pre- 
serving purposes. 

Uses  oj  the  Peach. — Peaches  are  perhaps  the  most  esteemed  of  all  the 
common  fruits  for  eating  purposes.  On  the  table  the  sliced  peaches  with 
sugar  and  cream  is  a  common  dish  through  the  whole  summer  in  almost 
every  part  of  the  country.  Peach  cobbler  (a  deep  pie)  and  peach  pudding 
are  dishes  which  are  highly  esteemed. 

Plums. — (Native  Plums.)  The  following  data  represent  the  mean  com- 
position of  three  samples  of  California  plums: 

Total  solids, 21.60  percent 

Ash, 52       " 

Acidity, i.oo       " 

Protein, 40       " 

Total  sugars, 13-25       " 


342  VEGETABLES,  CONDIMENTS,  ERUITS. 

The  plums  imported  from  Japan  and  the  hybrids  produced  therefrom 
are  considered  of  higher  value  than  the  native  plum.  The  Japan  plum 
{Prunus  triflora)  has  been  introduced  into  this  country  for  many  years.  They 
are  larger  and  handsomer  and  have  better  shipping  qualities  than  those  of 
native  origin,  except  perhaps  in  a  few  cases.  The  trees  are  also  less  subject  to 
that  great  enemy  of  the  plum,  the  curculio,  than  the  native  plum.  Of  the 
plum  trees  grown  in  Georgia  the  varieties  of  native  trees  which  are  recom- 
mended are  the  CHfford  and  the  Wilder,  of  Japan  trees  the  Lutts,  Red 
June,  Abundance,  and  Chabot,  and  of  the  hybrid  varieties,  the  Wickson. 
Plums  in  Georgia  mature  from  the  first  of  June  until  the  middle  of  July. 
Further  north  the  date  of  maturity  is  later.  The  plum,  as  well  as  the  cherry, 
flourishes  especially  in  California,  which  is  more  famous  for  these  fruits  than 
any  other  state. 

Quince. — The  quince  is  a  fruit  which  is  not  very  extensively  used  raw,  but 
is  valued  chiefly  as  a  preserve.  The  quince  flourishes  in  localities  that  produce 
good  apples,  but  the  magnitude  of  the  crop  is  very  restricted  as  compared  with 
apples. 

Small  Fruits. 

Blackberries  (Rubus  nigrobaccus  var.  Sativus  Bailey). — Among  the  small 
fruits  one  of  the  most  common  and  abundant  is  the  blackberry.  This  fruit 
grows  wild  over  large  areas  in  the  United  States,  mostly  in  the  middle  portion 
between  the  extreme  north  and  south.  The  brier  on  which  it  grows  is  an  an- 
nual plant,  springing  each  year  from  the  roots  and  dying  after  bearing  fruit. 
The  plant  is  very  largely  cultivated,  bearing  larger  and  more  presentable 
berries,  but  gaining  nothing  in  flavor  and  palatability.  The  berries  are 
generally  black  when  fully  ripe,  though  red  during  the  ripening  stage  and  some- 
times when  mature.  They  are  eaten  raw,  stewed,  and  in  pies  or  "cobblers." 
The  berry  is  extensively  used  for  making  jams,  jellies,  and  preserves,  and  for 
canning  purposes.  The  juice  of  the  berry  is  used  for  making  a  wine,  usually 
with  the  admixture  of  sugar.  Blackberry  cordial  is  blackberry  juice  preserved 
in  whisky  or  brandy  with  sugar  and  aromatics. 

Dewberry. — This  is  a  variety  of  blackberry  in  which  the  vines  lie  on  the 
ground  instead  of  standing  upright.  Some  of  the  dewberries  possess  unusual 
fragrance  and  palatability.  In  other  respects  they  conform  to  the  statements 
relating  to  blackberries. 

Gooseberry  (Ribes  oxyacanthoides  L.). — The  gooseberry  resembles  very 
closely  the  currant  in  its  general  properties.  The  surface  of  the  European  goose- 
berry is  covered  with  prickles,  but  the  American  variety  is  smooth.  The  goose- 
berry bush  is  found  in  most  gardens,  affording  a  fruit  of  high  condimental 
value.    The  fruit  is  eaten  raw,  but  is  used  principally  in  pies  and  as  preserves. 

Huckleberry  {Gaylussacia  resinosa  Torr.  and  Gray). — The  fruit  of  the 
huckleberry  bush  is  used  very  extensively  for  making  pies,  especially  in  the 


ANONA.  343 

northeastern  parts  of  the  United  States.  There  are  many  varieties  of  the  berry 
on  the  markets.  The  blueberry  is  one  variety  that  is  very  abundant.  The 
term  whortleberry  is  also  applied  to  this  fruit. 

Mulberry  (Morus  nigra). — The  mulberry  grows  wild  over  extensive  areas 
in  the  United  States,  especially  in  the  Ohio  valley.  It  is  a  tree  valued  highly 
for  its  wood,  which  is  lasting  and  excellent  for  fence-posts.  The  berries  ripen 
early  in  the  summer  or  late  in  the  spring  and  are  used  as  food  to  a  limited 
extent. 

Raspberry  {Ruhus  strigosus  Michx.). — The  raspberry  resembles  the  black- 
berry in  many  of  its  characteristics.  It  is  chiefly  a  cultivated  plant,  being  less 
hardy  than  the  blackberry,  and  therefore  not  growing  wild  to  such  an  extent. 
The  fruit  matures  just  before  the  blackberry,  and  is  usualh^of  a  red  color  and 
of  a  pleasant  characteristic  taste. 

Strawberry  (Fragaria  Chiloensis  Ehrh.). — For  edible  purposes  in  its  fresh 
state  the  strawberry  is  the  most  important  of  the  small  fruits.  It  is  offered  on 
the  markets  at  all  seasons  of  the  year — ripening  in  the  winter  time  in  Florida 
and  California  and  coming  into  the  markets  in  the  late  summer  in  the  northern 
and  northeastern  states.  It  grows  on  vines  lying  on  the  ground  and  ripens 
early  in  the  spring  in  the  latitude  of  Washington,  viz.,  from  about  the  middle 
of  May.  It  is  eaten  raw — often  with  sugar  and  cream — more  extensively 
than  any  other  small  fruit.  The  wild  strawberry  is  not  so  large  as  the  culti- 
vated variety,  but  is  niore  highly  prized  for  its  aroma  and  taste. 

Composition  of  Small  Fruits. — 

Sugar,  Starch 

Water.  Protein.  Fat.  Etc.  Ash. 

Percent.  Percent.  Percent.  Percent.  Percent. 

Blackberries, 86.3  1.3              i.o  10.9  0.5 

Cranberries, 88.9  0.4             0.6  9.9  0.2 

Huckleberries, 81.9  0.6              0.6  16.6  0.3 

Raspberries, 84.1  1.7              i.o  12.6  0.6 

Strawberries, 85.9  0.9             0.6  7.0  0.6 

Tropical  and  Subtropical  Fruits. 

(Bulletin  87,  Bureau  of  Chemistry.) 
Anona. — This  is  a  variety  of  edible  fruit  grown  in  the  tropics,  especially 
in  Cuba,  but  on  account  of  its  restricted  production  is  of  little  importance. 
There  are  three  varieties,  known  as  follows:  Sweet-sop  (anona)  {Anona 
squamosa  L.),  sour-sop  (guanabana)  {Anona  muricata  L.),  and  custard 
apple  (chirimoya)  {Anona  reticulata  L.).  The  sour-sop  is  a  green,  irregular- 
shaped,  pod-like  fruit,  varying  from  3 J  inches  to  12  inches  in  length  and  about 
two-thirds  as  broad  near  the  top,  and  curving  to  a  blunt  point  at  the  lower  end. 
The  skin  is  thick  and  covered  with  numerous  small,  hooked  briers.  The 
pulp  has  the  appearance  of  wet  cotton  and  surrounds  the  numerous  seed  sacs 
containing  the  small  brown  seeds.  A  fibrous  core  runs  through  the  fruit  from 
the  stem  to  the  lower  point.     The  fruit  weighs  from  3.5  ounces  to  2.2  pounds. 


344 


VEGETABLES,    CONDIMENTS,   FRUITS. 


The  flavor  is  acid,  but  not  too  much  so.  This  fruit  is  more  extensively  used  in 
the  manufacture  of  cooling  beverages  than  directly  as  a  food,  but  it  is  alsa 
used  very  extensively  for  making  preserves.  The  sweet-sop  resembles  the 
sour-sop  in  general  character,  but  does  not  attain  by  any  means  to  so  large  a 
size.  The  fruit  is  heart-shaped  and  deeply  creased.  The  pulp  contains  more 
sugar  and  less  acid  than  that  of  the  sour-sop.  This  variety  is  eaten  fresh  and 
is  also  used  for  flavoring  beverages,  but  is  not  extensively  used  for  making 
preserves.  The  third  variety,  known  as  the  custard  apple,  varies  in  color  from 
light  green  to  reddish  brown,  and  is  shaped  something  like  a  strawberry.  It 
has  a  thick  skin  and  black  seeds,  and  a  pulp  very  similar  to  that  of  sweet-sop 
in  flavor.  It  is  eaten  chiefly  raw,  and  is  not  very  extensively  used  in  the  manu- 
facture of  preserves. 

Composition  of  the  Sour-  and  Sweet-sop  Varieties. — 


Anona. 

Edible 
Portion. 

Solids. 

Total 
Sugar. 

Protein. 

Ash. 

Acidity. 

Sour-sop, 

Sweet -sop, 

Percent. 
72.30 
30.00 

Percent. 
19.03 
28.10 

Percent. 

13-07 
10.07 

Percent. 
1.65 
2.13 

Percent. 
.41 
.92 

Percent^ 

•SI 
20 

The  above  analyses  show  that  the  anona  is  a  fruit  which  has  about  half  the 
nutritive  value  of  the  banana.  It  has  a  much  larger  percentage  of  waste, 
especially  the  sweet-sop  variety,  nearly  three-fourths  of  which  is  not  edible. 

Anona  Preserves. — The  anona  preserves  should  be  made  exclusively  with 
sugar  and  thus  have  the  character  of  the  fruit  modified  only  by  the  amount 
of  sugar  added.  In  one  sample  of  preserves  analyzed  the  following  data 
were  obtained: 

Total  solids, 54.33  percent 

Total  sugar, 49.66        " 

Protein, 73        " 

Ash, 43        " 

Acidity, 19        " 

The  above  data  show  that  the  natural  constituents  of  the  fruit  have  been 
diminished  in  quantity  in  proportion  to  the  amount  of  sugar  added. 

The  Avocado  {Per  sea  per  sea). — The  avocado  is  a  fruit  which  has  only 
lately  been  introduced  into  the  United  States.  Its  common  name  is  alligator 
pear  and  it  is  already  very  highly  prized. 

The  cultivation  of  the  alligator  pear  was  first  undertaken  as  a  novelty,  and 
its  real  value  as  a  dessert  fruit  is  only  beginning  to  be  appreciated.  It  is 
evident  that  this  fruit  will  have  a  great  vogue  in  the  near  future,  and  will  be 
in  great  demand  as  soon  as  its  production  is  on  a  scale  which  makes  it  accessible 
to  the  people  of  ordinary  means.     The  edible  part  of  the  fruit  is  a  sweet, 


BANANAS. 


345 


soft  substance  with  an  agreeable  taste  and  of  a  semi-solid  consistence.  It 
has  a  nutty  and  peculiar  flavor  which  is  very  pleasing.  In  the  regions  where 
the  alligator  pear  is  grown  it  is  often  used  in  the  raw  state  or  after  having  been 
treated  with  a  little  salt.  It  is  also  often  cut  into  small  pieces  and  put  into 
soup  and  is  said  to  give  a  most  agreeable  odor  and  flavor  thereto.  The  ripe 
fruit  has  different  colors;  it  may  be  green,  yellow,  brown  or  dark  purple  or 
a  combination  of  any  of  these  colors.  The  alligator  pear  is  particularly  valued 
as  a  salad  fruit. 
Composition  of  the  A  vocado. — 

Water, 81.10  per  cent. 

Protein, i  .co         " 

Fat, , ^.  .10.20         " 

Starch  and  sugar, 6.80         " 

Ash, 90         " 

These  data  show  that  the  aUigator  pear  is  not  a  fruit  which  is  very  highly 
nutritious.  Its  chief  nutrient  is  fat,  the  next  most  important  elements  being 
starch  and  sugar,  but  it  is  extremely  deficient  in  protein,  and,  therefore,  could 
not  be  regarded  as  a  balanced  ration.  Its  principal  value,  therefore,  is  based 
on  its  condimental  properties  rather  than  on  its  nutrients.  Bulletins  61  and  77 
of  the  Bureau  of  Plant  Industry,  Department  of  Agriculture,  contain  interest- 
ing information  regarding  the  avocado.  The  accompanying  illustration  is 
taken  from  the  latter  report. 

From  the  amount  of  fat  in  the  alligator  pear  it  might  be  regarded  as  a  nut 
instead  of  a  fruit,  but  its  paucity  of  nitrogenous  constituents  excludes  it  from 
that  category. 

Bananas  (Musa). — One  of  the  most  abundant  and  most  important  of  the 
tropical  fruits,  for  food  purposes,  is  the  banana.  This  fruit  is  not  grown  to 
any  extent  for  food  purposes  in  the  United  States,  though  it  is  produced  on 
a  limited  scale  in  southern  Florida.  Immense  quantities  of  bananas  come 
into  this  country  from  the  Central  American  states,  particularly  from  Guate- 
mala and  Nicaragua.  This  fruit  can  be  landed  at  New  Orleans  at  very  small 
expense  for  transportation,  and  for  this  reason  can  be  distributed  all  over 
the  country  at  a  price  which  seems  to  be  ridiculously  small  when  it  is  considered 
that  the  fruit  comes  from  so  great  a  distance.  It  is  also  sent  in  large  quantities 
to  other  ports,  notably  New  York,  Boston,  and  Baltimore.  For  shipping 
purposes  the  banana  is  gathered  while  still  green,  and  often  the  ripening 
has  not  reached  the  stage  at  which  the  ordinary  yellow  color  which  charac- 
terizes the  ripe  fruit  is  seen  when  it  reaches  the  markets  in  the  center  of  the 
country.  The  banana  is  not  only  valued  for  its  peculiar  flavor,  which  is 
pleasant  and  sweet,  sometimes  almost  too  much  so,  but  it  also  has  a  high 
nutritive  value,  being  a  substance  rich  in  carbohydrates  and  growing  in  such 


346 


VEGETABLES,    CONDIMENTS,    FRUITS. 


Fig.  50.— Avocado  Trkk.— {Courtesy  Departmejit  of  Agriculture.) 


BANANAS. 


347 


abundance  that  its  price  is  within  the  reach  of  the  poorest  classes.  Great 
quantities  of  bananas  are  also  grown  in  Cuba,  but  they  are  mostly  consumed 
by  the  native  population,  forming  one  of  the  principal  foods  of  the  island. 

The  banana  has  perhaps  less  waste  than  almost  any  other  fruit,  as  the  whole 
of  the  inner  portion  is  edible.  In  the  green  fruit 'there  is  a  large  proportion 
of  starch,  which  gradually  changes  into  invert  sugar  in  the  ripe  fruit.  In 
thoroughly  mature  bananas  the  quantity  of  sugar  is  relatively  high  and  the 
quantity  of  starch  correspondingly  low.  Bananas  are  not  only  eaten  raw 
but  also  fried  and  in  various  other  forms.  The  banana  is  a  fruit  which,  when 
properly  cared  for,  can  be  transported  over  long  distances  and  kept  for  a  long 
time.  When  properly  prepared  the  banana  forms  a  nutritious  diet,  probably 
equal  in  value  to  the  same  amount  of  solid  matter  contalne'd  in  the  common 
fresh  fruits.  One  hundred  grams  may  be  taken  as  the  average  weight  of 
the  banana,  although  sotne  of  them  are  very  much  larger.  About  70  per- 
cent of  the  banana  is  edible  and  30  percent  inedible,  that  is,  the  skin,  which 
while  not  wholly  inedible  is  usually  rejected.  The  banana  is  essentially  a 
carbohydrate  food,  the  percentage  of  protein  not  usually  rising  above  1.3. 
Nearly  all  the  carbohydrates  in  the  ripe  fruit  consist  of  sugars  which  are  pres- 
ent both  as  reducing  and  as  cane  sugars.  The  average  total  percentage  of 
sugar  present  in  the  banana  is  a  little  over  20. 

The  composition  of  the  banana  is  shown  in  the  following  table  which  con- 
tains the  data  of  analyses  of  two  samples  bought  in  the  open  market  in 
Washington. 


Sample  i,. 
Sample  2,. 


Edibi.e 
Portion. 


Solids. 


Percent. 
62.10 
64.50 


Percent. 
26.13 
26.24 


Total 
Sugars. 


Percent. 
21.71 
21.76 


Protein. 


Percent. 

I-I3 
1. 21 


Ash. 


Percent. 
.84 
.86 


The  analytical  data  w^ere  obtained  upon  the  edible  portion  and  not  upon 
the  whole  fruit. 

The  bananas  which  are  imported  from  Jamaica  and  Central  America  are 
represented  by  the  analyses  given  above.  They  are  commonly  knov/n  as 
the  Johnson  banana.  Smaller  fruits  with  better  flavors  are  grown  in  Cuba, — 
some  of  them  are  of  a  red  color  like  the  oronoco  and  Colorado.  The  indiano 
is  a  large,  yellow,  angular  fruit  wnth  a  salmon-colored  pulp  and  a  rather  dis- 
agreeable acid  flavor. 

With  reference  to  the  banana  as  a  food  product  it  is  seen  that,  including 
the  starch  and  digestible  cellulose,  it  consists  of  at  least  25  percent,  in  its 
edible  portion,  of  carbohydrates  suitable  for  food  purposes.  Its  low  content 
of  protein  indicates  that  it  is  not  a  well  balanced  ration,  but  should  be  eaten 


34S  VEGETABLES,   CONDIMENTS,   FRUITS. 

in  connection  with  beans,  peas,  or  other  vegetables  rich  in  protein,  or  with  lean 
meat  in  order  to  secure  a  proper  quantity  of  protein  in  the  diet. 

On  account  of  the  great  abundance-of  the  product  and  luxuriance  of  growth 
in  the  Central  American  states,  it  is  evident  that  the  banana  might  become  a 
profitable  source  of  industrial  alcohol  in  that  locality. 

Cashew  (Maranon)  (Anacardium  occidentale). — The  cashew,  of  which  the 
principal  habitat  is  Cuba,  is  a  small,  oddly  shaped,  yellow  and  red  fruit  from  two 
to  three  inches  long  and  from  J  to  two  inches  in  diameter  at  the  bottom,  decreas- 
ing gradually  in  diameter  toward  the  top.  The  seed  is  small  and  kidney- 
shaped  and  grows  outside  of  the  fruit  at  the  lower  end.  The  seed  is  regarded  as 
poisonous  until  it  has  been  roasted,  due  probably  to  the  presence  of  hydro- 
cyanic acid.  After  roasting  it  is  regarded  as  a  delectable  edible.  The  meat 
of  the  seed  of  the  cashew  resembles  the  roasted  chestnut,  but  contains  more 
oil.  The  pulp  is  of  a  dull  yellow  color,  is  tough  and  very  juicy,  with  an  acid 
astringent  flavor  and  a  disagreeable  odor.  The  fruit  is  not  eaten  raw  but 
chiefly  in  preserves.  The  composition  of  the  cashew  is  shown  in  the  following 
table : 

Composition  oj  Edible  Portion — S^.g  percent. — - 

Solids, 12.84  percent 

Sugar, '. 6.76       " 

Acid, 31 

Ash, 36       " 

The  composition  is  somewhat  like  that  of  the  hicaco,  but  the  cashew  contains 
a  larger  proportion  of  acid  and  hence  is  better  suited  for  preserves.  The 
sample  of  cashew  preserves  examined  had  the  following  composition: 

Solids, 71.22  percent 

Sugar, 66.89       " 

Protein, 26       " 

Acidity,. 08       " 

Ash, 14       " 

Citrus  Fruits. — The  term  "citrus  fruit"  is  applied  to  that  class  of  fruits 
represented  by  the  orange,  lemon,  grape  fruit,  and  lime.  In  the  United 
States  extensive  areas  are  devoted  to  the  production  of  citrus  fruits,  and  it 
is  claimed  by  connoisseurs  that  some  of  the  best  varieties  grown  anywhere 
in  the  world  are  the  products  of  this  country.  Florida  and  southern  California 
are  two  localities  where  the  development  of  the  citrus  fruit  industry  has  been 
carried  to  the  greatest  extent.  The  phenomenally  cold  winter  which  occurred 
in  Florida  some  ten  years  ago  almost  ruined  the  citrus  fruit  industry  in  that 
state  for  the  time  being.  In  the  reestablishment  of  it  the  center  of  production 
has  been  extended  farther  south  than  it  was  before.  It  is  believed  that  at 
the  present  time  the  industry  has  been  extended  sufficiently  far  south  in  the 
Florida  peninsula  to  avoid  any  repetition  of  the  great  disaster  which  ruined 
the  citrus  groves  in  certain  portions  of  the  state  at  the  time  mentioned.     The 


ff 


Drying  Figs 


1.  SMYRNA 

2.  SMYRNA    SECTION 


3.  ADRIATIC 

4.  ADRIATIC    SECTION 

From  Yearbook,  U.  S.  Pept.  of  Agriciiifure,  i&q-j 


FIGS.  349 

climate  of  southern  California  is  more  equable,  and  no  injuty  has  ever  been 
experienced  in  that  location  from  very  low  temperature.  In  Florida  the 
oranges  are  cultivated  without  irrigation,  while  in  southern  California  irriga- 
tion is  universally  practiced.  The  seasonal  conditions  are  therefore  under 
better  control  in  California  than  in  Florida. 

Figs  {Ficus  carica  L.). — The  fig  is  a  fruit  which  is  well  known  in  biblical 
and  profane  history.  Together  with  the  grape  it  is  the  fruit  most  often  men- 
tioned in  the  Bible. 

The  importance  of  the  fig  as  a  fruit  and  food  is  recognized  in  all  the  earlier 
WTitings,  both  sacred  and  profane.  When  dried  and  pressed  into  convenient 
forms  it  is  a  food  which  can  be  easily  transported,  and  makes  a  ration  well 
suited  to  supply  heat  and  energy,  although  deficient  in  nitrogen  in  so  far  as  a 
complete  ration  is  concerned.  The  fig  tree  is  extensively  cultivated  in  all 
localities  where  the  temperature  permits  its  growth.  Imported  cured  figs  are 
often  found  badly  infested  with  worms  and  their  excreta,  a  condition  which 
could  be  easily  avoided  with  proper  care. 

The  fig  tree  grows  luxuriantly  and  to  a  great  size  in  California,  and  the 
fruit,  both  fresh  and  dried,  is  of  superior  excellence.  A  typical  illustration 
of  a  CaHfornia  fig  tree  is  shown  in  Fig.  51. 

The  Smyrna  fig  has  lately  been  introduced  into  the  southern  and  western 
part  of  the  United  States  with  great  success.  It  grows  especially  well  in  the 
southern  part  of  California  and  Arizona.  The  Smyrna  fig  is  one  of  the 
varieties  which  requires  fertilization  of  the  flower  through  the  mediation  of 
an  insect.  This  process  is  called  caprification.  Although  this  variety  of 
fig  has  only  been  introduced  into  California  to  any  extent  in  the  last  five  or 
six  years,  the  growth  of  this  most  highly  esteemed  variety  has  so  increased 
that  at  the  present  time  the  output  of  California  alone  amounts  to  about 
twelve  million  pounds  per  annum.  The  Smyrna  and  Adriatic  figs,  used 
largely  for  drying  and  preserving  purposes,  are  seen  in  their  natural  colors  in 
the  appended  colored  plate. 

Composition  of  Fresh  Figs  (Edible  Portion). — 

Water, 79- 1 1  percent 

Protein, 1.52        " 

Sugar, 15.53       " 

Pure  ash, 58       " 

Fat,  fiber,  etc., 3.26       " 

Composition  of  Dried  Figs. — 

Water, 28.78  percent 

Total  sugar, 5 1  -43 

Acid  as  malic, 71 

Protein, 3.58 

Ether  extract, 1.27 

Cellulose,  etc., 5.29 

Crude  fiber, 6. 19 

Ash, 2.75 


350 


VEGETABLES,  CONDIMENTS,  FRUITS. 


The  interesting  process  of  caprification  is  thus  described  by  Professor 
Hugh  N.  Starnes  of  the  Georgia  Experiment  Station: 

"  In  the  base  or  false  ovary  of  the  gall  flowers,  which  are  merely  degenerate 
pistillates,  the  egg  of  the  Blastophaga  grossorum  or  fig  wasp — a  minute  in- 
sect— is  deposited  and  develops  to  maturity.      The  wingless  males  emerge 


Fig.  51.— Fig  Tree  Thirty  Feet  High  Near  Yuba,  California.— {Pho/o^-raph  by  H.  IV.  Wiley.) 


first  and,  with  their  powerful  mandibles,  cut  into  the  flowers  containing  the 
female  wasps,  partially  release  them,  and  impregnate  them.  The  gravid 
females  shortly  complete  the  liberating  process  and,  being  winged,  at  once 
seek  to  escape  for  the  instinctive  purpose  of  laying  their  eggs.  They  emerge 
from  the  eye  of  the  caprifig,  after  squeezing  through  the  mass  of  pollen-covered 
anthers  protecting  the  exit,  and  seek  other  fruit  in  which  to  lay  their  eggs. 


GRAPE   FRUIT.  35 1 

Naturally  they  would  enter  the  nearest  caprifig  in  the  proper  stage  of  devel- 
opment. But,  meanwhile,  if  the  caprifig  containing  the  colony  has  been 
plucked  from  its  stem  and  suspended  in  the  branches  of  an  adjacent  Smyrna 
tree,  the  female  on  emerging  forces  her  way  in  a  fruit  of  the  latter  class,  losing 
her  wings  in  the  process,  and  at  once  begins  a  frantic  scramble  around  the 
interior,  searching  for  the  anticipated  gall  flowers  in  which  to  deposit  her 
eggs.  Failing,  necessarily,  to  find  them,  and  incapable  of  again  taking  flight, 
she  finally  curls  up  and  dies  heartbroken,  but  not  until  she  and  her  companions 
have  between  them  pollinated  every  female  flower  in  the  cavity  w^ith  the  plenti- 
ful store  of  pollen  conveyed  from  the  caprifig — thereby  insuring  the  develop- 
ment of  the  fruit." 

Grape  Fruit  (Pomelo)  {Citrus  dexumana). — The  so-called  grape  fruit  or 
pomelo  is  one  of  the  largest  products  of  the  citrus  family  and  also  possesses 
properties  which  may  be  regarded  as  a  cross  between  the  lemon  and  the 
orange.  It  is  more  acid  than  the  orange  and  sweeter  than  the  lemon.  This 
fruit  is  perhaps  more  highly  esteemed  than  any  other  citrus  variety  for  direct 
edible  purposes,  forming  a  breakfast  dish  which  is  eaten  very  extensively 
throughout  all  parts  of  the  United  States  by  those  who  are  able  to  afford  the 
luxury,  for  such  it  still  is  by  reason  of  its  high  price.  Large  amounts  of  grape 
fruit  are  grown  in  the  United  States,  though  its  culture  is  confined  to  the 
same  localities  as  are  the  orange  and  lemon. 

Composition  of  Grape  Fruit  (Pomelo). — The  composition  of  the  pomelo 
as  given  for  the  California  product  (Station  Report,  1892,  p.  256)  shows  this 
fruit  to  have  the  following  composition: 

Average  weight, 357-oo  grams 

Rind, 23.50  percent 

Seeds, -    3.70        " 

Edible  portion, 72.80        " 

Composition  of  the  juice  from  the  edible  portion: 

Total  solids, 13-20  percent 

Total  sugars, 9.50         " 

Acids  (as  citric), 2.70        " 

Professor  Colby  says  in  discussing  these  analyses  that  the  proportion  of 
acid  is  larger  in  these  samples  than  the  general  taste  demands. 

Cuban  Grape  Fruit. — The  grape  fruit  which  is  grown  in  Cuba  has  quite  a 
different  character.  Its  flavor  is  mild,  and  it  is  almost  devoid  of  the  bitter 
taste  which  is  found  in  the  American  product,  and  which  adds  greatly  to  its 
palatable  properties  when  the  consumer  becomes  accustomed  to  it. 

A  marmalade  is  made  frorri  the  grape  fruit  similar  in  all  respects,  except 
the  peculiar  flavor  given  by  the  raw  material,  to  that  made  from  oranges.  It 
is  evident  from  its  high  palatable  properties  and  its  w^holesomeness  that  grape 


352  VEGETABLES,  CONDIMENTS,  FRUITS. 

fruit  will  become  more  and  more  an  article  of  value  and  be  consumed  in  large 
quantities  throughout  the  country. 

Guava  (Psidium  Guajava). — This  fruit  is  grown  very  extensively  in  both 
California  and  Florida,  also  in  Cuba,  where  a  number  of  varieties  grow  wild. 
The  white  guava  is  a  small,  round  fruit,  grayish-white  or  yellow  in  color,  and 
having  an  average  weight  of  1.5  ounces.  The  pear-shaped  fruit,  the  guava 
of  Peru,,  is  about  twice  the  size  of  the  white  variety,  but  otherwise  resembles 
it  very  closely.  Both  varieties  contain  large  numbers  of  small  seeds  scattered 
throughout  the  yellowish-white  pulp.  As  a  rule  the  guava  is  not  eaten  raw, 
but  it  is  a  fruit  from  which  some  of  the  most  highly  prized  jelly  pastes  and 
preserves  are  made. 

Composition  of  the  Guava. — The  guava  contains,  in  its  fresh  state,  an  aver- 
age of  a  little  less  than  80  percent  of  water  and  a  little  more  than  20  percent 
of  solid  matter.  The  solid  materials  in  guavas  are  quite  insoluble  in  water, 
more  than  one-half  of  them  not  passing  into  solution.  The  chief  part  of 
the  soluble  constituents  of  guavas  are  the  sugars,  and  these  exist  chiefly  in  the 
invert  state.  The  total  percentage  of  sugar  in  guavas  in  the  fresh  state  aver- 
ages about  six,  the  protein  amounts  to  about  one  percent,  and  the  ash  to  a  little 
over  one-half  of  one  percent.  The  guava,  therefore,  is  condimental  rather 
than  nutritive,  and  for  this  reason  it  is  not  a  valuable  food  product  eaten  in 
the  raw  state. 

Guava  Preserves. — A  large  number  of  preserves  are  made  from  the  guava, 
and  these  products  are  well  known  and  relished  throughout  the  country. 
The  preserves  are  in  various  forms,  being  chiefly  pastes,  marmalades,  and 
jellies.  These  preparations  contain  the  aromas  and  flavoring  qualities  of  the 
fruit,  and  when  pure  contain  no  added  product  save  sugar.  They  contain 
from  60  to  75  percent  of  added  sugar.  The  preserved  products  of  the  guava 
are  generally  packed  in  wooden  boxes,  lined  with  paper,  though  some  are 
packed  in  glass.  The  crystallized  guava,  the  guava  cream,  and  the  pastes 
contain  large  quantities  of  added  sugar,  namely,  about  80  percent.  These 
preserves  naturally  have  a  very  low  acid  content  by  reason  of  the  quantity 
of  sugar  which  has  been  added  in  their  preparation.  In  this  country  often 
the  whole  fruits  are  preserved  in  sugar  sirup. 

Hicaco  (Chrysobalanus  icaco). — The  fruit  of  the  hicaco  is  small  and  round, 
varying  from  one  to  three  inches  in  diameter.  The  average  weight  of  each  fruit 
is  about  J  oz.  The  skin  is  thin  and  green  in  color,  shading  to  red  on  the  side 
exposed  to  the  sun.  It  grows  on  a  small  shrub  and  is  sometimes  called  the 
cocoa  plum.  The  surface  is  somewhat  shrivelled  and  wrinkled,  and  the 
seed  weighs  almost  half  as  much  as  the  whole  fruit.  The  fruit  is  not  eaten 
in  a  fresh  state,  but  is  used  for  making  preserves.  It  is  sweet  to  the  taste  and 
has  a  low  acid  content.  The  composition  of  the  fresh  fruit  is  shown  by 
the  following  table: 


LEMONS.  353 

Composition  oj  Edible  Portion — 68.g  percent. — 

Total  solids, 14-29  percent 

Total  sugar, 5.18        " 

Protein, 46        " 

Acidity, 10        " 

Ash,.; 96 

These  data  show  that  the  hicaco  is  a  fruit  low  in  nutritive  value,  in  so  far 
as  sugar  is  concerned,  low  in  protein  and  of  a  very  slight  acidity. 

Hicaco  Preserves. — A  sample  of  hicaco  preserves  was  found  to  have  the 
following  composition: 

Total  solids, 65.07  percent 

Sugar, 60.08        " 

Protein, ^ .-12        " 

Ash, , 14        " 

Acidity, '. 05         " 

The  above  data  indicate  only  the  change  in  composition  w^hich  would  come 
from  adding  the  sugar  in  the  process  of  manufacture.  By  reason  of  the  low 
acidity  of  the  fruit  the  sugar  in  the  preserves  would,  theoretically,  be  largely 
cane  sugar.  In  the  case  mentioned,  however,  one-third  of  the  sugar  was 
inverted.  Whether  this  was  accomplished  by  the  action  of  the  acid  on  the 
sugar  during  the  process  of  manufacture  or  by  the  use  of  molasses  instead 
of  sugar  in  the  preserves  does  not  appear.  More  likely  it  is  due  to  the 
latter. 

Kumquat  {Citrus  japonica). — The  kumquat  is  one  of  the  smallest  of 
citrus  fruits.  It  stands  as  one  extreme  of  that  important  family  of  which  the 
grape  fruit  or  pomelo  represents  the  other.  The  fruit  is  oval  in  shape,  about  one 
inch  in  diameter,  and  is  one  and  one-half  inches  long.  It  may  be  regarded  as 
a  dwarf  orange,  and  was  brought  into  the  United  States  from  Japan,  although 
it  is  a  native  of  China.  The  name — kumquat — is  of  Chinese  origin  and  is 
intended  to  mean  "Gold  Orange."  The  kumquat  tree,  under  favorable 
circumstances,  reaches  a  height  of  10  or  12  feet  and  forms  a  compact,  sym- 
metrical, and  handsome  head.  The  pulp  of  the  fruit  is  very  tender  and 
agreeably  acid  and  the  rind  is  spicy,  as  is  the  case  with  most  of  the  acid  fruits. 
It  is  not  only  valued  as  a  fruit,  but  the  tree  is  also  highly  prized  as  an  ornament. 
Its  beautifully  colored  fruit,  in  contrast  with  its  green  leaves,  presents  a  most 
agreeable  spectacle.  It  is  grown  in  the  United  States  principally  in  Florida. 
The  composition  of  the  kumquat  is  practically  that  of  the  orange. 

Lemons. — The  citrus  fruit,  next  in  importance  to  the  orange,  if  not  more 
important,  is  the  lemon  {Citrus  limonum).  This  fruit  is  grown  extensively 
in  the  United  States  in  the  same  localities  that  produce  the  orange,  that  is, 
chiefly  in  Florida  and  southern  California.  Its  method  of  cultivation,  gen- 
eral treatment,  time  of  ripening  and  harvesting  are  the  same  as  that  of  the 
orange.  Its  principal  difference  from  the  orange  is  in  its  greater  acidity  and 
24 


vibSa^^,^^ 


354  VEGETABLES,  CONDIMENTS,  FRUITS. 

in  certain  peculiarities  of  its  aromatic  and  oily  substances.  From  the  rind 
is  produced  an  essential  oil  which,  while  resembling  that  of  the  orange  in 
general  character,  has  distinct  properties  which  easily  discriminate  it  from 
the  orange  product.  The  lemon  also  has  a  correspondingly  less  proportion 
of  sugar  than  the  orange.  In  22  analyses  of  California  lemons  they  were 
found  to  contain  5.26  percent  of  acid  and  only  2.33  percent  of  sugar.  The 
distinct  feature  of  the  lemon,  therefore,  is  its  acidity.  The  principal  acid 
present  in  lemons  is  citric  acid,  though  other  organic  acids  are  also  found. 
The  acids  are  either  free  or  in  combination  with  a  base,  the  principal  base 
being  potash.  On  account  of  its  high  acidity  and  low  sugar  content  the  lemon 
is  used  more  as  a  relish  and  in  the  manufacture  of  acid  beverages  than 
directly  as  a  food.  There  are  some  varieties  known  as  sweet  lemons  which 
are  eaten  as  oranges  or  used  directly  for  food  purposes,  but  generally  the 
lemon  is  too  sour  and  acid  for  consumption  in  this  manner. 

Lime. — A  species  of  citrus  fruit  which  is  even  more  acid  than  the  lemon 
is  known  as  the  lime  (Citrus  hysrix  acida). 

Limes  are  not  eaten  directly  as  food  on  account  of  their  high  acidity,  but 
their  expressed  juice  is  sold  throughout  the  world  for  beverages  and  medici- 
nal purposes.  The  lime  also  yields  an  essential  oil,  which  is  very  similar  in 
character  to  that  derived  from  lemons.  In  fact  the  lime  may  be  regarded  as 
a  very  sour  lemon,  just  as  the  orange  may  be  regarded  as  a  very  sweet  one. 

Adulteration  oj  Lime  Juice. — Unfortunately  lime  juice  is  ojffered  on  the 
market  often  in  entirely  spurious  forms,  that  is,  a  mixture  made  up  with  flav- 
oring of  an  acid  character  resembling  that  of  the  natural  juice.  The  natural 
juice  is  also  frequently  adulterated  by  the  addition  of  preservatives.  Among 
these,  sulfurous  and  salicylic  acids  are  perhaps  the  most  frequent.  Lime 
juice  can  be  perfectly  preserved  by  sterilization,  and  there  is  no  necessity  for 
the  use  of  preservatives  therein. 

In  the  tropics  there  is  also  found  a  lime  of  a  saccharine  character  known 
as  the  sweet  lime,  but  this  fruit  does  not  have  a  very  great  vogue. 

Mamey  Colorado. — This  is  a  tropical  fruit  which  is* very  extensively 
grown  in  Cuba,  and  derives  its  local  name  from  a  very  slight  outward  resem- 
blance to  the  mammee  (Mammea  americana).  These  two  fruits,  however, 
have  no  botanical  or  other  relation  to  each  other,  nor  do  they  have  any  internal 
resemblance.  The  mamey  Colorado  is  chocolate  brown  in  color,  oval  or 
round  in  shape,  and  its  average  weight  is  about  1.5  pounds.  The  skin  is 
thick  and  coarse.  The  pulp  has  a  yellowish  color,  varying  to  a  deep  scarlet, 
and  is  slightly  fibrous  and  firm,  but  mealy  and  rather  dry.  It  has  a  sweetish 
taste  with  very  little  acid  flavor.  It  is  eaten  chiefly  in  the  fresh  state  and  is 
also  stewed  with  sugar.  The  fruit  usually  contains  but  one  seed,  though  as 
many  as  four  are  sometimes  found.     The  seeds  are  imbedded  in  a  soft  core 


MAMEY   DE   SANTO   DOMINGO. 


355 


and  are  irregularly  oval.     The  natural  season  is  from  December  to  August. 
These  fruits  are  very  largely  used  for  making  preserves. 

The  composition  of  the  mamey  Colorado  is  as  follows: 

Composition  of  Edible  Portion — 86.10  percent. — 

Solids, 34.01  percent 

Total  ash, So         '■'' 

Acid, 10         " 

Total  sugar, 22.05         " 

The  analysis  shows  that  the  mamey  Colorado  is  a  fruit  which  in  its  edible 
properties  and  nutritive  value  very  closely  resembles  the  banana. 

Mamey  de  Santo  Domingo  (Mammea  americana). — This  is  a  fruit 
extensively  used  in  Cuba  and  other  tropical  countries.  It  is  of  a  light  brown 
color,  from  three  to  ten  inches  in  diameter,  and  weighs  sometimes  as  much  as 
I J  pounds.  The  skin  is  thick  and  fibrous,  the  outer  surface  being  tough  and 
covered  with  small  brown  spots.  The  pulp  is  dark  yellow^  in  color,  firm,  and 
very  juicy.  It  has  a  sweet  characteristic  flavor  and  a  pleasant  aromatic 
odor.  The  seeds  sometimes  measure  three  inches  in  diameter  and  cling  tena- 
ciously to  the  pulp.  It  is  very  commonly  eaten  raw  and  is  highly  esteemed 
for  preserving  purposes. 

The 'composition  of  the  mamey  de  Santo  Domingo  is  shown  in  the  folllowing 
table: 

Composition  of  Edible  Portion — 6o.yo  percent. — 

Solids, 14.12  percent 

Total  ash, 31          " 

Acids, .• 42         " 

Protein, 49  " 

Total  sugar, 9.47         " 

The  above  data  show  that  this  fruit  is  very  much  less  sweet  and  very  much 
more  acid  than  the  mamey  Colorado  and  for  nutritive  purposes  is  of  much 
less  value,  but  by  reason  of  its  greater  acidity  and  higher  flavoring  it  is  more 
suitable  for  the  manufacture  of  preserves  than  the  fruit  resembling  it  in 
external  appearances  and  name.  It  is  used  extensively  in  the  manufacture 
of  preserves  and  marmalades  which  are  so  similar  in  composition  as  not  to 
be  distinguished  from  each  other  by  their  chemical  analyses. 

The  compositions  of  a  preserve  known  as  mamey  en  almibar  and  a  mar- 
malade known  as  mermelade  de  mamey  are  shown  in  the  following  table : 


Substance. 

Solids.      \     ^^^^^         Acids. 

Protein. 

Total 
Sugars. 

Mamey  en  almibar,  .     . 

Percent.        Percent. 
60.05              -154 
69.74              .149 

Percent. 
.194 
.123 

Percent,   j     Percent. 

•363     1       57-45 

269              60  6S 

Mermelade  de  mamey, 

35^ 


VEGETABLES,    CONDIMENTS,    FRTJITS. 


Mango  (Magnifera  indica  L.). — The  mango  is  a  fruit  which  is  highly 
prized  throughout  the  world.  It  is  a  native  of  southern  Asia,  where  it 
has  been, known  from  earliest  times.     In  the  United  States  the  mango  is 


Fig.  52. — Jamaica  Mango  Trke. — {By  permission  American  Nut  and  Fruit  Co.) 


chiefly  grown  in  Florida  as  a  horticultural  crop.  •  The  mango  is  a  tree  pecu- 
liarly sensitive  to  frost,  and  therefore  does  not  grow  as  far  north  as  oranges. 


ORANGES.  357 

Its  profitable  cultivation  at  present  is  confined  to  the  extreme  southern  part  of 
the  Florida  peninsula. 

The  mango  is  an  evergreen  tree.  In  Florida,  under  favorable  conditions 
of  growth,  it  reaches  as  high  as  40  or  50  feet.  It  makes  a  tree  of  graceful  ap- 
pearance with  a  dense,  dome-shaped  top.  The  color  of  the  mango  fruit  is 
varied;  it  may  be  red,  green,  or  yellov/,  or  a  mixture  of  these  colors.  The  tree 
and  fruit  both  possess  an  agreeable  odor,  and  every  part  of  the  tree,  almost, 
can  be  of  some  economic  value.  The  ripe  fruit  is  a  delicious  dessert  and  is 
wholesome.  It  is  often  recommended  for  its  medicinal  properties.  The 
rind  and  fiber,  as  well  as  the  unripe  fruit,  are  acid  and  full  of  tannin,  which 
makes  them  astringent  to  the  taste.  Mangos  may  be  eaten  in  the  raw  state, 
and  they  are  also  valued  for  making '  preserves,  pickles,  ifiarmalades,  and 
jelly.  A  very  popular  sauce  known  as  mango  chutney  is  prepared  from 
the  mango  and  is  largely  used  in  the  United  States  and  England,  being  mostly 
imported  from  India.     The  appearance  of  the  tree  is  shown  in  Fig.  52. 

Oranges  {Citrus  aurantiwn). — This  fruit  is  characterized  by  its  delightful 
flavor  and  by  the  distribution  of  certain  aromatic  oils,  especially  in  the  rind, 
which  give  it  a  peculiar  aroma  and  taste.  The  orange  has  a  thick  yellow 
rind  which,  while  edible,  is  not  usually  eaten,  but  is  the  source  of  valuable 
essential  oils.  A  large  part  of  the  orange,  as  far  as  weight  is  concerned,  is 
not  usually  eaten;  usually  from  25  to  40  percent  of  the  weight  is  in  the  rind 
or  some  inedible  portion.  The  ash  of  the  orange  is  usually  less  than  one-half 
of  one  percent.  The  predominant  organic  acid  of  the  orange  is  citric, 
although  other  organic  acids  are  present.  The  quantity  of  protein  present  in 
an  orange  is  very  small,  usually  not  exceeding  very  much  a  half  of  one  percent. 
The  quantity  of  sugar  varies  greatly  in  different  samples.  It  is  present  both 
as  cane  sugar  or  sucrose  and  as  reducing  or  invert  sugar.  In  the  very  sweet 
orange  the  quantity  reaches  as  high  as  10  percent  or  even  greater,  while 
in  the  sour  orange  it  is  less.  The  principal  food  value  of  the  orange,  as  far 
as  nutriment  is  concerned,  is  its  sugar.  The  orange,  however,  has  other 
valuable  properties,  especially  from  a  hygienic  standpoint,  aside  from  its 
nutriment.  The  organic  salts  which  it  contains,  the  organic  acids,  and  other 
condimental  material  make  the  orange  an  exceptionally  wholesome  fruit, 
exercising  a  beneficial  effect  upon  the  digestive  process  and  especially  aiding 
in  the  passage  of  the  undigested  food  through  the  alimentary  canal.  The 
orange  is  a  fruit  which  has  lasting  keeping  qualities.  It  is  not  unusual  to  see 
ripe  oranges  which  are  edible  hanging  on  the  same  tree  with  the  blossoms 
which  are  blooming  for  the  next  year's  crop.  In  California  and  Florida  the 
oranges  begin  to  ripen  in  November  and  may  be  continuously  harvested 
until  the  following  April,  if  it  be  advisable  to  leave  them  on  the  tree  for  that 
length  of  time.  Owing  to  the  thick  and  resistant  skin  of  the  orange,  it  can 
be  kept  for  a  long  time  without  material  deterioration  after  harvesting,  if 


3S8 


VEGETABLES,    CONDIMENTS,    FRUITS. 


care  be  taken  to  avoid  bruising  or  injuring  the  fruit  in  any  way  while  handhng. 
Oranges  thus  harvested  and  wrapped  in  paper  and  kept  at  a  low  temperature 
will  keep  for  weeks  and  even  months,  and  still  be  edible  and  nourishing. 
This  property  of  the  orange  makes  it  possible  to  supply  the  markets  of  the 
world  practically  throughout  the  entire  year  with  one  of  the  most  delicious 
and  nutritious  of  fruits.  In  former  years  the  orange  was  regarded  as  a  luxury, 
but  at  the  present  time  it  is  a  staple  article  of  diet  even  for  people  in  moderate 
circumstances,  and  is  often  eaten  by  those  who  are  poor.  In  Fig.  53  is  given 
a  typical  illustration  of  a  California  orange  grove. 

The  culture  of  the  orange  has  demanded  the  highest  agricultural  and 
scientific  skill,  and  perhaps  there  is  no  crop  produced  to  which  greater  attention 


Fig.  53.— An  Edge  of  a  California  Orange  Gkoyk.— {Bureau  of  Plant  Industry.) 


has  been  paid.  In  Florida,  especially,  the  oranges  are  grown  on  soil  which 
is  not  much  more  than  poor  sand,  and  hence  the  scientific  feeding  of  the  trees, 
that  is,  the  fertilization  of  the  soil  in  which  they  grow,  is  necessary  to  success. 
As  a  result  of  this  application  of  science  luxuriant  crops  of  oranges  are  found 
growing  upon  sandy  soil  which  without  scientific  treatment  would  be  almost 
barren.  The  soils  in  southern  California,  on  the  other  hand,  are  very  rich 
in  natural  plant  food,  but  this  does  not  obviate  the  necessity  of  scientific  manur- 
ing. Oranges  grow  throughout  the  year  in  tropical  and, semi-tropical  regions. 
It  is  considered  by  connoisseurs,  however,  that  the  oranges  grown  in  the 
semi-tropical  regions,  that  is  far  enough  north  for  a  little  frost  to  come  during 
the  winter,  but  without  a  sufficient  degree  of  cold  to  injure  the  trees,  are  of 
better  quality  than  those  grown  in  tropical  regions  where  frost  is  unknown. 


ORANGES. 


359 


The  Seedless  Orange. — The  variety  of  orange  which  contains  no  seed  has 
been  widely  cultivated  in  the  United  States,  and  by  reason  of  the  absence  of 
seeds  is  more  highly  prized  by  many  than  the  ordinary  orange  for  edible 


Fig.  54.— The  Original  Seedless  Orange  Tkk^.— {Courtesy  Bureau  of  Platit  Industry.) 


purposes.     Since  the  orange  tree  has  been  cultivated  by  grafting  rather  than 
by  direct  production  of  the  different  varieties  from  the  natural  seed,  it  has 


360 


VEGETABLES,    CONDIMENTS,    ERUITS. 


been  possible  to  secure  a  fruit  without  seeds.  Whether  such  an  unnatural 
product  will  continue  to  maintain  its  high  rank  as  an  edible  product  remains 
to  be  seen.  The  seedless  orange  tree,  from  which  are  descended  the  greater 
part  of  these  trees  in  the  United  States,  was  secured  by  Mr.  William  Sanders 
from  Bahia.  Its  present  appearance  in  the  greenhouse  of  the  Department 
of  Agriculture  is  shown  in  Fig.  54.  The  navel  orange  is  exceedingly  beauti- 
ful as  it  grows  upon  the  tree.  A  bunch  of  these  oranges  growing  on  the  parent 
tree  in  Washington  is  shown  in  Fig.  55. 


Fio.  5S.— A  Groip  of  thk  Washington  Navkt,  Orangf.s  on  the  Tkv.^.— {Courtesy  Bureau  of 
[  Plant  Industiy.) 


I^ineapple. — The  pineapple  is  a  fruit  grown  very  extensively  in  tropical 
an^  also  subtropical  countries.  It  is  a  crop  of  great  importance  in  Florida. 
The  flavor  and  aroma  of  the  pineapple  grown  in  subtropical  countries  is 
often  preferred  to  that  of  the  tropical  grown  fruit.  Pineapples  grow  best 
when  sheltered  to  some  extent  from  the  direct  rays  of  the  sun.  In  Florida 
it  is  planted  near  live  oaks,  where  a  partial  shade  is  secured.  It  is  often 
artificially  covered  by  means  of  narrow  boards  placed  near  together  and  yet 
leaving  abundant  space  for  the  sunlight.  Sometimes  these  covered  fields 
are  two  or  three  acres  in  extent.     In  Fig.  56  is  given  a  representation  of 


PINEAPPLE. 


^6 1 


the  pineapple  growing  under  a  covering  of  this  kind  in  Florida  at  the  Agri- 
cultural Experiment  Station,  Lake  City. 

Formerly  pineapples  were  regarded  as  great  luxuries,  and  often  were  set 
up  in  the  center  of  the  table  as  an  ornament  rather  than  as  a  dessert.  They 
have  now  become  very  common  and  are  frequently  used  as  a  dessert,  for 
flavoring  ice  cream,  for  preserving,  and  for  general  use  as  a  fruit. 

Adulteration  of  Pineapples. — The  only  adulterations  which  are  found  in 


i 

Fig.  56.— Covered  Y'ltiKWVi.K.— {Courtesy  of  Florida  Experiment  Station.) 


pineapples  are  of  course  in  the  canned  product.  Investigations  in  the  Bureau 
of  Chemistry  show  that  adulteration  is  not  extensively  practiced,  unless  the 
addition  of  cane  sugar  without  notice  can  be  so  regarded. 

From  the  point  of  view  of  the  collection  of  duties,  the  addition  of  cane  sugar 
without  notice  is  an  adulteration,  since  under  provision  of  law  pineapples 
canned  in  their  own  juice  pay  one  rate  of  duty  and  when  preserved  with  sugar 
pay  another.     Inasmuch  as  the  label  of  a  food  product  should  tell  the  whole 


362 


VEGETABLES,   CONDIMENTS,    FRUITS. 


truth  concerning  it,  the  addition  of  cane  sugar,  without  notice  to  that  effect 
upon  the  label,  is  calculated  to  deceive  and  should  not  be  practiced.  There 
is  no  objection  of  any  kind  to  the  use  of  cane  sugar  in  the  canning  of  pineapples 
if  the  label  indicates  that  this  has  been  done.  On  the  other  hand  there  is 
no  reason  why  the  addition  of  sugar  should  be  practiced.  The  pineapples 
are  bought  and  consumed  for  their  natural  flavor,  and  not  on  account  of  the 
added  sugar  which  they  may  contain.  In  the  canning  of  pineapples  it  is 
just  as  easy  to  secure  complete  steriHzation  in  their  own  juice  as  it  is  to  secure 
it  with  the  added  sirup.  In  practice,  however,  it  is  more  convenient  after 
filling  the  cans  with  the  pieces  of  pines  to  add  a  sugar  sirup  to  fill  up  the  spaces 
than  to  secure  sterilization  by  the  application  of  heat  alone,  which  would  not 
cause  a  sufficient  quantity  of  juice  to  exude  to  fill  up  the  interstices  of  the 
cans,  and  they,  therefore,  would  be  partially  empty. 

Canned  Pineapples. — There  is  a  very  large  trade  in  this  country  in  canned 
pineapples  imported  from  Singapore  and  the  Straits  Settlements  and  the 
Bahamas.  The  pines  are  usually  canned  with  the  addition  of  sugar,  and  those 
that  come  to  our  ports  are  as  a  rule  sweetened  only  with  cane  sugar. 

A  large  number  of  analyses  has  been  made  of  these  canned  pineapples 
in  the  Bureau  of  Chemistry  and  the  general  data  which  were  secured  are 
presented  below: 

Canned  pineapples  from  Singapore,  average,  maximum,  and  minimum 
composition: 


Data. 


Solids. 


Sugar. 


Protein. 

Ash. 

Percent. 

Percent. 

.46 

.28 

.60 

.36 

•39 

.21 

Acidity. 


Average,.. . 

Maximum, 
Minimum,. 


Percent. 
17.90 
25.10 
14.87 


Percent. 
•30 
•43 
.16 


The  above  data  show  that  it  is  possible  to  compute  the  average  quantity 
of  sugar  which  is  added  in  the  preparation  of  the  sample.  If  we  assume  in 
round  numbers  that  the  natural  pine  contains  12  percent  of  sugar,  we  find 
that  approximately  eight  pounds  per  hundred  of  fruit  have  been  added  in 
the  preparation  of  the  pines  from  Singapore. 

Below  is  found  the  average,  maximum,  and  minimum  composition  of  ten 
samples  of  canned  pineapples  from  the  Straits  Settlements: 


Data. 


Solids. 


Sugar. 

Protein. 

Ash.' 

Percent. 

Percent. 

Percent. 

18.45 

■     -47 

.26 

21.94 

•57 

•32 

14-54 

•39 

.22 

Acidity. 


Average,. . 
Maximum, 
Minimum, , 


Percent. 
21.04 
24.28 
17.32 


Percent. 
.26 

•17 


PnJE  APPLE. 


363 


These  data  show  that  the  preparation  of  the  pines  in  the  Straits  Settlements 
for  shipment  in  cans  is  the  same  as  that  in  Singapore.  The  average  amount 
of  sugar  added  appears  to  be  about  one  percent  greater. 

Average  composition  of  canned  pineapples  from  the  Bahamas: 


Data. 

Solids. 

Sugar. 

1  Protein,  j 

Ash 

Acidity. 

Average. 

Maximum,.. 
Minimum,.. 

Percent. 

13-78 

26.78 

8.54 

Percent. 

10^69 

22.43 

6.33 

j     Percent. 

•34      ■ 
j        .46      , 

1        .20 

Percent. 

•38 
•50 
.22 

Percent. 

•57 

1. 18 

.22 

The  above  data  show  that  nearly  all  the  canned  pineapples  coming  from 
the  Bahamas  must  be  regarded  as  canned  in  their  natural  juice  without  the 
addition  of  sugar.  Of  the  whole  number  of  samples  examined,  only  four 
gave  any  indication  of  containing  added  sugar. 

Composition  of  the  Pineapple. — The  average  composition  of  twenty-two 
samples  of  fresh  pineapple  grown  in  Florida,  as  determined  in  the  Bureau 
of  Chemistry,  is  as  foUow^s: 

Total  solids, 13-85  percent 

Total  sugar, 1 1.69       " 

Protein, 40       " 

Ash, 42       " 

Acidity, 52       " 


Of  the  sugars  4.44  percent  existed  in  the  form  of  invert  or  reducing  sugar 
and  6.88  percent  as  cane  sugar.  These  data  show  that  the  nutritive  value  of  a 
pineapple  lies  chiefly  in  the  sugar  which  it  contains.  However,  the  ethereal 
and  aromatic  properties  of  the  pineapple  give  to  it  its  chief  value  as  a  food, 
since  it  is  the  flavor  and  aroma  rather  than  the  nutriment  in  the  fruit  which 
make  it  valued  as  a  food.  These  flavors  and  aromas  are  due  to  essential  oils 
and  ethers  or  compound  ethers,  and  they  exist  in  such  minute  quantities  as  to 
escape  ordinary  chemical  investigation.  A  study  of  the  details  of  analyses 
shows  that  there  is  a  wide  variation  in  the  percentage  of  sugar.  In  two 
instances  the  total  sugar  fell  below  eight  percent,  but  those  evidently 
were  green  and  imperfect  samples  and  were  not  included  in  the  general 
average. 

The  highest  quantity  of  sugar  found  in  any  Florida  pineapple  was  15.28 
percent.  The  data  show  that  in  general  it  may  be  said  that  the  Florida  pine- 
apple contains  nearly  1 2  percent  of  its  weight  of  sugar. 

Average  Composition  oj  Cuban  Pineapples. — The  average  composition  of 


364  VEGETABLES,    CONDIMENTS,   FRUITS. 

lo  samples  of  Cuban  pineapples  examined  in  the  Bureau  of  Chemistry  is 
shown  in  the  following  data: 

Total  solids, 14.52  percent 

Sugars, 11.87        " 

Protein, 40        " 

Ash, 35 

Acidity,.-' 56        " 

These  data  show  that  the  Cuban  pineapple  is  only  a  trifle  sweeter  than 
that  grown  in  Florida  and  has  in  general  the  same  composition. 

The  Florida  pineapples  when  placed  on  the  market  have  qualities  which 
are  by  most  connoisseurs  judged  to  be  superior  to  those  of  Cuban  origin, 
although  these  qualities  are  not  indicated  by  any  marked  difference  in  the 
analytical  results. 

The  average  composition  of  Bahama  pineapples,  examined  in  the  Bureau 
of  Chemistry,  is  given  in  the  following  table: 

Total  solids, 14.81  percent 

Sugar, 12.22         " 

Protein, 48 

Ash, 40        " 

Acidity, ' 77 

The  Bahama  pineapple,  as  is  seen  by  the  above  data,  is  somewhat  sweeter 
than  the  Florida  or  Cuban  grown  fruit  and  also  has  a  higher  acidity. 

Average  Composition  of  Porta  Rican  Pineapples.— T^o  samples  of  Porto 
Rican  pines,  examined  in  the  Bureau  of  Chemistry,  had  the  following  com- 
position: 

Total  solids, iS-Qi  percent 

Total  sugar,.. 15.36        " 

Protein, 48        " 

Ash, 37        " 

Acidity, 72"      " 

The  other  samples  of  pines  coming  from  Porto  Rico  were  so  immature 
that  it  was  found  they  contained  only  about  one-half  the  percentage  of  sugar 
and  one-half  the  total  solids  of  the  ripened  fruits.  They  were  probably  har- 
vested in  an  immature  state  in  order  to  withstand  the  vicissitudes  of  trans- 
portation. The  above  data  show  that  the  ripe  pines  of  Porto  Rico  are  even 
richer  than  those  of  the  Bahamas  in  sugar  and  nutritive  elements. 

The  average,  maximum,  and  minimum  data  for  all  samples  of  the  fresh 
pines  from  all  countries,  examined  in  the  Bureau  of  Chemistry,  show  the 
following  composition: 


SAPOTA. 


365 


Data. 

Solids. 

Sugar. 

Protein. 

Ash. 

Acidity. 

Percent. 

14.17 
18.86 
10.78 

Percent. 

11.90 

15.28 

8.20 

Percent. 
.42 

•57 
.21 

Percent. 
.40 

•55 
.27 

Percent. 
.60 

•85 
•30 

Minimum, , 

In  order  that  some  idea  might  be  obtained  of  the  composition  of  the  pines 
grown  at  Singapore  and  Nassau,  the  consuls  in  those  locaUties  were  requested 
to  secure  the  preservation  of  the  pines  by  steriUzation  without  the  addition 
of  any  substance,  that  is,  their  preservation  in  their  natural  juice.  In  this 
condition  the  fruit  of  the  pine,  naturally  preser\^ed,  was  sent  to  the  Bureau 
of  Chemistry  and  subjected  to  analysis  with  the  following  average  results: 

Average  Composition  (ten  samples  from  Singapore). — 

Solids, 13-39  percent 

Sugars, 11.73        " 

Protein, 48        " 

Ash, 38        " 

Acidity, 39 

Average  Composition  (two  samples  from  Nassau). — 

Solids, 13-18  percent 

Sugars, 10.86        " 

Protein, 40        " 

Ash, 41        " 

Acidity, 58        " 

The  above  data  show  that  the  pineapples  grown  in  Singapore  and  Nassau 
are  not  notably  different  in  composition  from  those  grown  in  Florida,  Cuba, 
and  Jamaica.  All  the  data  indicate  that  the  pineapples  grown  in  different 
parts  of  the  world  have  practically  the  same  composition  at  the  same  state 
of  maturity. 

Sapota  (Sapodilla)  {Sapota  zapotiUa  (Jacq.)  Coville). — This  is  a  tropical 
fruit  which  is  grown  in  large  quantities  in  Cuba,  where  two  varieties  are  known, 
differing  only  in  shape,  one  being  round  and  the  other  oval.  In  the  Havana 
markets  the  latter  variety  is  incorrectly  known  as  the  nispero.  This  name,  how- 
ever, is  properly  applied  to  the  fruit  loquat  (Eriobotrya  japonica).  The  fruit  is 
small,  weighing  usually  under  two  ounces,  has  a  brown  or  brownish-green 
color  and  in  general  appearance  resembles  a  smooth,  dark  potato.  The  skin 
is  thick  and  coarse  in  texture,  the  pulp  is  yellowish-brown  in  color,  granular 
in  texture,  and  rich  in  juice.  The  odor  is  characteristic,  and  the  taste  is  quite 
sweet.  The  seeds  number  from  one  to  five  and  are  contained  in  a  soft  open 
core, — they  are  of  a  brownish-black  color  with  a  single  white  stripe,  and 
measure  from  three-quarters  to  one  inch  in  length.  The  fruit  comes  into  use 
about  the  first  of  April  and  lasts  until  the  end  of  summer.  It  is  a  very  popular 
fruit  in   summer  and  deserves  more  attention  in  the  various  markets  than 


366 


VEGETABLES,    CONDIMENTS,    FRUITS. 


it  has  yet  received.     The  sap  of  the  sapota  tree  and  juice  of  the  green  fruit 
when  concentrated  furnish  the  material  known  as  chicle,  from  which  chew- 
ing-gum is  made.     The  compositions  of  the  round  and  long  sapota  and  the 
natural  preserved  pulp  of  the  sapota  are  given  in  the  following  table: 
Composition  of  Edible  Portion. — 


Sample. 


Edible 
Portion. 


Composition  of  Edible  Portion. 


Solids. 


Total 
ash. 


Adds. 


Protein. 


Total 
sugar. 


Round  sapota, 

Long  sapota, '. 

Natural  sapota  preserves 


Percent. 
76.40 
80.90 


Percent. 
23.07 
21.01 
22.95 


Percent. 
0.384 

•555 
•399 


Percent. 

0.132 

.162 

.086 


Percent. 

©•350 
.650 
.231 


Percent. 
10.85 
12.76 
11.30 


The  sapota  is  also  used  in  the  manufacture  of  preserves  by  boiling  it  with 
sugar  in  the  usual  way.  The  analyses  show  that  the  sapota  is  a  fruit  which 
is  principally  valuable  as  a  carbohydrate  food.  It  has,  however,  very  little 
acid,  and  is  a  much  sweeter  fruit  than  the  anona  and,  therefore,  more  pleasant 
to  the  taste. 

Star-apple  (Cainito)  {Chrysophyllum  cainito), —  The  star-apple  is  one 
of  the  less  important  fruits  which  abound  in  Cuba.  It  is  not  very  extensively 
used,  but  medicinal  properties  are  attributed  to  it.  Three  different  varieties 
are  sold  in  the  Havana  markets, — one  of  a  white  color  and  two  purple.  The 
first  attains  the  size  of  a  small  apple,  approaching  about  seven  ounces  in 
weight.  There  are  two  kinds  of  meat  in  the  pulp ;  the  outer  portion  is  a  white, 
gelatinous  matter  which  contains  the  small  black  seed  and  is  really  the 
edible  portion,  and  constitutes  about  one-third  the  weight  of  the  fruit.  The 
outer  fibrous  and  purple  portion  of  the  flesh  is  inedible.  The  inner  pulp 
has  a  sweet  characteristic  flavor  and  is  eaten  raw.  No  preserves  were  found 
made  of  this  in  Cuban  markets.  The  composition  of  the  white  star-apple 
is  shown  in  the  following  table: 

Composition  oj  Edible  Portion — 41.80  percent. — 

Solids, 14-23  percent 

Sugar, 7.91        " 

Protein, 67       " 

Ash, 35       " 

Acidity, ■ 05       " 

These  data  show  that  the  fruit  is  not  of  a  very  high  nutritive  order,  and 
on  account  of  its  low  acidity  it  is  not  suitable  for  the  making  of  preserves. 

Tamarind  (Tamarindus  Indica). — ^This  fruit  belongs  to  the  leguminous 
family  and  forms  a  dark  brown  pod  from  one  to  six  inches  in  length  and  from 
three-fourths  of  an  inch  to  one  inch  in  width.     The  rind  is  thin  and  very  brittle. 


MINERAL  CONSTITUENTS   OF   TROPICAL   FRUITS.  367 

Within  the  pod  is  found  a  dark-colored  pasty  material,  closely  attached  to  the 
seed  sacks  and  joined  to  the  stem  of  the  pod  by  coarse  fibers.  This  pasty 
material  constitutes  the  edible  portion  of  the  fruit  and  has  a  very  sour 
taste  which  serves  to  mask  the  large  amount  of  sugar,  sometimes  as  much  as 
30  percent,  which  it  contains.  The  tamarind  is  remarkable  as  having  the 
highest  content  both  of  acid  and  sugar  of  any  of  the  edible  fruits  which  are 
in  common  use.  It  contains  more  acid,  for  instance,  than  the  sourest  lime 
and  more  sugar  than  the  sweetest  fruit.  The  tamarind  is  not  ver\'  largely 
used  directly  for  edible  purposes  but  is  a  component  of  many  refreshing 
summer  beverages  and  is  used  for  flavoring  other  products.  It  has  mild 
purgative  properties,  and  hence  its  intermittent  use  in  small  quantities 
tends  to  keep  in  proper  regulation  the  mechanical  movements  which  are 
so  necessary  to  normal  digestion. 
Composition  of  the   Tamarind. — 

Water^ 47-47  percent 

Acid, 6.03       " 

Sugar, 31.43       " 

Protein, i  .36       " 

Ash; 1.56 

The  above  data  show  that  the  tamarind  is  essentially  of  a  carbohydrate 
nature,  its  chief  food  value  being  in  the  sugar  which  it  contains.  On  account 
of  its  high  acidity  very  little  of  the  sugar  which  is  present  is  in  the  form  of 
sucrose  or  cane  sugar,  but  is  mostly  in  an  invert  condition. 

Preparation  of  Tamarinds. — Tamarinds  are  also  utilized  quite  extensively  in 
the  form  of  tamarind  paste  which  is  made  up  chiefly  by  the  addition  of 
cane  sugar  to  the  pulp;  as  much  as  75  percent  of  sugar  is  often  added  in 
the  making  of  this  product.  Another  form  of  preparation  is  called  tamarind 
pulp,  which  has  practically  the  same  composition  as  the  paste.  These  tw^o 
bodies  may  be  called  tamarind  preserves.  The  proportion  of  pulp  to  added 
sugar  is  about  as  20  to  80. 

Mineral  Constituents  of  Tropical  Fruits. — The  mineral  content  of  the 
edible  portions  of  fruits  is  important,  both  from  a  dietetic  and  chemical  point 
of  view. 

The  mineral  substances  in  fruits  not  only  add  to  their  palatability  but  also 
have  important  functions  in  digestion  and  assimilation.  The  lime  and  phos- 
phoric acid  which  the  ash  of  fruits  contain  are  foods  that  nourish  certain 
tissues  of  the  body,  such  as  the  bones.  The  other  mineral  ingredients  of 
fruits  take  an  active  part  in  the  circulation  of  the  fluids  of  the  body.  Since 
the  modern  development  of  physiological  chemistry,  what  is  know^n  as  osmotic 
force,  or  the  power  that  causes  solutions  to  pass  through  membranes,  is  be- 
lieved to  be  due  largely  to  the  mineral  constituents  of  the  juices  of  the  body. 
These  mineral  constituents  are  therefore  necessary  in  the  food.     The  following 


368 


VEGETABLES,   CONDIMENTS,   FRUITS. 


table  gives  the  total  quantity  of  ash  in  the  edible  portion  of  the  tropical  fruits 
named,  together  with  the  composition  of  the  ash  in  respect  of  its  most  impor- 
tant constituents  (Bulletin  87,  Bureau  of  Chemistry): 


ANALYSES  OF  THE  ASH  OF  THE  EDIBLE  PORTION  OF  THE 
SEVERAL  FRUITS. 


Description  of  Sample. 


Total 
Ash. 


Silica 
(Si02). 


Orange  (china), 

Orange  (rough  skin),.i 

Orange  (sour) , 

Grape  fruit, 

Lime, \ 

Sweet  lemon, 

Tamarind, | 

Guava, I 

Banana  (nino), 

Banana  (oronoco), 

Banana  (Colorado),...: 

Mango  (French), ' 

Mango  (Filipino), ' 

Manga, i 

Guanabana, I 

.A.nona, i 

Chirimoya, \ 

Sapota, I 

Mamey  (Colorado),...! 

Do., i 

Hicaco, i 

Caimito,  ...' ' 

Pineapple, 

Do.,' 


Per- 
cent. 


Per- 
cent. 


15-57^ 
1-13 


1-75 

2.14 

1.48 

•63 


Potash 
(K2O). 


Per- 
cent. 

40.66 
49-15 
45-09 
44.19 
43.01 
54-35 

55-00 
46.46 
52.41 
51-47 
47-37 
51-79 
49-37 
48.93 
47.27 

49-73 
43-13 
50-57 
48.20 

35-15 
54-75 
59.18 

57-13 


Lime 
(CaO). 


Per- 
cent. 

10.26 
2.62 

7-95 
7-34 
7.84 
4.29 
.68 
2.48 

•95 
1.02 

•37 
6.38 

1.74 
2.38 

.44 

.81 

2.21 

7-49 
1.38 

1-73 
5-84 
1-31 
9-44 
4.80 


Mag- 
nesia 
(MgO) 


Per- 
cent. 

5-27 
1.41 
2.17 
3-92 
2.36 
1.08 
2.19 
1.64 
.42 
1.90 

.65 
1.62 

3-25 

2.17 
2.07 
.66 
2.83 
1.36 
3-35 
4-51 

5-52 
3-44 


Ferric  Ph^S"       Sul-    chlo- 

OXID  PHORIC       FURIC      ^ 

(l.n\  Acid    '  Acid  I   f^^. 

(FezOg),  (P2O5).    (SO3).  i   ^^^>- 


Per- 
cent. 


Per- 
cent. 

8.56 
7.42 
8.70 

11.09 
8.45 
9^83 
4.99 
8.29 

10.36 
5.16 

3-25 
6.49 
9.04 

5^57 
9^15 

6.57 
2.74 
4.90 
9.66 

3-09 

11.00 

6.51 

4.29 


Per- 
cent. 

2.84 
3-42 

2.72 

3-39 
2.62 
4.09 
1.40 
3^58 
2.36 

3^32 
2.77 

3^67 
4.88 

3^84 
4-54 
3-19 
4.49 

4-55 
3-54 
3.80 

4-77 
5-50 
3 -04 
3-65 


Per- 
cent. 

2.44 
1.50 

.98 
1.38 
4.07 
1.32 

.48 

5-33 
6.59 

8.48 

7-63 
3-88 
1.56 
4.20 
3-40 

3-51 

7.40 

17.41 

17-34 

16.00 

18.62 

9.46 

3.22 

4.08 


The  above  data  show  that  the  percentage  of  ash  in  the  edible  portion  of 
tropical  fruits  is  never  very  high.  In  only  three  instances  in  the  above  table 
does  it  exceed  one  percent  and  in  two  of  those  only  slightly.  The  principal 
mineral  constituent  is  potash,  which  in  round  numbers  may  be  said  to  constitute 
one-half  of  the  total  ash.  Of  the  acid  constituents  phosphoric  acid  is  the  most 
important.  In  four  cases  the  amount  of  phosphoric  acid  is  greater  than 
10  percent  of  the  total  weight  of  the  ash.  The  proportion  of  sulfuric  acid 
in  the  ash  is  quite  constant,  while  the  amount  of  chlorin  varies  from  less  than 
one-half  of  one  percent  to  more  than  18  percent. 

In  this  case  of  high  ash  there  is  a  low  content  of  phosphoric  acid,  which 
leads  to  the  supposition  that  the  chlorin  is  partially  or  wholly  combined  with 
sodium  and  potassium.     In  addition  to  the  elements  mentioned  above  the 

*  2.88  percent  sand. 


SUGAR  AND  ACID    IN  FRUIT.  369 

ash  of  edible  fruits  often  contains  notable. quantities  of  silica  and  sometimes 
considerable  quantities  of  sand,  added  accidentally  or  by  the  collection  of 
dust.  The  ash  of  fruit  also  quite  universally  contains  iron.  In  some  cases 
the  quantity  of  iron  amoimts  to  as  much  as  four  percent  of  the  total  weight  of 
the  ash.  The  data  in  the  above  table  are  calculated  on  the  percentage  of  total 
ash  and  not  on  the  percentage  of  pure  ash,  that  is,  ash  deprived  of  its  carbon, 
sand,  and  carbonic  acid. 

There  are  some  peculiarities  in  the  composition  of  the  ash  of  tropical  fruits 
to  which  attention  may  be  called.  The  citrus  fruits  contain  somewhat  larger 
amounts  of  lime  and  iron  than  ordinary  fruits.  The  ash  of  the  tamarind 
contains  large  quantities  of  silica.  The  ash  of  the  banana  has  a  low  content 
of  lime  and  magnesia  and  a  high  content  of  chlorin.  Attention  is  also  called 
to  the  fact  that  in  the  ordinary  combustion  of  an  organic  substance  to  secure 
the  mineral  matter  notable  quantities  of  the  phosphoric  acid  and  chlorin  con- 
tained may  be  lost.  Therefore,  the  data  for  phosphoric  acid  and  for  chlorin 
are  probably  lower  than  would  be  the  case  if  all  of  these  substances  present 
in  the  fruit  had  been  secured  in  the  ash.  The  ash  of  pineapples  is  not  peculiar 
in  any  respect,  nor  does  it  contain  any  marked  amount  of  a  constituent  by 
which  it  can  be  identified.  The  pineapple,  as  is  seen,  contains  slightly  more 
potash  than  the  other  tropical  fruits. 

Sugar  and  Acid  in  Fruit. 
The  palatable  quality  of  fruit  depends  largely  upon  the  aromatic  substances 
which  they  contain  in  the  form  of  essential  oils,  esters,  and  ethers,  and  espe- 
cially upon  their  sugar  and  acid  content.  The  sweet  taste  of  sugar  in  fruits 
and  also  often  in  nuts  is  modified  and  relieved  by  the  acid  or  astringent  mate- 
rials, chiefly  tannin,  with  which  it  is  associated.  In  the  analyses  indicating 
the  composition  of  fruits  and  of  nuts  and  also  of  vegetables  the  sugar  has  not 
always  been  given  separately,  but  as  one  member  of  a  group  consisting  of 
sugar,  starch,  and  cellulose  materials  soluble  in  weak  acid  and  alkahes,  and 
for  this  reason  deemed  to  be  digestible.  It  seems  advisable  to  supplement 
this  information  with  a  special  table  giving  the  average  quantity  of  sugar  and 
acid  found  in  some  of  the  principal  fruits.  It  must  not  be  forgotten  that  in 
individual  cases  the  quantity  of  sugar  and  acid  may  vary  largely  from  the 
average,  but  the  following  data  may  be  regarded  as  expressing  very  accurately 
the  average  content  of  sugar  and  acid  in  the  common  fruits. 

Sugar.  Acid. 

Percent .  Percent . 

Apples,  Rhode  Island  Greening, io-95  -70  as  malic 

Winesap,   11.95  -5°  "      " 

"       Northern  Spy, 11.80  .70"      " 

Apricots,  fresh, ii.oi  1-15"      " 

"         dried,    29.59  2.52"      " 

Bananas, 20.28  .30  "  sulfuric 

25 


370  VEGETABLES,  CONDIMENTS,  FRUITS. 

SUGAR.  ACID. 

Percent.  Percent. 

Blackberries, 5.78  .77  as  malic 

Cranberries, 1.52  2.34"      " 

Currants, 6.70  2.24"      " 

Grapes, 7.90-26.40  .59  "  tartaric 

Lemons, 37  5.39  "  citric 

Oranges, 5-65  i-35  "      " 

Peaches, 7.88  .56  "  sulfuric 

Pears, 9.11  .19  "  malic 

Pineapples, i i-5o  .60  "  sulfuric 

Plums, 14-71  -77  "  malic 

Prunes, 16.11  -32"      " 

Raspberries, 5.33  1.48"      " 

Strawberries, 6.24  i.io  "      " 

In  the  above  data  the  acidity  is  determined  as  malic  acid  in  apples,  black- 
berries, and  strawberries,  in  which  the  predominant  acid  is  malic.  In  cran- 
berries one  of  the  acids  is  benzoic,  amounting  sometimes  to  as  much  as  0.05 
percent,  in  grapes  tartaric,  in  lemons  and  oranges  citric.  In  the  other  fruits 
where  the  character  of  the  organic  acid  is  not  distinctly  of  one  kind,  the  total 
organic  acid  is  estimated  as  sulfuric  acid  (SO3),  not  meaning  by  that,  however, 
that  the  acids  are  present  in  the  form  of  sulfuric  acid  but  merely  that  their 
quantity  was  measured  in  terms  of  sulfuric  acid. 

Canned  Fruits. 

The  industry  devoted  to  canning  fruits  is  of  less  importance  in  the  United 
States  than  that  identified  with  canned  vegetables.  Practically,  nevertheless, 
every  fruit  which  has  been  produced  in  this  country  has  become  a  commercial 
article  in  the  form  of  canned  goods.  With  the  exception  of  the  method  of 
preparation,  the  process  of  canning  and  other  treatments  are  essentially  the 
same  as  that  of  vegetables  and  therefore  dees  not  warrant  any  further  descrip- 
tion. 

In  the  following  data  are  found  a  brief  description  and  the  composition  of  the 
leading  varieties  of  canned  fruit: 

Canned  Cherries. — Cherries  are  one  of  the  fruits  which  are  valued  for 
canning  purposes.  The  pits  may  or  may  not  be  removed,  according  to  the 
desire  of  the  manufacturer  and  the  demand  of  the  consumer.  The  galvanic 
action  which  the  cherry  juice  sets  up  on  the  tin  plate,  tends  to  bleach  the  nat- 
ural color  of  the  cherry,  and  this  action  can  be  avoided  by  coating  the  inte- 
rior of  the  can  with  a  gum  or  some  similar  substance  which  entirely  protects 
the  metallic  surface  from  contact  with  the  juice  of  the  fruit.  When  treated 
in  this  way  the  natural  color  of  the  cherry  is  preserved  for  a  reasonable 
length  of  time. 

Adulteration  of  Canned  Cherries. — The  only  adulteration  of  canned  cherries 
which  is  of  any  consequence  is  that  which  relates  to  artificial  coloring.  By 
reason  of  the  tendency  to  bleach  the  color,  mentioned  above,  it  has  been  quite 
customary  to  add  an  artificial  color  to  the  cherry  so  that  the  red  color  may 


CANNED   PEACHES.  37 1 

be  preserved.  Coal  tar  dyes,  under  various  names,  and  an  animal  dye. 
cochineal,  have  been  used  for  this  purpose.  The  practice  of  artificial  coloring 
is  reprehensible  and  may,  in  the  case  of  some  colors,  be  harmful  to  health. 
By  observing  the  precautions  already  mentioned,  the  natural  color  of  the 
cherry  may  be  preserved  without  artificial  color,  and  in  general  this  is  desir- 
able. The  consumer  should  at  all  times  demand  canned  cherries  which  have 
not  been  artificially  colored. 

Maraschino  Cherries. — ^A  very  common  method  of  treating  cherries  is  to 
bleach  them  in  a  brine  of  common  salt  and  sulfurous  acid  until  all  the  natural 
color  has  disappeared.  The  cherries  are  then  thoroughly  washed  for  the  re- 
moval of  the  salt  and  sulfurous  acid  and  at  the  same  time  the  juice  and  soluble 
portions  of  the  cherry  are  removed,  so  that  at  the  end  of  the  washing  there 
is  little  left  but  the  cellular  structure.  The  cherries  are  then  saturated  with 
sugar  or  sugar  and  glucose  and  colored  a  deep  artificial  red  by  coal  tar  dye 
or  cochineal.  If  the  natural  flavor  of  cherries  has  been  destroyed  by  the 
bleaching  an  artificial  flavor  is  often  added.  The  product  is  a  cherry  of  an 
even  deep  red  tint,  more  or  less  sweet,  according  to  the  use  of  greater  or  less 
quantities  of  sugar  or  glucose,  and  having  a  flavor  of  almond  oil.  When 
cherries  of  this  kind  are  preserved  in  a  solution  of  alcohol,  flavored  or  unflavored, 
they  are  called  maraschino  cherries.  The  name  is  taken  from  a  kind  of  cherry 
first  used  in  making  the  product.  They  are  used  to  a  very  large  extent  with 
certain  beverages  such  as  cocktails,  soda  water,  mint  juleps,  etc.,  and  also 
in  ice  cream  and  other  preparations  for  the  table.  Little  can  be  said  in  praise 
either  of  the  taste  or  wholesomeness  of  these  preparations  and  they  are  valu- 
able chiefly  for  their  supposed  attractive  appearance.  The  offense  which  is 
committed  against  the  aesthetic  taste  of  the  individual  in  the  preparation  of 
such  a  product  probably  offsets  any  good  effect  which  comes  from  attractive- 
ness or  ornamentation.  The  product  cannot  be  regarded  in  any  sense  as 
resembling  even  in  color  the  natural  fruit,  since  practically  the  whole  of  the 
natural  fruit,  except  its  cellular  structure,  has  been  withdrawn  and  artificial 
substances  substituted  in  place  thereof. 

Canned  Peaches. — A  great  industry  in  this  country  is  the  canning  of 
peaches.  Some  of  the  finest  and  most  perfect  varieties  are  used  for  this 
purpose.  Peaches  may  be  canned  whole  or  by  slicing  in  half  or  quarters  and 
removing  the  pit.  The  principles  of  sterilization  are  not  different  from 
those  which  have  already  been  described.  Since  the  peach  is  a  fruit  which 
decays  easily  and  is  thus  difficult  of  transportation,  the  establishment  of 
canning  factories  in  the  vicinity  of  large  peach  orchards  renders  it  possible 
to  preserve  this  delicate  fruit  in  a  condition  practically  as  good  as  that  of  the 
natural  article,  and  thus  makes  it  accessible  to  the  people  in  all  parts  of  the 
country  at  all  seasons  of  the  year. 

Adulteration  of  Canned  Peaches. — Fortunately   in   this   case  there   is  no 


372  VEGETABLES,    CONDIMENTS,    FRUITS. 

record  of  adulterations  which  is  of  any  consequence.  The  perfection  of  the 
method  of  sterilization  has  rendered  it  unnecessary  to  make  further  use  of 
antiseptics  for  canned  peaches.  The  use  of  the  artificial  sweetening  agent, 
saccharin,  is  almost  unknown  and  is  about  the  only  adulteration  which  at 
the  present  time  can  be  practiced  without  easy  detection.  It  may  be  con- 
fidently stated  that  the  consumer  can  rely,  with  a  fair  degree  of  assurance, 
upon  the  purity  of  the  product  which  is  taken  from  the  can.  The  only  real 
danger  is  in  the  action  of  the  fruit  juice  upon  the  imperfect  tin  plate,  and  this 
is  a  danger  which  probably  will  soon  pass  away,  since  there  is  a  tendency 
manifested  now  to  so  protect  the  tin  by  a  varnish  of  some  kind  as  to  render  it 
impossible  for  any  electric  action  to  take  place  which  impairs  the  color  or 
flavor  of  the  fruit  and  also  to  exclude  the  poisonous  salts  of  tin  and  lead  from 
the  contents  of  the  can. 

Adulteration  of  Canned  Fruit. — Artificial  coloring:  The  principal 
adulteration  of  canned  fruit  is  that  due  to  artificial  coloring.  There  is,  perhaps, 
no  other  form  of  adulteration  which  has  so  little  excuse.  It  only  needs  a 
cursory  observation  of  the  fruits  of  Nature  to  show  that  even  in  the  same 
varieties  they  differ  to  a  vast  degree  in  natural  tint.  Bright  colors  are  especially 
prized  in  fruits.  For  instance,  the  yellow  of  the  peach,  the  red  of  the  cherry, 
the  purple  of  the  plum,  etc.  The  object  of  artificial  coloring  is  to  make  all 
kinds  and  varieties  of  these  fruits  imitate  these  of  naturally  rich  color..  Its 
sole  purpose  is  deception,  since  it  can  add  nothing  whatever  to  the  nutritive 
value.  The  claim  that  it  adds  to  the  dietetic  value  of  the  fruit,  as  in  other 
cases  of  the  same  kind  of  argument,  is  plainly  fallacious.  The  very  moment 
the  consumer  realizes  he  is  eating  an  artificially  tinted  fruit,  if  he  has  a  tem- 
perament that  would  make  him  susceptible  to  suggestion  at  all  he  becomes 
aware  of  the  effort  made  to  deceive  him.  Such  artificially  colored  foods,  thus, 
instead  of  tasting  better  than  they  otherwise  would,  have  a  worse  taste  due 
to  the  feeling  of  antipathy  excited  by  their  presence.  Hence  there  can  be  no 
excuse,  under  any  circumstances,  for  the  addition  of  artificial  colors  to  food 
products  of  this  kind,  or  in  fact,  of  any  kind  except  those  which  are  purely  syn- 
thetic and  have  no  relation  in  composition  or  in  quality  to  a  natural  product. 
It  is  a  matter  of  congratulation  to  know  that  the  addition  of  artificial  color  to 
canned  fruits  is  practically  a  thing  of  the  past. 

Another  form  of  adulteration,  which  fortunately  is  seldom  practiced  in  fruit, 
is  one  which  has  already  been  described  in  sufficient  detail,  that  is,  the  addition 
of  saccharin,  a  substance  which  has  even  less  place  in  fruits  than  in  vege- 
tables. The  addition  of  a  non-sugar,  such  as  saccharin,  with  an  intensely 
sweet  taste  for  the  purpose  of  inducing  the  consumer  to  believe  that  the  ar- 
ticle is  a  natural  sweet  product,  is  an  adulteration  of  the  most  reprehensible 
type,  to  say  nothing  of  the  evil  effects  of  the  adulterant  employed  upon 
health.     The  addition  of  spices  and  other  condimental  substances  to  fruit 


COMPOSITION   OF   FRUIT   SIRUP.  373 

products  cannot  be  regarded  as  an  adulteration,  because  they  reveal  their  own 
presence  and  are  not  added  for  the  purpose  of  imitation  or  deception. 
As  has  been  mentioned  above,  the  manufacturer  would  save  all  criticism  in 
such  cases  by  a  plain  statement  upon  the  label  of  the  nature  of  the  substance 
added. 

Canned  fruits  properly  preserved  retain  their  natural  aroma  and  flavor 
better  than  any  other  form  of  canned  food  and  deserve  the  high  estimation 
in  which  they  are  held  by  the  consumer.  The  time  is  now  rapidly  approaching 
w'hen  all  such  goods  will  be  free  of  any  imitation  or  adulteration,  and  this 
will  add  greatly  to  their  value  in  the  markets  of  the  country.  The  consumer 
will  then  only  need  to  have  the  date  of  preservation  marked  on  the  can  to 
be  fully  protected. 

Fruit  Sirups. 

The  expressed  juice  of  fruits  mixed  with  the  proper  proportion  of  sugar 
produces  an  important  article  of  commerce  known  as  fruit  sirup.  These 
fruit  sirups  are  used  principally  in  the  preparation  of  cooling,  non-alcoholic 
beverages  such  as  are  drunk  at  the  "soda  fountains"  so-called  in  the  United 
States.  In  the  preparation  of  fruit  sirups  only  the  choicest  and  best  fruits 
are  to  be  used.  The  juice,  after  expression,  is  properly  freed  from  suspended 
matter  by  filtration  or  sedimentation  and  is  brought  to  a  proper  consistence 
by  mixing  at  once  with  pure  sugar.  WTien  it  is  used  as  soon  as  prepared  no 
further  precaution  in  regard  to  its  preservation  is  necessary,  since  juice  pre- 
pared in  this  way  and  kept  in  an  ice-box  will  keep  several  days  without  fer- 
menting. When  manufactured  on  a  large  scale  for  commercial  purposes  it 
becomes  necessary  to  prepare  these  sirups  in  some  more  permanent  form. 
To  this  end  they  are  subjected  to  the  usual  process  of  pasteurization.  On 
account  of  their  liquid  condition,  sterilization,  that  is,  the  use  of  a  temperature 
of  boiling  water,  is  rarely  necessary.  If,  on  pasteurization,  a  precipitate  is 
formed  in  these  sirups,  they  should  be  heated  to  the  temperature  of  pasteuriza- 
tion previous  to  the  final  processing  and  any  deposited  matter  be  separated 
by  filtration  or  deposit.  The  sirup  thus  clarified  is  placed  in  bottles  or  separate 
containers  and  subjected  to  the  pasteurizing  process  for  a  suflScient  length 
of  time,  and  is  then  ready  for  the  market.  These  pasteurized  sirups,  if 
stored  in  a  cool  place,  will  keep  almost  indefinitely.  In  all  cases  where  pas- 
teurization is  practiced  at  a  very  low  temperature  it  is  necessary  to  keep  the 
product  at  a  low  temperature,  since,  as  is  well  known,  pasteurization  does 
not  kill  all  the  spores,  but  does  act  with  deadly  effect  upon  the  yeasts  which 
produce  alcoholic  fermentation.  Fresh  sirups  thus  prepared  and  pasteur- 
ized are  wholesome  and  palatable  and  are  unobjectionable. 

Naturally  the  principal  added  constituent  of  fruit  sirup  is  the  sugar,  the 
other  constituents  corresponding  to  those  of  the  juice  from  which  the  sirup  is 


374  VEGETABLES,  CONDIMENTS,  FRUITS. 

made.  In  other  words  the  natural  sugar  and  that  added  make  up  practically 
the  total  solids  of  these  products. 

Adulteration  of  Fruit  Sirup.— Fruit  sirups  have  been  extensively  and 
unnecessarily  adulterated.  The  principal  adulteration  is  the  omission  of 
the  pasteurization  process  and  the  preserving  of  the  fruit  juice  by  means 
of  an  antiseptic.  The  two  antiseptics  which  have  been  most  commonly 
employed  for  this  purpose  are  salicylic  and  benzoic  acids.  At  the  present 
time,  by  reason  of  prohibitive  legislation  in  respect  of  salicylic  acid,  benzoic 
acid  or  its  compounds  are  quite  universally  employed.  These  antiseptics 
are  injurious  to  health  and  even  in  small  quantities  cannot  fail  to  have  some 
deleterious  effect  upon  the  system.  As  they  are  not  necessary  in  the  preser- 
vation of  fruit  sirups,  they  should  be  rigidly  excluded  therefrom.  In  justice 
to  those  who  use  antiseptics  of  this  kind  it  is  said  that,  as  a  rule,  they  frankly 
admit  that  these  sirups  can  be  preserved  by  sterihzation,  but  that  when  con- 
sumed they  are  used  only  in  small  quantities,  and  when  the  air  has  access  to 
the  remaining  portion  fermentation  is  set  up.  To  this  the  answer  may  be 
made  that  if  unstoppered  and  used  under  proper  conditions  to  avoid  the 
admission  of  germs,  and  if  kept  on  ice  or  in  a  cool  place,  fermentation  will 
not  set  up  for  several  days,  during  which  time  opportunity  will  be  had  for 
disposing  of  the  contents  of  the  bottle.  It  does  not  appear  that  there  is 
any  convincing  reason  to  warrant  the  continuance  of  the  use  of  preservatives 
in  this  kind  of  products. 

Imitation  Fruit  Sirups. — By  far  the  most  general  adulteration  of  fruit 
sirups  is  that  of  the  imitations  thereof,  pure  and  simple,  by  synthetic  products, 
The  flavors  which  give  to  fruits  their  character  and  aroma  are  chemical  com- 
pounds produced  by  Nature  and  are  chiefly  of  the  nature  of  a  volatile  oil  or 
compound  ether.  Of  these  flavors,  the  compound  ethers  especially  are 
readily  produced  by  purely  synthetic  processes.  It  is  possible,  therefore, 
for  the  chemist  to  make  an  approximate  imitation  of  the  natural  fruit  flavor. 
No  difference  how  great  his  skill,  however,  or  the  skill  of  the  mixer,  there  is 
always  a  gustatory  and  hygienic  difference  between  the  synthetic  and  the 
natural  product,  and  the  natural  product  always  has  the  advantage  of  the 
difference.  While  I  do  not  go  so  far  as  to  say  that  synthetic  flavors  or  sirups 
should  be  excluded  in  the  preparation  of  non-alcoholic  beverages,  I  do  say 
with  emphasis  that  they  should  never  be  used,  except  with  notificaton  to  the 
consumer,  and  never,  under  any  circumstance,  if  they  contain  any  ingredient 
which  is  prejudicial  to  health. 

One  of  the  principal  arguments  which  has  been  made  agailist  the  enactment 
of  the  pure  food  bill  has  been  that  it  would  exclude  from  the  market  these 
synthetic  products.  At  least  let  them  be  sold  under  their  proper  designations. 
A  law  which  requires  plain  and  honest  branding  can  hardly  be  objected  to 
on  any  ground  whatever. 


selection  of  the  fruit.  375 

Jams,  Jellies,  and  Preserves. 

The  preparation  of  various  fruits  or  fruit  juices  with  sugar  is  an  important 
industry  both  for  domestic  purposes  and  for  commerce  in  the  United  States. 
When  the  fleshy  portion  of  the  fruit  is  treated  with  sugar  sirup  and  boiled,  it 
produces  the  product  known  as  preserves.  When  a  fruit  is  reduced  to  a 
pulp  and  treated  with  sugar  sirup  and  boiled,  it  makes  a  product  known  as 
jam.  WTien  the  fruit  juice  itself  is  treated  with  sugar  and  boiled,  it  forms  a 
product  known  as  jelly.  The  above  are  general  definitions  of  three  important 
classes  of  fruit  products,  though  it  is  not  intended  by  any  means  in  the  defini- 
tions to  describe  the  details  of  preparation.  These  vary  greatly  in  respect 
of  the  method  of  preparation,  the  fruit,  the  quantity  of  sugar  used,  the  length 
of  time  the  boiling  is  continued,  and  the  consistency  of  the  final  product. 
These  definitions  merely  outline  the  three  distinct  classes  of  products  which 
are  made  from  fruits. 

Selection  of  the  Fruit.— In  the  selection  of  the  fruit  for  making  these 
sweet  products  it  is  highly  important  that  only  the  very  best  quality  should 
be  used.  The  fruit  should  be  of  a  proper  degree  of  maturity,  and  yet  not 
overripe.  The  practice  of  using  immature,  waste,  or  partially  deformed  or 
decayed  fruit  for  the  purposes  named  cannot  be  too  strongly  condemned. 
The  great  advantage  of  preparing  these  products  at  the  home  consists  in  the 
fact  that  the  character  of  the  material  used  is  under  the  immediate  supervision 
of  the  housewife.  In  large  factories  where  no  official  inspection  is  exercised 
it  is  possible  that  any  kind  of  fruit  or  any  portion  of  the  fruit  may  be  devoted 
to  the  purpose.  All  deteriorated  raw  material  should  be  rigidly  excluded 
from  the  factor)-.  Various  fruits  are  utilized  in  different  manners  in  the 
preparation  of  the  above-named  products.  Large  fruits  with  tough  skins, 
such  as  apples,  peaches,  and  pears,  are  pared,  the  cores  removed,  and  all 
decayed  or  infected  portions  cut  away,  and  the  clean,  fresh,  fleshy  portion 
of  the  fruit  used  for  manufacturing  purposes.  Small  fruits,  such  as  berries, 
after  the  exclusion  of  all  dirt,  immature  or  imperfect  samples,  and  the  removal 
of  the  stem,  are  used  in  the  whole  state  for  the  purposes  named. 

It  would  be  manifestly  impracticable,  as  a  rule,  to  remove  even  the  seeds 
of  small  fruits,  except  where  jelly  is  to  be  manufactured.  The  fruits,  having 
been  properly  prepared,  are  mixed  with  sugar  or  thick  sugar  sirup  and  sub- 
jected to  heat  for  two  purposes.  The  first  purpose  of  heat  is  to  sterilize  com- 
pletely the  material  so  that  no  bacteria,  germs,  or  spores  may  be  left  alive 
in  the  finished  product.  The  second  purpose  of  heating  is  to  concentrate 
the  material  to  a  proper  consistence  and  to  thoroughly  saturate  aU  portions 
with  sugar  sirup.  Incidentally,  the  heating  also  by  the  combined  action  of 
temperature  and  free  acids  in  the  fruit  inverts  a  large  quantity  of  the  cane 
sugar  that  is  used  and  thus  prevents  the  finished  product  from  granulating. 
The  crystallization  of  the  sugar  in  these  bodies  renders  them  very  much 


376 


VEGETABLES,    CONDIMENTS,    FRUITS. 


less  desirable  and  less  suitable  for  preserving.  For  this  reason,  among  others, 
the  precaution  mentioned,  namely,  that  the  fruit  should  not  be  overripe,  should 
be  observed.  It  has  been  seen  that  overripe  fruit  diminishes  in  acidity,  and 
hence  it  is  less  suitable  for  converting  the  cane  sugar  than  fruit  just  short 
of  complete  maturity.  For  this  reason,  too,  the  more  strongly  acid  fruits  are 
better  suited  for  making  these  sweetened  products  than  those  in  which  the 
acidity  is  less  strongly  developed. 

Jams. — As  has  already  been  said,  jams  differ  from  jellies  in  that  they 
contain  not  only  the  juice  of  the  fruit  but  the  whole  pulp  of  the  fruit  or  the 
whole  fruit.  The  methods  of  preparation  in  effect  produce  the  same  changes 
upon  the  sugars  that  are  produced  by  the  fruit  juice.  The  fruit  after  proper 
comminution  is  boiled  with  large  quantities  of  sugar  a  sufficient  length  of 
time  to  reduce  the  fruit  flesh  to  a  pulp  and  to  invert  more  or  less  of  the  sugar 
wliich  is  used.  The  insoluble  matter  w^hich  jam  contains  consists  chiefly  of 
the  cellulose  and  pectose  matter  in  the  fruit,  together  with  the  seeds  of  the 
small  fruit.  The  various  solids  are  made  up  of  the  solid  bodies  in  the  fruits, 
including  the  sugars  which  are  added.  The  character  of  the  ash  of  the  jams 
is  a  good  indication  whether  or  not  they  are  pure,  that  is,  made  out  of  sugar 
and  fruit  only.  While  it  is  true  that  the  ash  of  fruit  varies,  it  is  also  true  that 
the  real  ash  of  fruit  has  certain  characteristics  in  regard  to  alkalinity  which 
are  not  possessed  by  the  ash  of  adulterated  fruit  products.  For  the  sake  of 
convenience  and  reference  it  is  seen  advisable  to  append  a  table  showing  the 
composition  of  the  ash  of  some  of  the  fresh  fruits  (Bulletin  66,  Bureau  of 
Chemistry). 


Fruit. 


Pure  Ash 


Apple,  . . 
Apricots, 
Banana, . 
Cherries, 

Figs, 

Grapes,  . 
Lemons, , 
Oranges, 
Prunes,  . 


Percent. 

0.264 

.508 

1.078 

0.440 

.682 

.500 

.526 

•432 

486 


K2O. 
Potash. 


Percent. 

55-21 
59-36 
63.06 

57-67 
57-i6 

50-95 
48.26 
48.94 
63-83 


NazO. 
Soda. 


Percent. 
11.69 
10.26 

2.34 
6.80 
2.38 
6.32 
1.76 
2.50 
2.65 


CaO. 
Lime. 


Percent. 

4-79 

3-17 
.86 

4.20 
10.90 

4.96 
24.87 
22.71 

4.66 


P2O5. 

Phosphoric 

Acid. 


Percent. 
12.83 
13.09 
1.62 
15. II 
12.76 
21.27 
11.09 
12.37 
14.08 


SO3. 

Sulfuric 

Acid. 


Percent. 
4.62 
2.63 
2.32 
5-83 
3-90 
4.28 
2.84 

5-25 
2.68 


Cl. 
Chlorin. 


Percent. 
0.83 

-45 
26.93 

1.83 

2.05 

1-54 

•39 

.92 

•34 


From  the  above  table  it  is  seen  that  there  is  not  a  very  large  percentage  of 
sulfuric  acid  in  the  natural  ash  of  fruits,  and  very  little  chlorin,  with  the  excep- 
tion of  the  banana,  in  which  the  ash  is  principally  potassium  chlorid.  Since 
the  ash  of  glucose,  as  it  is  made  at  the  present  time,  consists  almost  entirely 
of  sulfates  and  chlorids,  any  considerable  increase  of  these  ingredients  of  an 
ash  over  the  normal  may  be  regarded  as  an  indication  that  the  fruit  product 
from  which  the  ash  is  obtained  contains  added  glucose.     Inasmuch  as  there 


JAMS. 


377 


are  chemical  and  physical  methods  of  detecting  glucose  which  are  entirely 
reliable,  the  utility  of  the  composition  of  ash  for  this  purpose  is  rather  con- 
firmatory than  otherwise.  Since  the  added  sugar  is  the  chief  constituent 
of  jams  there  is  little  difference  in  other  respects  in  the  composition  of  jams 
made  from  different  fruits,  as  will  be  seen  by  the  table  of  analysis  given  below: 


Description. 


Jams. 

Apple, 

Blackberry 

Grape, 

Orange,-.. 

Pear, , 

Peach, 

Pineapple,. 
Plum...... 


Total 
Solids. 


Percent. 
63.22 
55-42 
56.64 
80.52 
61.52 
65-65 
73-92 
50-43 


Acidity. 


Percent. 

0.282 
.851 
.744 
•433 
.163 
.500 

.314 
1.012 


Reducing 
Sugar. 


Percent, 
25-52 
18.77 

33-44 
13.61 
13.20 
36.48 
14.05 
28.29 


Cane 
Sugar. 


Percent. 
29.11 
29.00 
11-33 
54-23 
33-74 
23.16 
46.40 


Total 
Sugar. 


Percent. 
54-63 

47-77 
44-77 
67.84 
46.94 
59-64 
60.45 
37-99 


The  characteristics  of  fruit  which  give  the  special  flavors  to  the  jams  are 
imparted  by  constituents  such  as  ethers,  essential  oils,  and  other  aromatic 
substances,  together  with  the  free  acids  which  are  present  in  such  quantities 
as  not  to  be  susceptible  of  easy  quantitative  determination  by  chemical  means. 
The  relation  which  exists  between  the  cane  sugar  and  the  invert  sugar  is  not  a 
safe  index  of  the  method  of  preparation,  but  is  rather  an  indication  of  the 
excess  or  deficiency  of  the  acid  in  the  fruit  employed.  The  greater  the  quantity 
of  active  acids,  other  things  being  equal,  the  larger  the  quantity  of  inverted 
sugar  and  the  smaller  the  quantity  of  cane  sugar  in  the  finished  product. 

In  the  following  table  is  given  the  composition  of  a  number  of  jams  made 
in  the  laboratory  of  the  Bureau  of  Chemistry.  These  analyses  are  selected 
from  a  great  many  which  are  available  because  the  character  and  amount 
of  sugar  in  the  composition  of  the  jam  were  carefully  controlled,  and  thus  the 
chemical  data  afford  a  base  of  direct  comparison. 


}i     -i 

^ 

Sugars. 

Polarizations. 

"1 

0 

Pi 

u         .      » 

, 

S? 

^E 

X 

S 

a      1    ea 

d 

U 

U 

U 

a 

Description  of 

G  ^ 

5^ 

M 

M        1      bO 

?r, 

< 

Sample. 

si 

V  0 

"J 

1 

00 

w 

H 

< 

h*^ 

(U 

« 

^ 

U 

u 

S 

^ 

^ 

P.ct. 

p.ct. 

P.ct. 

P.ct. 

P.ct. 

P.  ct.    P.  ct. 

p.ct. 

°v. 

OV. 

°v. 

20446 

Apple  (fall  pippin)  .   . 
Blackberry 

63.22 

0.20 

0.282 

0.175 

25-52 

51.31    29.11 

43.22 

+26.3 

—13.0 

+4-8 

20414 

55-42 

.48 

.8si 

•737 

18.77 

43.99 

29.00 

34-08 

-»-24.6 

—14.6 

+  1.6 

20445 

Grape  (fox)    .... 

61.80 

^1 

.608 

.200 

50.06 

54.21 

3-70 

92.96 

—  9.0 

—14.0 

+2.2 

20416  1  Grape  (Ives  seedling) 

56.64 

.744 

•525 

33.44 

42.45 

"•33 

73.38 

+  Vy 

-ii.B 

0 

20443    Orange    (Florida    na- 

„vel) 

80.52 

.44 

•433 

.944 

13.61 

69.13 

54.23 

21.55 

+55-9 

-17.5 

-1-2.0 

20448 

Pear  (Bartlett)  .... 

61.52 

.28 

•  163 

.312 

13.20 

46.52 

33-74 

18.87 

+.32.3 

—13.2 

-f-i.o 

20442 

Pineapple    .... 

73.92 

•30 

.315 

.312 

14.05 

60.20 

46.40 

22.90 

+.S2.3 

—10.3 

-f6.2 

20421 

Plum  (damson)     .   .   . 

50.43 

•54 

1. 102 

•525 

28.29 

37-75 

9.70 

74.42 

+  3.1 

— lO.O 

+  1.2 

20423  j  Plum  (wild  fox)    .    .    . 

62.10 

^6 

1-355 

.212 

28.78 

47-86 

23.26 

53-43 

+  13.9 

—17.5 

0 

378 


VEGETABLES,    CONDIMENTS,    FRUITS. 


The  following  table  represents  the  data  relating  to  the  composition  of 
jams  from  samples  purchased  in  the  open  market,  free  from  glucose  and 
apparently  pure: 


Description. 


Apricots, 

Currants, . . . 

Figs, 

Grape  fruit,. 

Guava, 

Peach, 

Strawberries, 


Total 
Solids. 


Percent. 

70-15 
66.32 
69.89 
69.20 
82.46 
65-65 
75-83 


Acidity. 


Percent, 
.407 
1. 117 
.744 
.387 
.299 
.500 
.480 


Reducing 
Sugar. 


Percent. 
38-96 

52-45 

27.00 
25.14 
36.48 
37-15 


Cane 
Sugar. 


Percent. 

26.00 

1.64 

45-92 

35-51 

52-73 
23.16 

31-43 


Total 
Sugar. 


Percent. 

64.96 
54-09 

62.51 
77.87 

59-64 
68.58 


The  average  composition  of  a  large  number  of  pure  jams,  some  of  which 
were  made  in  the  laboratory  and  some  purchased  in  the  open  market,  is  as 
follows: 


Data. 


Average, . . . 
Maximum, 
Minimum, . 


Total 
Solids. 


Percent. 
65.98 
82.46 
50-43 


Acidity. 


Percent. 
.536 

1-355 
.163 


Reducing 
Sugar. 


Percent. 
36.41 
61.02 
13.20 


Cane 

Sugar. 


Percent. 

22.15 

54-23 

•30 


Total 
Sugar. 


Percent. 


The  analytical  data  show  that  the  jams,  in  so  far  as  active  food  constituents 
are  concerned,  are  composed  chiefly  of  sugar.  These  sugars  include  both 
that  natural  to  the  fruit  and  that  which  has  been  added.  The  average  content 
of  sugar  in  round  numbers  is  58.5  percent,  while  in  round  nimibers  the  average 
content  of  solids,  not  sugar,  is  7.5  percent.  It  is  thus  seen  that  the  amount 
of  sugar  present  in  round  numbers  is  eight  times  as  great  as  that  of  the  other 
solids.  It  is  also  noticed  that  the  percentage  of  reducing  sugar  is  about  one- 
third  greater  than  the  cane  sugar,  indicating  that  the  inversion  of  the  sugar, 
when  the  real  fruits  have  been  used  in  the  manufacture,  has  been  carried  to 
such  an  extent  as  to  avoid  any  danger  of  crystallization.  These  data  are 
all  in  complete  refutation  of  the  claims  made  by  many  manufacturers  that 
it  is  necessary  to  add  glucose  in  the  manufacture  of  complex  products  of 
this  kind  in  order  to  prevent  crystallization.  If  the  real  fruit  is  used  in  the 
proper  quantity  and  the  manufacture  conducted  according  to  the  approved 
method,  there  is  no  danger  of  crystallization  except  in  those  rare  cases  where 
the  fruits  used  have  little  or  no  acid. 

Adulteration  oj  Jams. — The  adulterations  of  jams  are  practically  the  same 
as  those  which  are  practiced  with  jellies.     Artificial  colors  have  been  very 


JELLIES.  379 

extensively  used  together  with  the  artificial  flavors  resembling  the  fruits, 
the  names  of  which  appear  erroneously  upon  the  packages.  Glucose  is 
used  to  a  large  extent  in  these  adulterated  goods.  In  the  adulterated  articles 
a  preservative  is  nearly  always  present.  Starch  is  used  but  very  rarely  for 
adulterating  articles  of  this  kind. 

Fifty-eight  samples  of  jams  which  proved  to  be  adulterated  were  bought  on 
the  open  market  by  the  Bureau  of  Chemistry,  none  of  which  bore  any  label  or 
description  indicating  that  it  was  an  adulterated  article.  The  character  of 
the  principal  adulterant  (glucose)  in  each  case  is  revealed  at  once  by  the 
polarization,  which  is  always  strongly  right-handed,  and  also  by  other  chemical 
tests  for  glucose.  The  quantity  of  sulfate  and  chlorid  in  the  ash  of  these 
samples  is  always  very  considerably  increased  over  that  of  the  natural  product. 
The  quantity  of  glucose  in  some  of  the  samples  is  so  great  as  to  indicate  that 
practically  the  whole  of  the  solid  matter  is  composed  of  this  substance.  In 
two  samples  the  alleged  jam  contained  no  fruit  product  whatever.  In  many 
cases  more  than  70  percent  of  glucose  is  found  and  in  one  instance  as  high 
as  76  percent.  In  a  great  majority  of  the  cases  the  glucose  is  approximately 
one-half  of  the  whole  weight  of  the  jam.  In  a  great  many  cases  the  glucose 
was  present  in  quantities  which  indicated  the  utiHzation  of  some  fruit  product. 
There  were  a  few  cases  where  the  amount  of  glucose  fell  below^  10  percent. 
Artificial  coloring  matter  was  present  in  almost  every  case,  and  in  the  great 
majority  of  cases  either  benzoic  acid  or  sahcylic  acid  is  present  as  a  preser- 
vative.    The  colors  used  are  coal  tar  dyes  and  cochineal. 

It  is  evident  that  articles  of  food  adulterated  in  this  manner  should  not  be 
permitted  to  bear  the  name  of  the  natural  product,  and  in  many  of  the  states 
the  local  laws  forbid  the  use  of  a  misleading  name.  The  national  law,  which 
was  approved  on  the  30th  of  June,  1906,  also  foirbids  misbranding  of  this  de- 
scription.   . 

In  addition  to  the  jams  which  on  their  labels  bore  no  indication  of  the 
adulterations,  a  number  of  samples  of  jam  were  purchased  labeled  "Com- 
pound, "or  in  some  way  indicating  that  they  were  not  the  pure  article.  Thir- 
teen samples  of  this  kind  were  examined  in  the  Bureau  of  Chemistr}-  and  all  of 
them  had  very  large  quantities  of  glucose,  the  largest  amount  present  in  any 
one  case  being  37  percent.  They  were  all  artificially  colored,  and  ten  of 
them  contained  preservatives,  either  benzoic  or  salicylic  acid. 

Jellies. — In  addition  to  the  jellies  which  were  made  in  the  laboratory  of 
the  Bureau  of  Chemistry  for  the  purpose  of  controlling  the  investigation, 
44  samples  of  jelly  were  bought  upon  the  open  market.  Of  these  commercial 
samples  19  contained  no  glucose,  13  of  them  contained  glucose,  but  were  not 
so  labeled,  and  12  were  labeled  as  compound  or  adulterated  articles.  Nearly 
all  of.  the  commercial  jellies  were  made  v.  ith  apple  juice  as  the  base.  The 
apple  juice  and  glucose  made  up  practically  the  total  solids,  no  matter  what 


380  VEGETABLES,  CONDIMENTS,  FRUITS. 

name  was  applied.  The  flavors  were  artificial,  and  a  very  large  number  of 
the  samples  contained  preservatives.  The  samples  of  jelly  which  contained 
no  glucose  were  evidently  made  of  the  natural  fruit, — they  contained  no 
artificial  coloring  matter  and  in  only  a  few  instances  did  they  contain  preser- 
vatives. On  the  other  hand  the  jellies  which  were  made  of  glucose  were 
uniformly  colored  and  contained  preservatives. 

It  is  of  interest  here  to  say  a  few  words  about  the  very  cheapest  of  adulterated 
jellies  which  are  found  upon  the  market.  These  jellies  were  made  with 
some  apple  juice,  but  chiefly  of  glucose.  They  contained  large  quantities 
of  preservatives,  and  the  ash  was  rich  in  sulfates  and  chlorids  except  in  two 
instances.  In  these  cases  it  is  possible  that  the  glucose  which  was  used  was 
manufactured  by  some  special  process  not  involving  the  use  of  either  sul- 
furic or  hydrochloric  acid. 

Adulteration  of  Jelly. — Jellies  are  of  the  class  of  fruit  products  which 
have  been  extensively  adulterated.  The  markets  of  the  country  have  been 
flooded  for  years  with  so-called  "compound  jellies"  or  imitations  of  jelly. 
The  chief  forms  of  adulteration  are  the  following:  The  use  of  apple  stock 
for  making  all  kinds  of  jelly.  Attention  has  already  been  called  to  the  fact 
that  apples  contain  a  large  number  of  pectose  bodies  which  favor  jellification. 
A  common  method  of  manufacturing  jelly  has  been  to  use  a  stock  of  apple 
juice  or  cider  or  a  preparation  made  from  the  cores,  skins,  and  rejected  por- 
tions of  the  apple  at  evaporating  factories  or  from  whole  rejected  apples. 
This  stock  is  used  as  a  common  base  for  the  manufacture  of  jellies  of  different 
kinds.  Whenever  apple  juice  enters  into  the  composition  of  a  jelly  made 
from  any  other  fruit  than  the  apple  it  becomes  an  adulteration.  Phosphoric 
and  other  acids  are  added  to  jellies  to  enable  jellification  to  take  place  with 
the  use  of  less  fruit  and  more  water. 

Artificial  Coloring. — In  as  much  as  each  kind  of  fruit  tends  to  give  to  a 
jelly  a  particular  color,  it  is  evident  that  if  apple  stock  is  used  the  natural  colors 
of  the  other  fruits  must  be  imitated. 

To  this  end  coal  tar  dyes  have  been  generally  employed,  and  sometimes 
vegetable  or  animal  coloring  matter  to  imitate  the  color  of  the  fruit  whose 
name  is  given  to  the  product. 

Artificial  Flavors. — Since  when  apple  stock  is  used  as  a  base  of  manu- 
facture it  imparts  to  the  finished  product  only  the  flavor  of  apples,  artificial 
chemical  flavors  resembling  other  fruits  are  employed.  Thus  the  jellies 
which,  presumably,  are  made  from  other  fruits,  have  the  particular  flavor 
of  those  fruits  imitated  in  a  wholly  artificial  way. 

Composition  of  Jelly. — The  properties  of  a  jelly,  in  respect  of  its  distinct 
character,  are  due  solely  to  the  fruit  from  which  it  is  made.  Each  one  of  the 
fruits  contains  essential  oils,  ethereal  substances,  acids,  etc.,  which  give  to 
it  a  distinct  character.     These  bodies  are  carried  with  the  fruit  juice  into  the 


MANUFACTURE   OF  JELLIES. 


381 


iinished  product  and  give  to  it  its  distinct  characteristics.  The  sugar,  of 
course,  in  all  these  products  is  the  same.  In  the  following  table  are  found 
the  data  showing  the  composition  of  jellies  made  from  different  fruits  in  the 
Bureau  of  Chemistry. 

COMPOSITION  OF  JELLY. 


Description  of 
Sample. 


Wo 

SW 

s< 

Q 

w 

a 

< 

H- 

Sugars. 


Polarizations. 


6 

U 

0 

Q 

00 

M 

OJ 

«1 

■Q 

t: 

<u 

Q 

C 

°V. 

°F. 

+  24.0 

—20.6 

+47.0 

—20.1 

+  13-0 

—19.0 

+22.3 

—18.9 

+24.1 

—20.1 

+61.3 

-23.1 

+53  4 

-23.0 

+52-7 

—26.2 

+504 

—26.1 

+6;v7 

—24-3 

+  I7-H 

—12.8 

+  16.7 

-17.8 

+  7.6 

—22.6 

+  14-8 

—17.9 

20408 
20405 
20410 
20405 
20412 
20435 

20437 
20434 
20436 
20433 

20404 
20409 
2041 1 

20407 


Apple  (fall  pippin)  .   . 

Blackberry 

Crab  apple 

Grape  (Ives  seedling) 

Huckleberry 

Orange  (Florida  na- 
vel)      

Peach    

Pear  (Bartlett)  .   .    .    . 

Pineapple 

Pineapple  husk     .   .    . 

Plum  (damson)     .    .    . 

Plum  (wild  fox)    .    .    . 

Plum  (wild  fox), 
boiled  down   .    .    .    . 

Mixed  fruit ...... 


P.ct. 

59-18 
59-63 
63.28 
63.66 
63.02 

68.56 
69.98 
69.12 
80.28 
76.34 
45-56 
54-49 

73-01 
66.58 


P.ct. 

P.ct. 

0.22 

0.279 

•33 

.475 

.45 

•524 

.28 

.245 

-30 

.171 

.21 

•245 

.34 

.181 

•43 

.328 

•73 

•352 

.68 

1. 127 

.40 

1.029 

-65 

1.529 

.21 

.367 

P.ct. 

0.175 
.243 
•137 
•175 

.069 

.418 

•  175 
.156 
.387 

•350 
•350 

.138 

•175 

.069 


p.ct. 

20.78 
12.51 

34-93 
32.29 
24.27 

3-95 
8.75 
6.58 
22.13 
7-40 
19.18 
24.00 

44.22 
39-70 


P.ct. 

51.76 
54.89 
57-61 
60.29 
53-39 

65-59 
63.70 
63.09 
72.98 
70.22 
38.00. 
48.05 

64.66 
5972 


P.ct. 

33.04 
44.90 
23.68 
30-52 
32-74 

62.52 
56.59 
58.46 
56.70 
65.22 
22.67 
25-48 

22.37 
24  22 


P.ct. 

36.17 
18.20 
58.88 
49-33 
37.54 

4.91 
II. 16 

7-33 
2845 

7.12 
40.38 
46.97 

66.18 
40.38 


+  .2 
—  -4 


—  .6 


—  .6 

+2.2 


As  is  to  be  expected  the  chief  constituent  of  these  jellies  is  the  sugar  which 
is  derived  from  two  sources — that  in  the  natural  juice  and  that  added  in 
the  manufacture.  The  data  show  that  the  quantity  of  cane  sugar  inverted 
varies  greatly  with  the  different  fruits.  Some  of  the  fruit  juices  appear  to 
have  little  or  no  effect  whatever  in  the  inversion  of  sugar.  This  is  particu- 
larly true  of  the  orange,  the  pear,  and  the  jelly  made  from  the  husks  of  pine- 
apples. 

Manufacture  of  Jellies. — In  the  manufacture  of  jellies  the  fruit  juices 
are  separated  from  the  pulpy  mass  of  the  fruit,  and  these  alone  are  used  in 
the  process.  The  most  common  method  of  procedure  is  to  boil  the  fruit 
with  more  or  less  water  until  the  juices  are  more  or  less  separated  and  then 
to  remove  them  by  straining  or  pressure.  The  fruits  are  heated  for  this 
purpose  with  sufficient  water  to  prevent  scorching  until  they  are  thoroughly 
softened  and  then  reduced  to  a  pulp.  The  best  jellies  are  made  from  juices 
which  are  obtained  by  simply  allowing  the  pulpy  mass  to  drain  through  cloth. 
The  juices  thus  obtained  are  clear  and  free  of  any  suspended  matter.  When 
pressure  is  used  the  juices  are  less  clear  and  contain  more  or  less  suspended 
solid  matter.  In  the  preparation  of  jellies  approximately  equal  portions  of 
pure  cane  sugar  and  the  strained  juices  are  used,  and  the  mixture  is  boiled 
for  a  few  minutes.    It  is  evident  that  in  the  manufacture  of  jelly  where 


^82  VEGETABLES,    CONDIMENTS,    FRUITS. 

boiling  is  not  continued  for  any  length  of  time  the  amount  of  sugar  inverted 
is  less  than  in  the  manufacture  of  jams  and  preserves  where  the  boiling  is 
continued  for  a  greater  length  of  time. 

The  quantity  of  non-crystallizing  material  in  the  juices  from  which  the 
jellies  are  made,  namely,  the  pectose  bodies  in  fruits,  is  sufficient  in  most  cases 
to  prevent  the  crystallization  of  the  cane  sugar  in  the  jelly.  The  jelly  is 
formed  by  these  pectose  bodies  being  present  in  the  juice  in  sufficient  quan- 
tities to  become  semi-solid  on  cooling  after  manufacture.  The  solidifying 
may  take  place  in  a  short  time  or  only  after  several  hours.  The  juice  at  the 
time  of  completion  of  the  boiling  is  thoroughly  sterilized,  and  in  this  hot 
condition  should  be  placed  in  sterilized  vessels'  and  covered  before  setting 
away  with  sterilized  parchment  paper  or  a  thin  film  of  sterilized  paraffine. 
The  covering  of  the  surface  will  prevent  the  deposition  of  the  seed  of  moulds 
and  bacteria  which  often  infect  the  top  layer  of  jellies  or  other  fruit  products 
prepared  in  a  similar  manner  whose  surface  is  not  properly  protected. 

Preservatives. — -Since  the  care  which  is  necessary  to  prepare  a  jelly  in 
a  thoroughly  sterilized  condition  and  to  protect  the  exposed  surface  so  that  in- 
fection thereof  cannot  take  place  is  a  matter  of  expense  and  requires  great  at- 
tention to  details,  it  has  been  sought  to  avoid  these  by  the  use  of  chemical 
preservatives.  Salicylic  acid  and  benzoic  acid  or  benzoate  of  soda  have 
been  the  principal  preservatives  employed,  and  until  state  and  municipal 
laws  introduced  a  proper  inspection  or  analysis  of  these  products  the  use 
of  these  chemical  preservatives  was  very  common.  In  later  years  their  use 
has  been  gradually  diminished,  owing  to  the  objections  on  the  part  of  the 
laws  and  the  public  to  the  presence  of  these  bodies  in  the  finished  products. 
There  are,  however,  still  on  the  market  many  products  which  are  preserved  by 
salicylic  acid,  benzoic  acid,  or  benzoate  of  soda  or  some  similar  active  agent. 

From  the  above  resume  it  is  seen  that  the  consumer  who  buys  in  the  open 
market  is  not  quite  certain  that  he  is  getting  the  product  for  which  he  pays. 
This  condition  of  affairs  will  doubtless  pass  away  wuth  the  advent  of  the 
proper  inspection  of  fruits  which  are  used  in  manufacturing  on  a  large  scale 
and  a  proper  supervision  of  the  manufacturing  establishments,  together 
with  a  rigid  execution  of  the  national  and  state  food  laws.  Under  such  con- 
ditions the  adulterations  will  either  disappear  from  the  market  or  be  so 
labeled  as  to  practically  inform  the  purchaser  of  their  character. 

Marmalade. — The  term  ''marmalade"  is  applied  to  a  special  character 
of  fruit  product  prepared  in  the  same  manner  as  jam  in  which  the  fruit  is 
not  so  thoroughly  pulped.  The  orange  is  a  fruit  which  is  used  very  exten- 
sively for  making  marmalade, — an  orange  marmalade,  in  other  words,  is  only 
a  fruit  product  of  the  character  of  jam  and  made  after  the  same  manner. 
This  class  of  fruit  products  is  so  nearly  the  same  as  jam  as  not  to  need  any 
special  description. 


COMPOUND   JAMS   AND   JELLIES.  383 

Adulteration. — The  adulterations  to  which  the  marmalades  are  subjected  are 
practically  the  same  as  for  jams.  In  the  study  of  marmalade  in  the  Bureau 
of  Chemistry  96  samples  were  examined.  Of  this  number  86  were  commer- 
cial products  and  10  were  prepared  in  the  laboratory  of  the  Bureau.  Of  the 
commercial  articles  18  samples,  somewhat  less  than  20  percent,  contained 
no  glucose.  Fifty-three  contained  glucose,  but  were  not  so  labeled,  and  15 
were  labeled  as  compound  or  artificial.  The  percentage  of  solids  in  these 
products  varied  within  a  wide  limit.  The  maximum  percentage  of  solids  found 
was  82.46  and  the  minimum  53.43.  The  average  percentage  of  ash  in  the 
marmalade  not  containing  glucose  was  0.32,  and  the  average  alkalinity  of  the 
ash  as  measured  by  a  standard  acid  was  0.26.  In  the  adulterated  marmalade 
containing  glucose  the  average  percentage  of  ash  was  0.59,  almost  as  great  as 
in  the  pure  article,  and  the  average  alkahnity  was  0.29,  somewhat  greater 
than  in  the  pure  article. 

Compoxind  Jams  and  Jellies. — A  word  should  be  said  respecting  the 
meaning  of  the  word  '^ compound"  as  attached  to  fruit  products,  especially 
jams  and  jellies,  since  it  is  a  word  which  has  been  selected  as  somewhat  more 
euphonious  than  the  term  "adulterated"  or  ''misbranded."  So  true  is  this 
that  the  word  ''compound"  when  placed  upon  a  food  product  indicates  at 
once  to  the  purchaser  that  the  article  is  a  mixture  or  substitute.  The 
term,  therefore,  indicates  the  character  of  sophistication.  To  such  an 
extent  may  this  be  practiced  that  the  actual  material  named  in  connection 
with  the  word  "compound"  may  be  absent  from  the  mixture  altogether. 
The  term  arose  first  on  account  of  the  desire  of  the  manufacturer  to  leave 
off  of  the  labels  a  statement  of  the  exact  composition  of  the  contents  of  the 
package  and  to  substitute  a  word  of  less  significance,  and  at  the  same  time 
to  comply  with  certain  state  laws  which  require  that  all  fruit  products  con- 
taining glucose  be  labeled  with  the  word  "  compound"  or  some  similar  term. 
A  much  simpler  and  more  direct  method  would  be  to  make  the  label  a  truthful 
one,  indicating,  as  nearly  as  possible,  the  character  of  the  product.  A  com- 
pound generally  means  a  jelly  or  jam  made  without  the  fruit  named,  that  is, 
largely  of  glucose.  It  also  indicates,  as  a  rule,  that  the  product  is  artificially 
colored  and  artificially  flavored.  In  these  cases  the  word  "imitation"  is  to 
be  preferred,  inasmuch  as  the  mixtures  bearing  the  word  "compound"  can 
only  be  regarded  in  reality  as  a  mixture  of  unlike  substances. 

General  Conclusions. — In  regard  to  fruit  products  made  by  boiling 
with  sugar,  the  general  statement  that  they  should  be  true  to  name  and  free 
from  artificial  colors,  preservatives,  or  other  adulterations  apparently  covers 
the  whole  ground.  If  it  is  desired  to  make  a  cheaper  article  for  the  benefit 
of  consumers  of  small  means,  the  principles  which  should  guide  the  manu- 
facturers are  plain.  The  materials  which  are  added  should  be  wholesome 
and  free  from  deleterious  or  injurious  matter.    The  poor  man,  while  entitled 


384  VEGETABLES,    CONDIMENTS,    FRUITS. 

to  get  a  cheaper  article,  is  likewise  entitled,  as  well  as  the  rich  man,  to  protection 
from  deleterious  substances.  In  the  present  state  of  our  knowledge,  glucose 
is  not  regarded  by  the  majority  of  hygienists  as  a  substance  injurious  to  health. 
If  it  be  injurious  it  is  due  more  to  a  lack  of  care  in  manufacture  than  to  any 
inherent  properties.  Glucose,  however,  has  been  found  injurious  to  bees  and 
is  not  a  natural  product  such  as  maltose  and  sucrose.  The  objections  to 
glucose  which  have  been  legitimately  made  are  due  to  the  fact  that  the  acids 
which  have  been  used  in  converting  the  starch  and  also  the  sulfurous  acid 
which  has  been  used  in  bleaching  the  product  have  not  been  entirely  removed. 
It  appears  that  the  glucose  used  for  food  purposes  can  be  freed  from  all  ob- 
jection by  inverting  the  starch  from  which  it  is  made  with  diastase  and  avoiding 
the  use  of  all  bleaching  reagents.  The  glucose  thus  made  would  not  be  water- 
white,  nor  is  it  desirable  for  edible  purposes  that  it  be  so,  since  it  is  always, 
except,  perhaps,  in  the  manufacture  of  certain  candies,  used  in  connection 
with  naturally  colored  food  products.  There  is  no  reason  to  believe  that  a 
glucose  made  as  described  and  possessing,  as  it  naturally  would,  an  amber 
or  reddish  color  would  be  less  desirable  than  a  product  which  is  absolutely 
colorless.  This  suggestion,  therefore,  is  made  to  the  manufacturer  of  glucose 
for  edible  purposes  in  the  interest  of  public  health  and  to  avoid  any  possible 
condemnation  of  the  glucose  by  reason  of  the  method  of  manufacture,  namely, 
that  the  use  of  acid  in  the  manufacture  of  glucose  be  discontinued,  that  malt 
or  some  other  form  of  diastase  be  substituted  and  that  bleaching,  except  by 
passing  through  animal  charcoal,  be  entirely  omitted.  The  product  made  in 
this  way  would  be  free  from  the  objections  which  have  been,  and  may  in  the 
future  still  be,  urged  with  reason  against  its  use. 

Preserves. — The  term  ''preserves"  is  a  general  one  which  is  applied  in 
common  language  to  a  preparation  of  fruit  preserved  by  boiling  with  sugar 
until  complete  sterilization  is  accomplished.  The  term  in  its  general  applica- 
tion includes  the  different  varieties  of  preserves  which  have  already  been 
mentioned,  namely,  jams,  marmalades,  etc.  It  must  also  be  extended  to 
include  the  class  of  fruit  products  known  as  jellies,  though,  as  a  rule,  it  is 
not  made  so  comprehensive  in  meaning,  inasmuch  as  the  jelly  does  not  contain 
any  of  the  solid  particles  of  fruit.  Perhaps  there  is  no  other  part  of  the  food- 
manufacturing  industry  which  is  so  universally  practiced  in  the  household 
as  the  manufacture  of  preserves.  Not  only  is  this  true  of  farm  life  in  the 
country  but  also  of  those  living  in  the  city.  The  sterilization  of  fresh  fruit 
without  the  use  of  sugar  is  not  nearly  so  common  as  the  making  of  the  domestic 
supply  of  preserved  fruits  in  the  sense  above  mentioned.  There  is  only  one 
sufficient  reason  for  the  preparation  of  such  foods,  namely,  the  suspicion 
which  attaches  to  the  manufactured  article  appearing  upon  the  market. 
So  universal  has  been  the  custom  of  artificially  coloring  the  product,  and  of 


PEACH    PRESERVES — FRUIT    BUTTER — BRANDIED    FRUIT.  385 

the  use  of  glucose  and  preservatives,  as  to  create  a  general  impression  among 
consumers  that  the  articles  thus  purchased  in  the  open  market  are  adulterated 
and  misbranded.  When  these  preparations  are  made  in  the  household  we 
are  at  least  assured  of  the  genuineness  of  the  product.  It  must  be  admitted 
that  the  art  and  technique  of  manufacture  cannot  possibly  be  so  perfect  in 
the  home  as  in  the  large  factories.  It  follows  as  a  necessary  consequence 
that  such  goods  as  those  indicated  ought  to  be  better  and  cheaper  and  more 
readily  preserved  if  made  in  large  manufacturing  centers  than  when  made 
at  home.  Even  those  who  make  the  genuine  product  suffer  in  common  with 
those  who  make  adulterated  articles,  since  the  suspicion  of  adulteration 
attaches  to  the  whole  output.  The  practice  of  domestic  manufacture  will 
undoubtedly  continue  until  the  public  is  fully  convinced  that  better  and 
cheaper  articles  can  be  purchased  in  the  open  market. 

Peach  Preserves, — A  common  practice  among  the  housewives  throughout 
the  United  States  is  to  boil  peaches  with  sugar  or  sugar  sirup,  forming  the 
well  known  product,  peach  preserves.  Preserves  of  this  kind  are  considered 
a  delicacy,  and,  as  they  are  easily  made  and  kept,  they  are  a  very  common 
article  of  diet  throughout  all  parts  of  the  country  where  peaches  are  grown. 

Fruit  Butter. — There  are  several  preparations  of  fruit  which  differ  in 
some  respect  from  those  just  mentioned,  to  which  the  term  "butter"  has 
been  applied,  such  as  apple  butter,  peach  butter,  etc.,  and  these  are  common 
articles  of  domestic  manufacture.  This  type  of  article  is  illustrated  by  a 
description  of  apple  butter. 

Apple  butter  is  made  by  boiling  comminuted,  sound,  carefully  selected 
apples  of  a  proper  degree  of  maturity  with  cider  until  the  whole  mass  forms 
a  bulk  of  the  proper  consistence.  The  preparation  thus  made  is  treated  with 
certain  spices  according  to  the  desire  of  the  manufacturer  and  the  taste  of 
the  consumer.  There  is  quite  a  quantity  of  material  insoluble  in  water  in 
genuine  fruit  butter.  The  rest  consists  of  water,  the  added  sugar,  if  any, 
and  the  fruit  juice  with  which  the  butter  is  made. 

Adulteration  of  Fruit  Butter. — ^Very  extensive  adulterations  are  practiced 
in  the  case  of  some  commercial  fruit  butters.  In  the  Bureau  of  Chemistry 
as  high  as  30  percent  of  glucose  has  been  found  as  an  added  product.  The 
addition  of  cane  sugar  cannot  be  regarded  as  an  adulteration  but  the  best 
fruit  butters  are  made  without  it.  Artificial  colors  are  sometimes  used,  and 
preservatives,  especially  benzoic  acid,  are  quite  common  in  the  commercial 
article. 

Brandied  Fruit. — The  use  of  brandy  in  common  with  sugar  in  the  pre- 
servation of  fruit  is  widely  practiced.  Sometimes  alcohol  alone  is  relied  upon 
as  a  preserving  agent.  At  other  times  greater  or  less  quantities  of  cane 
sugar  are  used.  Usually  heat  is  employed  in  addition  to  the  other  preserving 
agents  to  complete  sterilization.  Nearly  all  forms  of  fruit  may  be  preserved 
26 


386  VEGETABLES,  CONDIMENTS,  FRUITS. 

in  this  way.  Brandied  cherries  and  peaches  are  perhaps  the  most  abundant. 
The  quantity  of  alcohol  employed  varies  between  15  and  20  percent  of  the 
total  weight  of  the  goods.  The  quantity  of  cane  sugar  used  has  been  found 
to  range  from  six  to  20  percent  of  the  weight  of  the  fruit.  Fruit  preserved 
in  this  way  cannot  be  regarded  in  the  light  of  food  solely,  but  only  as  a  condi- 
mental  substance.  The  eating  of  any  large  quantity  of  food  containing  that 
percentage  of  alcohol  could  not  be  accomplished  without  danger  of  intoxi- 
cation. The  utilization  of  such  foods  upon  the  table  should  be  of  a  re- 
stricted character,  and,  especially,  they  should  not  be  used  with  children  or 
very  young  people  where  the  danger  from  the  direct  effects  of  the  alcohol 
is  magnified  and  the  possibility  of  forming  the  alcohol  habit  is  also  presents 

Adulteration  of  Brandied  Fruits. — The  principal  adulteration  of  brandied 
fruit  is  in  the  use  of  aclohol  which  is  not  genuine  brandy.  It  is  well  known 
that  much  of  the  brandy  offered  in  commerce  is  fictitious,  that  is,  is  not  the 
pure  distilled  alcoholic  product  from  sound  wine  properly  aged  in  wood 
before  using.  When  brandy  is  purchased  for  preserved  fruit,  unless  special 
care  is  taken  to  secure  the  genuine  article  the  imitation  article  may  be  supplied. 
Instead  of  the  real  brandy  the  manufacturers  may  use  an  article  which  is 
entirely  devoid  of  any  product  of  the  distillation  of  wine  or  containing: 
only  a  small  amount  thereof.  The  term  ''brandy"  used  with  the  fruit  in 
such  a  case  is  a  misnomer  and  the  article  would  be  deemed  misbranded 
under  the  provisions  of  the  law.  The  manufacturer  can  assure  himself 
of  the  purity  of  the  brandy  by  obtaining  it  from  a  bonded  warehouse,  since 
it  is  made  under  the  supervision  of  the  officials  of  the  internal  revenue  and 
kept  under  such  supervision  until  delivered  to  the  consumer.  Inasmuch 
as  preparations  of  this  kind  are  regarded  as  delicacies  and  the  cost  of  the 
product  does  not  enter  materially  into  consideration  it  is  highly  advisable 
that  only  genuine  brandy,  distilled  from  sound  wine  and  aged  in  wood  for  a 
period  of  not  less  than  four  years,  be  employed  in  the  manufacture. 

Importance  of  the  Canning  and  Preserving  Industries. — The  statistics 
for  the  canning  and  preserving  industries  for  the  calendar  year  ending 
December  31,  1904,  form  a  part  of  the  census  of  manufactures,  which  is 
made  in  conformity  with  the  act  of  Congress  of  March  6,  1902,  and  are 
compared  with  similar  statistics  for  the  census  of  1900,  which  covered  the 
fiscal  year  ending  May  31st. 

There  has  been  a  large  increase  in  these  industries.  The  slight  decrease 
in  the  average  number  of  wage-earners  is  more  apparent  than  real,  and  is 
due  largely  to  the  fact  that  a  considerable  number  were  employed  in  fish 
canneries  under  a  contract  system.  The  contractor  furnishes  the  laborers 
and  is  paid  for  an  agreed  quantity  of  product.  The  establishment  reporting 
has  no  record  of  the  number  employed  by  the  contractors,  and  they  were 
not  included  in  the  number  reported,  the  amount  paid  for  such  contract 


IMPORTANCE  OF  CANNING  AND  PRESERVING  INDUSTRIES. 


387 


work  being  included  in  the  item  of  miscellaneous  expenses.  Fishermen 
were  not  included  in  the  census,  and  it  is  possible  that  a  larger  proportion  of 
the  salted  fish  was  prepared  in  connection  with  the  actual  catch  than  at  the 
census  of  1900,  thus  accounting  in  part,  at  least,  for  the  decrease  in  the 
quantity. 

CANNING  AND  PRESERVING  FRUITS  AND  VEGETABLES,  AND  FISH  AND 

OYSTERS. 

CoMPARAxrvE  Summary — Censuses  of  1904  and  1900. 


Number  of  establishments, 

Capital, 

Salaried  officials,  clerks,  etc. : 

Number, 

Salaries, .  '. 

Wage-earners : 

Average  number, 

Wages, 

Miscellaneous  expenses, 

Materials  used, 

Products :  ^ 

Aggregate  value, 

Fruits  and  Vegetables — 

Total  value, 

Canned  Vegetables — 

Pounds, 

Value, 

Canned  Fruits — 

Pounds, 

Value, 

Dried  Fruits — 

Pounds, 

Value, 

Fish- 
Total  value, 

Canned — 

Pounds, 

Value, 

Smoked — 

Pounds, 

Value, 

Salted- 
Pounds, 

Value, 

Oysters — 

Value, 

All  other  products, 


2,687 
$69,589,316 

3.604 
^3,216,773 

50,258 

$14,154,730 

8,544,497 

69,814,330 

$107,534,464 

$72,570,974 

1,672,759,438 
$45,262,148 

295,760,355 
$11,644,042 

343,579,623 
$15,664,784 

$24,452,533 

259,469,861 
$15,966,513 

35,439,619 
$2,362,740 

112,156,655 
$6,123,280 

$3,799,412 
6,711,545 


2,182 
$47,970,787 

2,418 
$1,926,639 

51,955 

$12,759,459 

3,290,459 

52,243*948 

$81,020,384 

$44,460,665 

1,142,327,265 
$28,734,598 

293,637,273 
$11,311,062 

81,189,406 

$4,415,005 

$20,542,691 

167,836,808 
$14,308,723 

21,252,066 
$973,041 

125,669,131 
$5,260,927 

2,054,800 
$13,962,228 


Percent 
OF  Increase. 


23.1 
45-1 

49.0 
67,0 

3-3' 
10.9 

159-7 
33-6 

32.7 
63.2 

46.4 
57-5 

•7 
2.9 

323-2 
254.8 

19.0 

54-6 
11.6 

66.8 
142.8 

10.8' 
16.4 

84.9 
51-9' 


^  Decrease. 

^  Exclusive  of  fruits  and  vegetables  valued  at  $715,920,  fish  at  $274,403,  and  oysters 
at  $12,900,  manufactured  by  establishments  classified  as  food  preparations,  pickles,  pre- 
serv^es  and  sauces,  slaughtering  and  meat  packing,  wholesale,  etc. 


388  VEGETABLES,  CONDIMENTS,  FRUITS. 

Importance  of  the  Industry. — The  importance  of  the  canning  industry 
is  not  to  be  measured  solely  by  its  commercial  extent.  The  principle  of  the 
conservation  of  food  products  by  sterilization  or  pasteurization  is  of  immense 
significance  in  the  nutrition  of  man.  It  enables  nourishing  foods  of  a  per- 
ishable character  to  be  kept  and  transported  to  great  distances  and  to  be  used 
in  localities  where  fresh  foods  of  similar  kinds  are  otherwise  unobtainable. 
Such  preserved  foods  mean  everything  to  pioneers,  explorers,  armies,  and 
navies.  The  "  winning  of  the  west"  in  the  United  States  has  been  marked  by 
the  debris  of  the  rusty  cans.  The  roads  along  which  the  pioneers  who  settled 
the  great  American  desert  marched  since  1865  have  been  bordered  with  the 
discarded  packages  in  which  they  carried  their  foods. 

It  is  doubtless  true  that  foods  when  they  can  be  had  fresh  are  to  be  preferred 
to  those  which  have  been  sterilized.  It  is  also  true  that  many  unsterilized 
foods  from  unsanitary  environments  are  more  dangerous  in  the  fresh  state 
than  when  they  have  been  exposed  to  a  high  temperature.  Taking  into  con- 
sideration all  the  circumstances  in  the  case,  it  must  be  conceded  that  the 
process  of  sterilization,  first  practiced  by  Appert  and  afterward  placed  on  a 
scientific  basis  by  Pasteur,  has  proved  of  almost  immeasurable  advantage  to 
mankind.  Thus  for  this  greater  reason  the  character  and  quality  of  foods 
thus  preserved  should  be  wholly  above  suspicion,  and  no  adulteration  or  so- 
phistication of  any  kind  should  be  practiced  therewith.  The  manufacturer 
is  quite  as  much  interested  as  the  consumer  in  placing  the  whole  output  of 
sterilized  foods  on  a  plane  above  suspicion. 

Character  of  the  Container. — Much  in  the  direction  of  securing  a  better 
product  may  be  accomplished  by  a  more  careful  selection  of  the  container. 
The  common  method  of  preserving  canned  goods  is  in  tin.  This  material,  as 
is  well  known,  is  placed  on  the  surface  of  sheet  iron  and  should  be  free  of  other 
metals.  Lead  especially  should  be  excluded  from  the  composition  of  the  tin  as 
far  as  possible.  In  spite  of  all  these  precautions,  however,  the  coating  of  the 
tin  is  sometimes  broken  so  that  the  iron  itself  may  be  attacked,  perforations 
result,  and  the  package  of  goods  be  spoiled.  More  frequently,  however,  the 
erosion  of  the  tin  plate  occurs  over  widely  extended  areas,  introducing  into  the 
contents  of  the  package  a  considerable  quantity  of  tin  salts.  This  may  be  pre- 
vented to  a  certain  degree  by  coating  the  surface  of  the  tin  with  a  gum  or 
varnish  which  is  not  acted  upon  by  the  contents  of  the  package.  Glass  is  also 
coming  into  more  general  use,  and  if  it  could  be  secured  of  a  character  to  avoid 
breakage  it  would  be  possible  to  replace  to  a  considerable  extent  the  tin  pack- 
ages now  in  such  common  use  and  thus  prevent  the  introduction  of  soluble  tin 
salts  into  the  food.  In  this  case  the  glass  itself  should  be  free  of  lead,  borax 
and  fiuorids.  A  glass  package  is  now  coming  into  use  which  is  tough  and 
resistant  to  ordinary  causes  of  fracture.  Much  may  be  expected  from  progress 
in  this  direction. 


PART  VII. 

VEGETABLE  OILS  AND  FATS,  AND  NUTS. 


VEGETABLE  OILS  AND  FATS. ' 

The  production  of  a  substance  known  as  fat  or  oil,  composed  of  oxygen, 
hydrogen,  and  carbon  in  the  form  of  a  fatty  acid  and  combined  with  glycerine, 
is  a  function  of  almost  every  plant.  The  fat  acids  are  usually  in  combination 
with  glycerine,  which  plays  the  part  of  a  base  and  in  so  far  as  its  proportion 
by  weight  is  concerned  is  much  less  important  than  the  fatty  acid  itself. 
In  round  numbers  it  may  be  said  that  nine-tenths  of  all  glycerids  or  fats  are 
composed  of  a  fatty  acid  and  one-tenth  of  glycerine.  When  at  ordinary 
temperature  this  combination  is  in  a  liquid  form  it  is  called  an  oil,  and  when 
at  ordinary  temperature  it  is  in  a  solid  or  semi-solid  condition  it  is  known 
as  a  fat.  The  term  "ordinary  temperature"  means  in  this  connection  that 
of  an  ordinary  living  room  and  not  the  extremes  of  outside  temperature. 
In  general  terms  it  may  be  said  that  the  temperatures  referred  to  are  included 
between  the  minimum  of  50  degrees  and  the  maximum  of  85  degrees  F. 
In  so  far  as  chemical  composition  and  dietetic  properties  are  concerned, 
there  is  no  distinction  between  the  oils  and  the  fats.  The  names  are  simply 
a  means  of  ordinary  discrimination  which  has  assumed  importance  by  reason 
of  common  usage. 

There  are  three  of  the  fatty  acids  which  are  particularly  important  from 
a  dietetic  point  of  view  which  go  to  make  up  the  greater  part  of  these  fatty 
and  edible  vegetable  oils  and  fats.  These  three  acids  are  oleic,  stearic,  and 
palmitic.  Of  the  three,  oleic  acid  is  by  far  the  most  important,  as  it  constitutes 
the  greater  part  of  nearly  all  these  bodies,  especially  of  oils.  In  fact  the  term 
"olein"  and  oil  are  of  common  origin.  Palmitic  acid  exists  chiefly  in  certain 
forms  of  vegetable  oil  and  fats,  while  stearic  acid  is  a  very  important  constituent 
of  animal  oils  and  fats. 

These  three  acids  uniting  with  glycerine  form  the  glycerids  which  make 
up  the  great  body  of  edible  and  animal  oils  and  fats,  and  these  principal 
glycerids  are  known  as  olein,  palmitin,  and  stearin,  respectively. 

Chemical  Characteristics. — The  chemical  composition  of  these  bodies 
has  been  pointed  out  above.     There  is,  however,  in  almost  all  cases,  some 

389 


39©  VEGETABLE    OILS    AND    FATS,    AND    NUTS. 

free  acid  present  in  the  compound,  that  is,  an  acid  which  is  present  un- 
combined  with  the  glycerine.  This  free  acid  is  usually  present  in  small  quan- 
tities and  is  more  abundant  in  the  overripe  and  older  plants  than  in  the 
freshly  matured  parts.  The  natural  oil  also  contains  certain  other  ingredients 
which  may  be  regarded  as  impurities,  and  which  it  is  necessary  to  remove 
from  the  oils  by  a  process  of  purification  or  refining  before  they  are  ready 
for  the  table.  These  impurities  may  be  of  a  mechanical  nature,  that  is, 
consisting  of  parts  of  the  material  itself  from  which,  the  oil  is  expressed  or 
of  certain  juices  not  oils  which  are  found  in  the  plant  tissue,  portions  of  pro- 
tein and  other  forms  of  nitrogenous  matter,  and  traces  of  carbohydrates  and 
gums.  The  oils  have  certain  definite  chemical  reactions  which  are  common 
to  them  as  a  class.  Among  these  may  be  cited,  principally,  the  faculty  of 
absorbing,  under  certain  conditions,  the  halogens,  namely  iodin,  bromin,  and 
chlorin. 

Without  entering  into  any  technical  description  of  this  process  it  is  sufficient 
to  say  here  that  the  degree  of  absorption  of  iodin  is  in  a  measure  the  test  for 
the  varieties  of  oil.  The  different  vegetable  oils  have,  as  a  rule,  certain  definite 
relations  to  the  absorption  of  iodin  by  means  of  which  they  may  be  to  a  certain 
extent  identified  or  separated  from  similar  bodies.  The  degree  of  absorption 
is  expressed  in  the  percentage  by  weight  of  the  oil  itself  and  is  known  as  the 
iodin  number.  If,  for  instance,  a  gram  of  any  particular  oil  absorbs  one 
gram  of  iodin,  it  is  said  to  have  an  iodin  number  of  loo.  Many  oils  absorb 
more  than  their  own  weight  of  iodin,  while  many  others  absorb  very  much 
less.  Another  characteristic  of  oil  is  found  in  the  fact  that  with  certain  reagents, 
such  as  an  acid  either  in  a  dilute  state  or  in  a  concentrated  state,  definite  colors 
are  produced  which  are  characteristic  of  the  variety  of  oil  in  question.  As 
an  example  of  this  may  be  cited  the  faculty  which  cottonseed  oil  has  of  reducing 
nitrate  of  silver  to  the  metallic  state,  leaving  the  silver  in  that  finely  divided 
form  which  has  a  black  color.  This  is  the  only  oil  in  common  use  which 
has  this  faculty,  and  hence  it  may  be  regarded  as  a  characteristic  test. 

Another  characteristic  chemical  property  of  cottonseed  oil  is  the  color  which 
is  produced  in  the  Halphen  reaction,  which  has  already  been  described. 

One  of  the  most  valuable  chemical  properties  of  oil  is  the  amount  of  heat 
which  is  produced  when  it  is  burned.  Inasmuch  as  oils  in  relation  to  their 
food  value  are  useful  chiefly  for  the  production  of  animal  heat,  this  chemical 
property  becomes  of  great  hygienic  and  dietetic  significance.  Of  all  classes 
of  food  products  the  oils  and  fats  have  the  highest  calorific  power.  If,  for 
instance,  it  is  said  in  general  that  one  gram  of  carbohydrates,  such  as  sugar  or 
starch,  on  complete  combustion  will  yield  4,000  calories,  one  gram  of  protein 
5,500  calories,  then  one  gram  of  oil  or  fat  will  yield  9,300  calories.  The  fats 
and  oils  vary  among  themselves  in  respect  of  the  number  of  calories  yielded, 
but  all  of  them  give,  approximately,  the  number  last  mentioned.     It  therefore 


DRYING   AND   NON-DRYING   VEGETABLE   OILS.  39 1 

follows  that  oils  and  fats  are  the  most  valuable  constituents  of  food  in  respect 
of  the  production  of  heat  and  energy. 

Crystalline  Characteristics. — The  forms  of  crystals  which  the  fats 
assume  on  solidifying  are  valuable  indicators  of  the  nature  of  the  oil.  While 
these  crystal  forms  are  not  in  all  cases  distinct,  yet  they  are  influenced  to  a 
greater  or  less  extent  by  the  nature  of  the  oil  itself.  Thus  the  presence  of 
any  particular  oil  may  very  often  be  ascertained  by  the  examination  of  the 
crystals  produced  by  lowering  the  temperature  very  slowly  or  by  dissolving 
the  oil  in  a  volatile  solvent  and  gradually  evaporating  the.  solvent.  Tests 
of  even  greater  delicacy  may  be  obtained  by  first  saponifying  the  fat  or  oil, 
separating  the  fatty  acid,  and  subjecting-  it  to  crystallization. 

Distribution  of  Oils  in  Plants. — In  nearly  all  cases  the  part  of  the  plant 
which  contains  the  most  oil  is  the  seeds.  In  fact  all  of  the  vegetable  oils 
which  are  used  for  edible  purposes  are  extracted  from  the  seed  of  the  plant. 
In  the  case  of  olives  the  meaty  portion  around  the  seed  yields  the  edible  oil 
of  highest  value,  but  in  all  other  cases-  of  edible  oils  they  are  derived  from 
the  seeds  themselves.  It  is  a  mistake  to  suppose  that  the  seeds  are  the. only 
parts  of  the  plant  that  contain  oil.  It  is  found  in  all  parts  of  vegetable  sub- 
stances, but  is  usually  concentrated  in  the  seed.  It  is  rather  an  interesting 
fact  to  know  that  in  the  seeds  of  plants  both  the  protein  and,  fats  or  oils  are 
found,  as  a  rule,  in  a  highly  concentrated  state,  while  the  carbohydrates  are 
not  found  chiefly  in  the  seed  itself,  that  is  the  germ,  but  distributed  in  the 
fleshy  envelope  surrounding  it  or  in  roots  or  tubers.     .  r 

The  oils  and  fats  are  almost  all  soluble  in  ether  and  petroleum  ether,  though 
there  are  some  exceptions  to  this,  as  in  the  case  of  castor  oil,  which  is' also 
insoluble  in  petroleum  ether  or  gasoline.  .  On-  the  contrary,  oils  and  fats,  as 
a  rule,  are  not  soluble  in  alcohol,  but  the  fatty  acids  derived  from  them  are. 
Castor  oil  is  also  an  exception  to  this  rule,  since  it  is  quite  soluble  in  pure 
alcohol.  . 

Drying  and  Non-drying  Vegetable  Oils.— It  might  be  supposed  that 
if  one  vegetable  oil  is  edible  they  all  would  be.  This  would  probably  be 
the  case  if  vegetable  oils  were  all  composed  almost  exclusively  of  the  three 
dasses  of  glycerids,  which  have  just  been  mentioned,  but  this  is  not  true. 
There  are  other  fatty  acids  in  combination  with  the  glycerids  which  exist 
in  vegetable  oils,  and  chief  among  these  may  be  mentioned  linoleic  acid, 
which  exists  in  considerable  quantities  in  the  oil  of  flax  seed,  and  gives  to  it 
its  valuable  property  of  a  drying  oil  which  makes  it  so  useful  in  the  manu- 
facture of  paints.  Whenever  vegetable  oils  and  fats  contain  any  especial 
quantity  of  linoleic  acid,  or  any  other  fatty  acid  which  has  drying  properties, 
they  are  rendered  more  or  less  unfit  for  human  consumption.  The  number  of 
■drying  oils  is  very  great,  but  the  most  important  are  linseed  oil,  hempseed  oil, 
and  poppyseed  oil.     Other  vegetable  oils  have,  to  a  certain  degree,  drying 


392  VEGETABLE   OILS   AND   FATS,    AND   NUTS. 

properties,  and  among  those  which  are  most  marked  in  this  particular  may  be 
mentioned  cottonseed  oil,  sesame  oil,  maize  or  corn  oil,  and  rapeseed  oil. 
Types  of  the  oils  which  have  the  least  drying  properties  and  which  are  re- 
garded as  types  of  non-drying  oils  are  olive  oil  and  peanut  oil.  The  castor 
oil  group  is  distinguished  partially  from  the  other  vegetable  oils  because 
it  contains,  or  is  likely  to  contain,  more  or  less  of  a  somewhat  poisonous  sub- 
stance, namely,  ricinolein,  which  is  peculiar  to  castor  oil  and  to  which  its 
purgative  value  as  a  medicine  is  due.  The  castor  bean  also  contains  a  very 
poisonous  nitrogenous  base,  ricin,  very  small  quantities  of  which  may  be 
incorporated  in  the  oil  itself. 

Melting  Point  and  Solidifying  Point. — The  oils  and  fats  differ  greatly 
among  themselves  in  the  temperature  at  which  they  become  solid  or  liquid. 
If  a  solid  fat  or  oil  is  subjected  to  a  gradual  rise  of  temperature  it  does  not 
pass  at  once  or  suddenly  from  a  solid  to  a  liquid  state,  but  there  is  a  gradual 
liquefying, — thus  olein  first  becomes  liquid  and  the  stearin  and  palmitin 
become  liquid  at  a  higher  degree  of  temperature.  The  same  phenomenon 
in  its  inverse  order  occurs  when  a  liquid  fat  is  cooled  until  it  solidifies.  The 
moment  at  which  the  fats  become  semi-liquid,  liquid,  or  semi-solid,  therefore, 
is  not  to  be  determined  with  absolute  precision,  but  only  approximately,  and 
that  temperature  is  designated  as  the  melting  or  solidifying  point  respectively. 
When  the  process  is  carefully  conducted  under  standard  conditions  the 
different  fats  and  oils  have  very  definite  melting  or  solidifying  points,  as 
determined  in  the  manner  described  above,  and  these  temperatures  should 
be  sufficient  to  make  the  melting  and  soHdifying  points  valuable  indications 
of  the  character  or  kind  of  oil. 

Physical  Characteristics. — The  difference  in  the  physical  characteristics 
of  vegetable  fats  and  oils  is  even  greater  than  in  their  chemical  composition. 
Unfortunately  for  the  chemist,  the  vegetable  fats  and  oils  naturally  have 
about  the  same  color  or  at  least  very  slight  variations  therefrom,  namely, 
an  amber  tint,  so  that,  as  a  rule,  it  is  impossible  to  discriminate  between  these 
oils  by  their  mere  color  alone.  The  edible  oils  also  have  very  much  the 
same  taste,  so  that  this  physical  property  is  not  of  any  very  great  diagnostic 
value.  Some  of  the  more  important  physical  properties  by  which  the  oils 
are  distinguished  are  the  following: 

Refractive  Index. — The  well-known  phenomenon  which  is  shown  by 
water  of  bending  sharply  a  ray  of  light  falling  upon  it  in  a  direction  oblique 
to  its  surface  is  known  as  refraction,  and  the  degree  of  deflection  of  the  ray 
is  a  measure  of  the  refractive  index.  This  is  easily  illustrated  by  putting 
a  straight  stick  or  rod  into  still  water  at  an  angle  to  its  surface.  The  stick 
or  rod  will  appear  to  be  broken  or  bent  at  the  surface.  Oils  have  a  higher 
faculty  of  deflecting  the  ray  of  light  than  water.  For  instance,  if  in  round 
numbers  the  refractive  index  of  water  is  represented  by  1.33,  the  refractive 


SPECIFIC   GRAVITY.  393 

index  of  oil  may  be  represented  by  1.47.  The  oils  differ  greatly  among  them- 
selves in  the  magnitude  of  the  refractive  index,  but  these  indexes  are  all  approx- 
imately of  the  magnitude  last  mentioned.  Hence  a  determination  of  the 
refractive  index  is  a  valuable  means  of  helping  to  discriminate  between  oils 
of  different  kinds. 

Reichert-Meissl  Number. — Attention  has  been  called  to  the  fact  that 
in  addition  to  three  special  forms  of  fatty  acids  there  were  many  others  present 
in  oils  in  small  quantities.  Among  these  are  found  acids  which  are  volatile 
in  a  current  of  steam,  which  is  not  the  case  with  the  oleic,  palmitic,  and 
stearic  acids.  Among  the  most  important  of  the  volatile  acids  is  the  one 
which  exists  in  large  quantities  in  butter,  namely  butyric  acid.  The  quantity 
of  volatile  acid  is  determined  arbitrarily  by  the  amount  of  a  standard  alkali 
solution  which  will  be  neutralized  by  the  volatile  acid  from  five  grams  of  fat. 
In  the  case  of  butter,  for  instance,  it  may  be  said  that  in  round  numbers  it 
requires  28  cubic  centimeters  of  standard  alkali  to  neutralize  the  volatile  acid 
produced  according  to  the  above  method  of  procedure.  In  cottonseed  oil  the 
amount  of  standard  solution  required  to  neutralize  the  volatile  acid  obtained 
in  the  same  way  is  extremely  minute,  amounting  topless  than  one-half  cubic 
centimeter. 

I  have  given  above  a  brief  description  of  some  of  the  physical  and  chemical 
characteristics  of  oils  and  fats  in  order  that  the  reader  not  specially  trained 
in  chemistry  may  understand  thoroughly  the  references  made  to  these  properties 
in  the  general  description  given  of  vegetable  fats  and  oils.  It  is  not  necessary 
to  be  a  skilled  chemist  in  order  to  have  a  general  knowledge  of  some  of  the 
points  which  are  of  most  interest  in  this  respect. 

Saponification  Value. — As  is  well  known,  one  of  the  most  common 
uses  of  oils  and  fats  is  in  soap  making.  Soap  consists  of  the  products  of 
chemical  reactions  by  means  of  which  the  glycerine  contained  in  an  oil  or  fat 
is  set  free  and  a  mineral  or  other  base  substituted  therefor.  For  instance, 
lye  consists  of  the  hydrate  or  carbonate  of  potash  and  5oda.  When  an  oil 
is  heated  with  a  lye  the  fatty  acid  leaves  the  glycerine  in  the  oil  and  combines 
with  the  potash  or  soda  of  the  lye.  The  number  of  milligrams  of  potash  or 
soda  required  to  saponify  one  gram  of  fat  or  oil  is  called  its  saponification 
value.  For  instance,  in  the  case  of  cottonseed  oil  it  requires,  in  round  numbers, 
190  milligrams  of  potash  or  hydrate  of  potash  (KOH)  to  replace  the  glycerine 
in  one  gram  of  oil.  The  quantity  of  potash  required  for  an  edible  oil  to  make 
a  complete  saponification  varies,  and  hence  this  number  becomes  one  of  the 
means  of  distinguishing  between  them. 

Specific  Gravity. — The  relative  weight  of  a  given  volume  of  oil  compared 
with  the  weight  of  the  same  volume  of  water  at  the  same  temperature  or  at 
some  standard  temperature  is  known  as  its  specific  gravity.  The  oils  and 
fats  are  universally  lighter  than  water,  and  in  the  comparison  the  unit  weight 


394  VEGETABLE   OILS   AND   FATS,    AND   NUTS. 

of  water  is  assumed  to  be  unity  or  loo  or  looo — usually  unity  or  looo.  If 
the  relative  weight  of  water  is  unity,  then  the  relative  weight  or  specific  gravity 
of  oil  is  expressed  as  a  decimal  fraction.  For  instance,  if  water  is  taken  as 
unity  the  specific  gravity  of  oil  equals  .912;  if  the  relative  weight  of  water 
is  assumed  to  be  one  thousand  then  the  specific  gravity  expressed  above  is 
912.  Unless  it  is  stated  otherwise,  in  all  references  to  specific  gravity  of  these 
oils  it  is  assumed  that  the  comparison  is  between  the  unit  weight  of  water 
and  oil  at  the  same  temperature.  This  is  the  most  convenient  form  for 
comparison  for  general  use,  though  for  strictly  scientific  purposes  it  is  customary 
to  refer  all  specific  gravity  numbers  to  water  at  the  temperature  of  its  maxi- 
mum density,  namely  4  degrees  C.  (39  degrees  F.).  At  this  temperature  a 
given  weight  of  water  has  its  smallest  volume,  in  other  words  its  greatest 
density.  When  water  is  raised  to  a  temperature  above  that  mentioned,  it 
expands  and  its  volume  becomes  larger.  When  it  is  cooled  to  a  temperature 
below  four  degrees  C,  its  volume  also  expands. 

The  variations  in  the  specific  gravity  of  the  common  oils  is  not  very  great, 
and  therefore  the  specific  gravity  is  not  the  most  valuable  indication  in  dis- 
criminating between  these  oils. 

Edible  Vegetable  Oils. 
While  there  is  very'  little  chemical  difference  between  the  fats  of  animals 
and  the  oils  of  plants,  the  difference  is  sufficiently  distinguished  to  secure  a 
proper  degree  of  identification  and  classification.  Both  classes  of  bodies 
are  composed  of  the  fatty  acids  combined  with  glycerine.  The  three  fatty 
acids  which  are  most  important  from  the  edible  point  of  view  and  also  from 
the  chemical  are  oleic,  stearic,  and  palmitic.  When  these  acids  are  united 
with  glycerine  as  the  basic  element,  they  form  three  classes  of  oils  or  fats  to 
which  the  names  olein,  stearin,  and  palmitin  are  respectively  given.  A 
distinction  may  also  be  made  between  a  fat  and  an  oil  by  observing  its  physical 
consistence  at  ordinary  room  temperature  of  approximately  from  70  to  80 
degrees  F.  It  is  usual  to  speak  of  the  bodies  which  are  liquid  at  such  tem- 
perature as  oils,  while  those  that  are  solid  under  like  conditions  are  known 
as  fats.  A  compound  of  this  description  does  not  pass  suddenly  from  one 
state  to  another.  In  the  case  of  a  fat,  for  instance,  which  is  solid  at  ordinary 
temperature,  it  passes  by  gradual  stages  from  that  condition  to  a  slowly 
softening  mass  and  then  to  a  complete  liquid  as  the  temperature  is  raised. 
On  the  other  hand,  an  oil  passes  gradually  through  the  same  stages  to  the 
condition  of  a  solid  body  as  the  temperature  is  lowered.  Of  the  different 
constituents  the  olein  has  the  lowest  melting  point,  pure  olein  being  still 
liquid  at  quite  a  low  temperature,  approaching  even  the  freezing  point  of 
water.  Stearin  and  palmitin  on  the  contrary,  if  in  a  pure  state,  are  solid 
at  a  temperature  even  above  that  of  the  room  and  above  that  of  blood  heat. 


USE   OF    EDIBLE   OILS.  395 

In  the  mixture  of  these  bodies  it  is  evident  that  a  complicated  structure  must 
be  present  which  is  composed  of  different  bodies  of  varying  melting  points 
which  pass,  when  subjected  to  different  degrees  of  temperature,  from  a  solid  to  a 
liquid  state  or  vice  versa.  It  is  evident  that  an  oil  has  a  larger  proportion 
of  olein  in  its  composition  and  a  fat  a  larger  proportion  of  stearin  and  palmitin. 

Animal  fats  are  composed  chiefly  of  olein  and  stearin,  while  strictly  vege- 
table oils  are  principally  olein,  and  palm  oil  is  composed  chiefly  of  stearin 
and  palmitin. 

In  butter  fat  there  is  introduced  an  important  additional  compound  of  a 
fatty  acid  with  glycerine,  namely  butyrin,  which  is  made  up  of  a  union  cf 
glycerine  with  butyric  acid.  Butter  also  contains  others  components  cr 
glycerids,  but  in  small  quantities.  Oleic,  stearic,  and  palmitic  acids  are 
insoluble  in  water  and  not  volatile  at  the  boiling  point  of  water.  Butyric  acid 
is  soluble  in  water  and  is  volatile  at  the  boiling  point  of  water.  The  first 
kinds  of  acid  are  therefore  called  "fixed"  and  the  second  "volatile." 

The  edible  vegetable  oils  like  the  animal  fats  are  highly  nutritious  in  the 
sense  that  they  afford  to  a  greater  degree  than  any  other  kind  of  food  product 
the  elements  necessary  to  the  production  of  heat  and  energy.  The  average 
number  of  calories  to  one  gram  of  edible  oil  is  in  round  numbers  9,300.  WTien 
this  number  is  compared  with  the  average  number  of  calories  in  one  gram 
of  sugar  or  starch,  namely  4,000,  it  is  seen  that  fats  and  oils  are  two  and  one- 
fourth  times  as  valuable  as  sugar  in  the  production  of  heat  and  energy.  Since 
the  greater  part  of  the  food  consumed  by  an  animal  is  utilized  in  the  produc- 
tion of  heat  and  energy,  it  is  seen  that  the  fats  and  oils  must  be  classed  as  the 
most  concentrated  and  in  that  sense  the  most  valuable  human  foods. 

The  use  of  edible  vegetable  oils  is  also  advisable  for  hygienic  purposes. 
They  are  readily  assimilated  and  digested,  and  they  produce  a  physical  effect 
upon  the  process  of  digestion  which  is  a  matter  of  importance.  The  free 
use  of  edible  vegetable  oils  is  to  be  recommended  in  cases  of  constipation  or 
where  there  are  mechanical  difficulties  in  the  digestive  process.  In  these 
cases  it  is  consumed  in  larger  quantities  than  would  ordinarily  be  the  case. 

Use  of  Edible  Oils. — The  edible  oils  are  used  most  extensively  on  the 
table  as  the  base  of  salad-dressing.  Many  succulent  vegetables,  as  has  already 
been  stated,  are  eaten  very  commonly  with  condimental  substances  such 
as  vinegar,  salt,  spices,  etc.,  and  as  a  vehicle  for  these  condimental  substances 
there  is  nothing  superior  or  even  equal  to  the  edible  vegetable  oils.  Vinegar, 
itself,  owes  its  active  principle,  namely,  its  acid,  to  a  member  of  the  fatty  acid 
series,  so  that  the  mixture  of  vinegar  with  oil  is  not  a  bringing  together  of  two 
wholly  different  substances  but  of  two  substances  belonging  to  the  same 
general  family.  Vinegar  itself  has  no  value  as  a  food,  but  is  useful  solely 
for  condimental  purposes.  On  the  other  hand  the  edible  oil  is  not  only 
condimental,  increasing  the  pleasant  taste  of  the  compound,  but  also  has  a 


396  VEGETABLE   OILS   AND   FATS,    AND   NUTS. 

high  food  value.  Edible  oils  may  also  be  used  in  the  place  of  lard  and  other 
animal  fats  in  the  preparation  of  bread  and  pastry,  serving  the  purpose  of 
shortening.  They  are  also  highly  useful  as  a  vehicle  for  frying  foods,  such 
as  oysters,  croquettes,  doughnuts,  etc. 

The  heating  of  an  oil  or  fat  to  a  high  temperature  produces  a  certain  degree 
of  decomposition  with  a  development  of  an  aromatic  and  sometimes  un- 
pleasant product  known  as  acrolein.  It  is  not  believed  that  this  change  is 
as  detrimental  to  digestion  as  is  commonly  supposed.  Products  which  are 
fried  in  oil,  or  boiled  in  oil,  which  is  probably  a  better  term,  as  described 
above,  are  not  to  be  considered  wholly  indigestible,  though  it  cannot  be  denied 
that  they  are  not  the  best  things  for  delicate  stomachs  or  those  which  are  in 
any  way  weakened  by  disease.  In  the  case  of  a  healthy  individual,  however, 
a  moderate  quantity  of  such  products  may  be  eaten  without  any  great  danger 
of  producing  a  derangement  of  digestion.  If  these  bodies  are  found  to  be 
indigestible,  it  is  probably  not  due  to  the  fact  that  they  contain  large  quan- 
tities of  oil  but  rather  to  the  decomposition  effected  by  the  high  temperature 
and  the  hardening  of  the  periphery  of  the  bodies  to  such  an  extent  as  to  make 
them  difficultly  amenable  to  the  activities  of  the  digestive  ferments. 

Acom  Oil. — The  oil  of  the  acorn  is  sometimes  used  for  edible  purposes. 
It  is  extracted  by  pressure,  and  the  nature  of  the  product  depends  upon  the 
variety  of  the  acorn.  Acorn  oil  has  at  15  degrees  a  specific  gravity  of  .916  and 
an  iodin  number  of  100.  It  is  not  of  any  commercial  importance  as  an  edible 
oil. 

Almond  Oil. — Almond  oil  is  not  so  commonly  used  for  edible  purposes  as  it 
is  for  pharmaceutical  preparations.  By  reason  of  its  flavoring  properties, 
however,  it  may  sometimes  be  used  for  food  purposes,  and  a  brief  description, 
therefore,  is  advisable. 

Almond  oil  is  obtained  from  the  seed  of  the  bitter  almond,  a  variety  of 
Amygdalus  communis  L.  It  may  also  be  extracted  from  the  seeds  of  the  sweet 
almond,  but  these  contain  less  oil  than  the  bitter  almond  seed  and  the  oil  is  not 
so  useful  for  flavoring  purposes.  The  bitter  almond  whose  seeds  are  used  for 
the  extraction  of  oil  are  grown  chiefly  in  Morocco,  the  Canary  Islands,  Portugal, 
Spain,  France,  Italy,  Sicily,  Syria,  and  Persia.  The  almond  kernel  contains 
about  40  percent  of  oil.  Almond  oil  is  said  by  most  observers  to  be  free  from 
stearin,  and  it  is  therefore  an  oil  which  is  composed  almost  exclusively  of  olein. 
The  specific  gravity  of  almond  oil  at  15  degrees  C.  is  almost  exactly  that  of  rape- 
seed  oil,  being  only  a  trifle  higher.  The  average  number  expressing  the  specific 
gravity  at  that  temperature  is  .918.  Its  iodin  value  is  slightly  lower  than  that 
of  rapeseed  oil,  being  about  97. 

Adulterations. — Almond  oil  is  often  adulterated  with  other  cheaper  oils^ 
and  among  those  which  are  principally  used  are  cottonseed  oil,  walnut  oil, 
poppyseed  oil,  sesame,  peanut,  apricot-kernel  and  peach -kernel  oil,  and  lard  oil. 


COTTONSEED    OIL.  397 

Those  most  frequently  used  are  the  apricot  and  peach,  since  these  oils  contain 
the  characteristic  principle  which  gives  the  bitter  taste  to  the  kernels  of  this 
class  in  fruits.  Often  almond  oils  are  offered  to  the  trade  which  are  composed 
exclusively  of  peach-kernel  or  apricot-kernel  oil.  WTienever  the  iodin  number 
of  an  almond  oil  runs  verj'  high  it  is  an  indication  that  it  is  composed  largely 
of  peach  or  apricot  oil.  The  detection  of  small  quantities  of  these  oils  when 
added  to  almond  oil  is  a  very  difficult  matter  and  can  only  be  accomplished  by 
the  expert  chemist. 

Cottonseed  Oil. — One  of  the  most  important  edible  oils  in  the  world,  and 
especially  from  the  point  of  view  of  production  in  the  United  States,  is  that 
derived  from  the  seed  of  the  cotton  plant  (Gossypium  herhaceum). 

The  cotton  plant  grows  over  a  wide  area  in  the  United  States,  including  all  of 
the  southern  states  and  extending  into  southern  Virginia,  southern  Kentucky, 
southern  Missouri,  and  Oklahoma.  In  former  years  the  cotton  plant  was 
cultivated  solely  for  its  fiber.  It  is  only  in  the  last  quarter  of  a  century'  that  the 
high  value  of  its  seed  for  many  purposes  has  been  realized.  The  seed  of  the 
cotton  plant  is  preeminently  rich  in  oil  and  protein.  It  contains  traces  of  cer- 
tain poisonous  alkaloids,  betain  and  cholin,  the  presence  of  which  renders  its 
indiscriminate  use  for  cattle  food  in  some  cases  dangerous.  In  the  preparation 
of  oil,  however,  no  trace  of  these  poisonous  substances  is  found,  since  they  exist 
solely  in  the  non-fatty  tissues  of  the  seed.  The  production  and  refining  of 
the  oil  have  now  grown  to  be  a  great  industry  and  have  already  added  much  to 
the  wealth  of  the  cotton  growers  and  the  comfort  and  nutrition  of  the  people  in 
general. 

Magnitude  of  the  Cottonseed  Oil  Industry. — The  average  cotton  crop  of  the 
United  States  is  nearly  12,000,000  bales  of  about  500  pounds  each.  For  every 
bale  of  cotton  there  is  produced  1,000  pounds  of  seed.  This  would  make  the 
average  cottonseed  crop  of  the  country  about  6,000,000  tons.  It  is  estimated 
that  not  over  two-thirds  of  this  is  used  in  the  mills;  this  would  make  about 
4,000,000  tons.  The  average  yield  of  40  gallons  to  a  ton  shows  the  produc- 
tion of  crude  oil  to  be  3,200,000  barrels  of  50  gallons  each.  This  oil  in  refining 
loses  on  the  average  about  8  percent,  which  would  leave  2,944,000  barrels  of 
refined  oil  for  edible  and  other  purposes.  Not  less  than  two-thirds  of  this  oil  is 
used  for  edible  purposes.  A  conservative  estimate  would  place  the  quantity 
used  for  food  bet\N'een  t^\'0  and  two  and  a  half  million  barrels  per  annum.  The 
quantity  varies  with  the  prices  of  other  fats. 

Cotton  seed  is  brought  to  the  mills  from  the  gins  either  by  rail  in  box  cars 
or  in  wagons.  On  arrival  at  the  mills,  it  is  stored  in  large  sheds,  known  as  seed 
houses.  A  single  seed  house  will  often  contain  as  much  as  5,000  to  10,000  tons. 
The  seed  is  carried  into  the  mill  by  means  of  conveyers.  It  first  goes  through 
coarse  screens  which  remove  the  greater  part  of  the  trash  and  sand,  after  which 
it  is  passed  over  magnetized  iron  plates  which  remove  nails  and  pieces  of  iron 


398  VEGETABLE   OILS   AND   FATS,   AND   NUTS. 

which  may  have  accidentally  gotten  into  the  seed.  After  the  seed  is  thoroughl)r 
cleaned  it  passes  through  gins  known  as  linters,  which  remove  from  40  to 
50  pounds  of  short  staple  cotton  known  in  the  trade  as  "  linters."  This  cotton  is 
used  for  preparing  cotton  batts,  mattresses,  etc.  Conveyers  carry  the  seed 
from  the  linters  to  the  hullers,  which  are  rapidly  revolving  drums  covered 
with  cutting  knives  which  chop  up  the  seed.  From  the  hullers  the  cut-up  seeds 
pass  over  a  series  of  screens  where  the  meats  are  shaken  out  while  the  conveyors 
carry  the  hulls  to  a  storehouse  or  to  the  furnace  if  not  used  for  cattle  food. 
The  meats  are  carried  to  the  crusher  rolls,  through  which  they  pass.  These 
rolls  break  up  oil  cells  to  a  large  extent  and  leave  the  meats  in  a  finely  divided 
condition.  From  the  crusher  rolls  the  meats  are  carried  to  steam-jacketed 
kettles  provided  with  agitators.  There  they  are  cooked  to  the  proper  pointy 
which  is  determined  by  feel  and  smell.  From  the  heaters  the  meats  are  dropped 
into  cake  formers,  where  they  are  made  into  the  shape  of  cakes  between  camel's 
hair  press  cloths  in  which  they  are  placed  in  the  heavy  hydraulic  presses 
which  press  out  the  oil.  Good  press-room  work  will  give  out  45  gallons  of  oil 
to  the  ton  and  leave  in  the  cake  between  6  and  7  percent  of  oil. 

The  crude  oil  as  it  leaves  the  presses  varies  in  color  from  light  sherry  to  deep 
claret.  The  variation  is  due  to  local  conditions  affecting  the  seed,  also  the 
manner  of  treatment  in  cooking.  The  flavor  of  the  crude  oil  varies  greatly 
in  the  different  parts  of  the  country.  That  made  in  Georgia  and  Carolina  has 
a  strong  flavor  of  peanut,  while  that  made  in  the  Mississippi  Valley  and  Texas 
has  more  the  flavor  of  sweet  Indian  corn. 

Further  Details. —  The  cotton  seed  from  various  sources  is  put  through 
a  screen  to  take  out  the  bolls  and  coarse  material.  The  seed  is  then  put  through 
a  gin  to  remove  as  far  as  possible  any  remaining  lint,  of  which  about  20  pounds 
per  ton  of  seed  are  obtained.  The  clean  seed  is  next  sent  to  a  huller  composed 
of  revolving  cylinders  covered  with  knives,  which  cut  up  both  seed  and  hull. 
The  chips  are  then  conveyed  to  a  screen  placed  on  a  vibrating  frame,  through 
which  the  kernels  fall.  The  hulls  are  carried  by  an  endless  belt  to  the  furnaces, 
where  they  are  burned.  The  kernels  of  the  seed  are  conveyed  to  crusher  rolls, 
where  they  are  ground  to  a  fine  meal.  The  meal  is  then  sent  to  a  heater,  where 
it  remains  from  twenty  to  forty  minutes.  These  heaters  have  a  temperature  of 
210  to  215  degrees  F. 

The  hot  meal  is  formed  into  cakes  by  machinery;  these  are  wrapped  in  cloth 
and  placed  in  the  press.  About  sixteen  pounds  of  meal  are  put  in  each  cake. 
The  cakes  are  placed  in  a  hydraulic  press,  where  a  pressure  of  from  3,000  to 
4,000  pounds  per  square  inch  is  applied.  The  press  is  also  kept  warm.  Tlie 
expressed  cakes  contain  only  aboi  10  percent  of  oil.  The  cake  is  sold  as  cattle 
food  or  for  fertilizing  purposes.  1  he  crude  oil  as  thus  expressed  contains  about 
1.5  percent  of  free  acid,  also  a  notable  quantity  of  water  and  solid  matters  in 
suspension.     The  manufacture  of  cottonseed  oil  usually  takes  place  in  the 


COTTONSEED   OIL. 


399 


winter  months  immediately  after  the  ginning  of  the  cotton  is  completed.  The 
oil  is  likely  to  become  rancid  if  kept  unpurified  until  the  hot  months.  The 
crude  oil  is  collected  in  oil  tanks  at  the  press  and  shipped  to  the  refining 
houses.  In  the  winter  when  the  tanks  are  sent  to  the  north  where  the  temper- 
ature is  very  low  the  contents  of  the  tank  become  solid  unless  protected  from  the 
action  of  the  cold. 

Refining  Process. — The  first  step  in  the  refining  of  a  crude  cottonseed  oil  is 
to  have  it  stored  in  large  and  deep  tanks  where  it  remains  at  rest  for  a  proper 
length  of  time.  During  this  period  of  rest  the  heavy  mechanical  impurities 
and  water  settle  to  the  bottom  of  the  tank  and  are  typically  known  as  "foots." 
The  oily  portions  of  these  foots  are  used  in  the  manufacture  of  soap  and  for  other 
technical  purposes.     The  tanks  may  be  furnished  with  steam  jackets  in  order  to 


Fig.  57.— Removing  the  Oil,Cakes  from  a  Cottonseed  Vrt.^ss.— {Courtesy  of  David  li^esson'.) 


keep  the  oil  at  a  proper  temperature.  During  the  process  of  deposition  the  oil 
is  also  treated  with  an  alkaU  to  neutralize  the  free  acid  which  it  contains.  The 
precipitate  formed  by  this  process  together  with  the  principal  part  of  the  soaps 
produced  are  recovered  with  the  "  foots."  A  solution  of  caustic  or  carbonated 
soda  is  one  generally  employed  in  this  process  of  refining.  If  the  admixture 
of  caustic  soda  occurs  at  the  time  of  filling  the  tank,  the  contents  are  kept  well 
agitated  for  a  sufficient  length  of  time  to  secure  an  intimate  mixture  of  the  oil 
with  the  lye.  Usually  the  deposition  of  the  solid  matter  is  accomplished  in  from 
two  to  three  days.  The  supernatant  oil  is  of  a  light  yellow  color,  but  not  suf- 
ficiently pure  to  admit  of  being  used  for  edible  purposes.     This  yellow  oil  is 


400  VEGETABLE    OILS    AND    FATS,    AND    NUTS. 

treated  again  in  a  similar  manner  and  allowed  to  settle  a  second  time,  or  it  is 
mixed  with  some  substance  which  will  facilitate  the  operation,  and  subjected 
to  filtration  by  means  of  which  a  perfectly  bright  oil  is  secured.  If,  during  this 
process,  the  oil  has  never  been  chilled  so  as  to  separate  a  part  of  its  stearin, 
it  is  called  summer  oil,  as  an  indication  that  it  only  remains  clear  during  the  hot 
weather.  Oils  intended  for  winter  use  are  chilled  before  finally  being  put  into 
packages,  and  the  stearin  which  is  separated  at  this  low  temperature  is  re- 
moved by  filtration.  The  residual  oil  which  is  capable  of  remaining  liquid  at  a 
low  temperature  by  reason  of  the  removal  of  a  portion  of  its  stearin,  as  above 
described,  is  known  in  the  trade  as  winter  oil.  In  this  process  of  filtration  ful- 
ler's earth  is  frequently  employed,  which  not  only  promotes  the  filtration  but 
also  absorbs  and  retains  a  large  part  of  the  color  of  the  oil,  which  thus  treated  is 
almost  colorless.  Where  cottonseed  oil  is  used  for  mixing  with  lard  it  is 
highly  important  that  it  be  practically  free  of  color.  When,  however,  it  is 
used  for  mixing  with  oleomargarine  the  more  yellow  it  is,  the  more  highly  prized. 
In  the  final  preparation  of  cottonseed  oil  for  edible  purposes,  particularly 
if  it  is  to  be  used  as  a  salad  oil,  a  special  process  of  refining  is  advisable  in  order 
to  remove  the  last  traces  of  foreign  matter  and  to  secure  freedom  from  any 
distinctive  taste  or  objectionable  color.  To  this  end  many  of  the  steps  already 
described  are  repeated,  or  perhaps  it  might  be  better  expressed  by  saying  that 
the  oil  is  subjected  to  a  second  refining  process,  the  reagents  already  named 
being  used  in  varying  quantities,  usually  with  the  application  of  a  gentle  heat, 
and  the  mass  is  then  left  to  settle  until  a  clear,  light,  greenish  golden  oil  is  ob- 
tained. Unless  the  oil  is  refined  in  this  particular  way  it  is  apt  to  develop  a 
disagreeable  odor  on  cooking  and  to  impart  an  unpleasant  taste  to  articles  in 
which  it  is  cooked  or  to  which  it  is  added.  Sometimes  it  is  necessary,  in  order 
to  remove  all  of  these  disagreeable  and  objectionable  qualities,  to  refilter  with 
fuller's  earth  until  the  residual  oil  is  almost  colorless,  but  the  fuller's  earth  is 
apt  to  leave  a  flavor  in  the  filtered  oil,  and  this  is  in  turn  removed  by  treatment 
with  steam.  The  details  of  this  deodorizing  process  vary  and  are  regarded  as 
trade  secrets.  The  oil  so  prepared  is  largely  iised  in  the  preparation  of  sub- 
stitutes for  lard  and  similar  cooking  fats.  Such  oil  is  a  great  improvement 
over  the  ordinary  summer  yellow  and  bleached  products,  but  falls  short  of 
being  an  ideal  oil.  Within  the  last  few  years  a  cottonseed  oil  has  been  put  on 
the  market  in  which  the  objections  to  the  use  of  cottonseed  oil  as  food  have  been 
as  nearly  overcome  as  the  chemical  nature  of  the  oil  will  permit.  The  oil  pro- 
duced by  this  process  is  pi"actically  odorless  and  tasteless  and  can  be  used 
satisfactorily  for  all  culinary  purposes.  Large  quantities  are  used  by  the 
bakers  in  place  of  lard.  It  is  difficult  to  compare  this  doubly  refined  oil 
with  other  edible  oils  and  especially  with  olive  oil.  It  may  be  said,  however, 
that  such  an  oil  is  of  excellent  quality  and  perfectly  satisfactory  to  those  who 
have  not  acquired  a  taste  for  olive  oil.     The  introduction  of  wholesome  and 


HAZELNUT   OIL.  401 

palatable  vegetable  oils  at  a  lower  price  than  olive  oil  will  promote  a  more 
general  consumption  of  such  oils  without  any  unfair  competition  with  olive 
oil  which  will  continue  to  hold  its  place  as  the  premier  table  oil  of  the  world. 

Extraction  of  Oil  hy  Means  of  Petroleum. — The  light  oils  which  are  produced 
in  the  refining  of  petroleum  and  commonly  called  gasoline  are  typical  solvents 
for  fat  and  oil.  Instead  of  extracting  the  oil  by  the  pressure  process,  as  de- 
scribed above,  a  practically  complete  extraction  may  be  secured  by  successive 
treatments  with  the  light  petroleum  oils.  The  principle  of  the  process  is 
exactly  that  of  the  extraction  of  sugar  from  sugar  beets  by  hot  water  in  the 
process  of  the  manufacture  of  beet  sugar.  The  cottonseed  cake  or  pressed 
meal  is  broken  into  fragments  of  approximate  size,  placed  in  tanks,  and 
treated  with  successive  portions  of  light  petroleum.  The  extraction  is  arranged 
in  such  a  way  as  to  be  a  continuous  one,  that  is,  the  vessels  for  handling  the  oil 
cakes  are  arranged  en  hatterie  as  in  the  case  of  beet  sugar  extraction.  By 
this  method  all  except  a  mere  trace  of  the  oil  is  extracted  from  the  cake.  The 
light  petroleum  oils  are  subsequently  separated  from  the  cottonseed  oil  by 
distillation  and  are  used  again  in  the  process.  There  is  little  loss  of  petroleum 
oil.  Where  cottonseed  oil  is  used  for  technical  purposes  there  is  no  objection  to 
this  method  of  extraction,  and  much  is  to  be  said  in  its  favor  since  greater  yields 
of  oil  are  secured.  When  used  for  edible  purposes,  however,  petroleum  ex- 
tracted cottonseed  oil  is  not  of  as  high  a  quality  as  that  extracted  by  pressure. 
It  is  difficult  to  remove  all  traces  of  petroleum,  especially  the  odor,  and  there  are 
constituents  extracted  by  petroleum  which  are  not  mixed  with  the  oil  when  it  is 
separated  by  pressure.  It  is  advisable,  therefore,  that  cottonseed  oil  used  for 
edible  purposes  be  cold-press  extracted  and  not  petroleum  extracted  oil. 

Standard  for  Cottonseed  Oil. — The  official  standards  for  cottonseed  oil  are  as 
follows: 

"Cottonseed  oil  is  the  oil  obtained  from  the  seeds  of  cotton  plants  {Gos- 
sypium  hirsutum  L.,  G.  Barhadense  L.,  or  G.  herbaceum  L.)  and  subjected  to 
the  usual  refining  processes;  it  is  free  from  rancidity;  has  a  refractive  index 
{25  degrees  C.)  not  less  than  one  and  forty-seven  hundred  ten-thousandths 
(1.4700)  and  not  exceeding  one  and  forty-seven  and  twenty-five  ten-thou- 
sandths (1.4725);  and  an  iodin  number  not  less  than  one  hundred  and  four 
(104)  and  not  exceeding  one  hundred  and  ten  (no). 

"'Winter-yellow'  cottonseed  oil  is  expressed  cottonseed  oil  from  which 
a  portion  of  the  stearin  has  been  separated  by  chilling  and  pressure." 

Hazelnut  Oil. — The  oil  of  the  hazelnut  is  to  a  limited  extent  used  for  edible 
purposes.  It  is  extracted  from  the  seed  of  the  hazelnut  tree  (Corylus  avellana  L). 
The  seeds  are  very  rich  in  oil  and  are  said  to  contain  from  50  to  60  percent 
thereof.  The  oil  is  almost  free  of  stearin,  being  said  to  contain  only  about 
one  percent.  The  rest  of  it  consists  chiefly  of  olein,  there  being  but  1 2  percent 
^^  oalmitin.  While  this  is  an  edible  oil,  it  is  used  chiefly  in  the  mar^'^acture 
27 


402  VEGETABLE   OILS   AND   FATS,   AND   NUTS. 

of  perfumes  and  as  a  lubricating  oil.  Its  high  price,  however,  excludes  it 
from  any  general  use,  except  for  special  purposes.  Its  specific  gravity  at  15 
degrees  is  .916,  and  it  absorbs  about  86  percent  of  its  weight  of  iodin. 

Olive  Oil. — By  far  the  most  important  of  edible  oils,  both  on  account  of  its 
abundance  and  of  its  palatability,  is  olive  oil.  Olive  oil  has  been  used  from  the 
earliest  historical  times  and  probably  was  the  first  vegetable  oil  that  was  manu- 
factured to  any  considerable  extent  in  the  early  history  of  civilization.  Its 
qualities  have  maintained  for  it  a  market  among  the  nations  of  the  world  in  spite 
of  the  fact  that  many  other  palatable  and  wholesome  vegetable  oils  have  been 
produced  which,  while  not  inferior  in  nutritive  value  to  olive  oil,  are  so  very 
much  cheaper  that  unless  the  olive  oil  possessed  peculiar  properties  it  would 
be  forced  out  of  the  market.  Its  delicate  flavor,  extreme  palatability,  high 
nutritive  power,  and  other  general  characteristics  have  maintained  for  it  a 
market  against  the  strongest  competition. 

Olive  oil  is  procured  from  the  fruit  of  the  olive  tree  {Olea  Europcea  L.),  and 
when  it  is  to  be  used  for  edible  purposes  the  method  of  extraction  is  by  pressure. 
When  olive  oil  is  used  for  technical  purposes,  such  as  lubricating  and  the  manu- 
facture of  soap,  it  is  very  commonly  secured  by  extraction  with  a  volatile 
solvent,  such  as  petroleum.  The  olive  is  very  rich  in  oil,  the  quantity  varying 
from  40  to  60  percent.  The  quality  of  olive  oil  upon  the  market  varies  in  a 
very  great  degree  according  to  the  country  from  which  it  comes,  the  degree 
of  maturity  of  the  olive  from  which  the  oil  is  extracted,  the  method  of  expression 
employed,  and  the  character  of  the  refining  process  to  which  the  expressed  oil 
has  been  subjected.  Botanically,  there  are  very  many  varieties  of  olive  trees 
and  thus  nature  would  impart  to  the  olive  peculiarities  due  to  the  origin  of  the 
oil  itself.  The  environment  also  has  a  great  deal  to  do  with  the  character  of  the 
olive  and  necessarily  with  the  character  of  the  oil  produced.  The  olive  tree 
flourishes  best  in  semi-arid  regions  where  the  rainfall  is  not  very  abundant  and 
the  sunlight  is  not  greatly  obscured  by  clouds  and  the  heat  is  reasonably  high. 
The  principal  regions,  at  the  present  time,  from  which  the  commercial  olive 
oils  are  obtained  are  Spain,  Italy,  Greece,  southern  France,  and  southern 
California. 

Adulteration  of  Olive  Oil. — By  reason  of  its  great  value  as  an  edible  oil  and 
its  high  price  there  is  no  one  of  the  edible  oils  which  has  been  subjected  to 
such  a  systematic  and  extensive  adulteration.  By  reason  of  the  resemblance  in 
general  character  of  many  of  the  edible  vegetable  oils  to  olive  oil,  adulterations 
of  the  most  extensive  character  may  be  practiced  without  indicating  to  the  eye 
any  change  in  composition.  Nearly  all  the  edible  vegetable  oils  have  the  light 
amber  tint  which  is  characteristic  of  many  grades  of  olive  oil,  and  the  difference 
between  the  color  of  the  olive  oil  and  other  edible  oils  is  not  greater  than  the 
difference  between  the  tints  of  the  various  olive  oils  themselves.  The  connois- 
seur of  extremely  delicate  taste  is  usually  able  to  distinguish  by  the  flavor  any 


Olives 

MISSION  2.    SEVILLANO 

From  Yearbook,  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture,  iSgj 


OLIVE   OIL.  403 

given  edible  oil  from  olive  oil.  If,  however,  any  given  edible  oil  be  mixed  with 
olive  oil  in  small  proportions  not  exceeding  25  to  30  percent,  even  the  skilled 
taster  will  be  deceived.  In  such  cases  only  the  chemist  who  has  much  skill  and 
practice  is  able  to  detect  the  adulteration. 

Adulteration  with  Cottonseed  Oil. — In  the  United  States  the  principal  adul- 
teration of  olive  oil  is  with  cottonseed  oil.  This  is  an  oil  which  has  already  been 
described  as  of  high  nutritive  value  and  to  which  no  objection  can  be  made 
from  any  hygienic  or  dietetic  point  of  view.  It  is  made  in  great  quantities  in 
the  United  States,  and  when  subjected  to  the  most  careful  refining  processes 
can  be  offered  to  the  consumer  at  a  price  probably  not  greater  than  one- 
fifth  that  of  high-grade  olive  oil.  It  becomes  the  ideal  material  with  which  to 
adulterate  olive  oil.  This  adulteration  extends  often  to  complete  substitution, 
the  oil  in  question,  though  represented  as  olive  oil  both  by  the  dealer  and  the 
label,  containing  no  trace  whatever  of  that  substance.  Such  bare -faced  sub- 
stitution has  apparently  almost  passed  away  under  the  quickening  ethical  sense 
of  the  manufacturer  and  merchant  and  the  character  of  the  national  and  state 
laws.  Many  of  the  oils  which  are  used  to  adulterate  olive  oil  have  a  greater 
specific  gravity,  hence  whenever  the  specific  gravity  of  an  olive  oil  at  15  degrees 
goes  above  .917  it  is  ground  for  suspicion  of  adulteration  though  by  no  means  a 
positive  proof.  The  presence  of  cottonseed  oil  in  olive  oil  is  easily  detected  by 
the  Halphen  test,  which  has  already  been  described.  In  Europe  a  very  com- 
mon method  of  adulteration  is  with  sesame  oil,  the  properties  of  which 
are  described  below.  Peanut  oil  is  also  extensively  used  for  the  same  pur- 
pose. These  two  oils  are  easily  detected  when  mixed  with  olive  oil.  The 
sesame  oil  is  distinguished  by  the  color  reaction  to  be  described.  Peanut  oil 
is  distinguished  by  the  saponification  of  the  oil,  separation  of  the  fatty  acids,  and 
consequent  crystallization  of  the  arachidic  acid,  which  produces  a  crystalline 
form  which  is  readily  recognized  by  an  expert.  Rapeseed  oil  and  poppy- 
seed  oil  are  also  extensively  used  as  adulterants  in  Europe,  but  not  very  exten- 
sively in  this  country.  Nearly  all  the  oils  which  are  employed  in  the  adultera- 
tion of  olive  oil  have  high  iodin  numbers,  and  therefore  whenever  an  iodin  num- 
ber is  above  89  or  90  it  may  be  regarded  as  a  suspicious  circumstance.  There 
are,  however,  many  genuine  olive  oils  which  would  be  condemned  as  adulter- 
ated if  this  test  alone  were  employed.  In  addition  to  the  oils  mentioned,  small 
quantities  of  castor  oil,  lard  oil,  fish  oil,  and  even  of  petroleum  oil,  have  been 
found  as  adulterants  in  olive  oil.  These,  however,  occur  very  infrequently, 
and  it  is  not  likely  that  they  have  been  employed  in  this  country. 

If  the  examination  shows  that  a  given  sample  is  free  of  cottonseed,  sesame, 
and  peanut  oil,  and  other  characteristics  of  the  sample  are  those  of  olive  oil,  it 
may  be  safely  accepted  as  a  pure  sample. 

Color  of  Olive  Oil. — The  color  of  the  freshly  expressed  olive  oil  is  usually 
green  or  dark  from  the  chlorophyl  and  other  coloring  matter  derived  from 


404  VEGETABLE   OILS   AND   FATS,    AND   NUTS. 

the  olive.  When  refined  and  ready  for  commerce  the  oil  is  of  a  yellowish-green 
tint  usually.  Sometimes  the  oil  obtained  from  the  first  pressing  is  almost  col- 
orless, but  as  a  rule  an  amber-green  tint  is  observed  in  most  of  the  commercial 
varieties.  Lower  grade  oils  are  often  decidedly  green,  but  still  edible,  due  to  the 
admixture  of  chlorophyl  from  the  green  olive  employed.  The  flavor  of  olive 
oil  is  a  pleasant  and  agreeable  one,  but  differs  greatly  in  oils  from  different 
sources.  The  further  north  the  oils  are  produced  the  less  pronounced  the 
flavor  and  the  sweeter  the  taste.  The  more  southern  oils,  such  as  are  ob- 
tained in  the  south  of  Italy  and  Spain,  have  a  stronger  and  more  pronounced 
flavor  which,  however,  is  very  much  prized  by  those  accustomed  to  it.  Large 
quantities  of  olive  oil  are  produced  also  in  the  French  and  other  possessions  in 
the  north  of  Africa.  These,  however,  have  a  stronger  flavor  than  those  pro- 
duced upon  the  continent  of  Europe  and  are  not  so  highly  prized  when  used  alone. 
Olive  oil  is  almost  free  of  stearin,  being  composed  chiefly  of  olein  with  some 
palmitin.  The  amount  of  free  acid  in  olive  oil  varies  with  the  character  of 
the  olives  employed  and  the  age  of  the  oil.  On  long  standing,  without  be- 
coming rancid,  olive  oil  develops  a  large  quantity  of  free  acid.  It  is  a  com- 
mon supposition  that  rancidity  in  an  oil  depends  upon  the  development  of  free 
fatty  acid,  but  this  is  not  the  case.  If  an  oil  be  free  of  rancidity  it  may  contain 
a  large  percentage  of  free  acid  without  becoming  inedible.  It  is  not  uncommon 
to  find  in  olive  oil  as  high  as  3  percent  or  more  of  free  acid.  This  is  due  to  the 
fact  that  in  the  refining  of  olive  oil  alkalies  are  not  usually  employed,  and  there- 
fore any  free  acid  which  the  natural  olive  possesses  is  not  neutralized  by  the 
alkalies,  as  is  the  case  in  the  refining  of  cottonseed  oil  and  some  other  vege- 
table oils. 

Constituents  of  Olive  Oil. — Olive  oil  consists  almost  exclusively  of  olein  and 
palmitin.  There  is  very  little,  if  any,  stearin  in  the  highest  grade  oil.  If  all 
the  solid  fatty  acid  at  ordinary  temperature  be  regarded  as  derived  from 
palmitin,  the  quantity  of  palmitin  may  be  considered  as  varying  from  3  to  20 
percent,  according  to  the  origin  and  character  of  the  sample.  While  the  olein 
and  palmitin,  therefore,  may  be  regarded  as  the  principal  constituents  of  olive 
oil,  there  are  others,  also,  existing  in  smaller  quantities.  The  quantity  of  free 
fatty  acid  varies  very  greatly  in  olive  oil.  It  is  highly  important  that  the  oil  be 
separated  from  the  pomace  as  speedily  as  possible,  since  any  fermentation  of  the 
pomace  increases  the  quantity  of  free  fatty  acid.  The  largest  number  of  high- 
grade  oils  contain  less  than  three  percent  of  free  fatty  acid,  but  a  larger  quantity, 
as  has  been  stated,  does  not  render  the  oil  inedible  unless  actual  fermentation 
has  taken  place  producing  rancidity.  Rancidity  appears  to  be  the  result  of  the 
generation  of  other  acids  than  oleic,  and  also  aldehyds,  formic,  butyric,  acetic, 
and  cenanthylic  acids  have  been  found.  Olive  oil  is  a  typical  non-drying  oil 
and  therefore  shows  less  rise  in  temperature  when  mixed  with  sulfuric  acid 
than  other  vegetable  oils.    The  specific  gravity  of  olive  oil  at  15  degrees  may 


OLIVE    OIL.  405 

be  placed  at  the  average  figure  of  .917.  It  sometimes  falls  as  low  as  .912  and 
rises  as  high  as  .919.  It  absorbs  from  80  to  90  percent  of  its  weight  of  iodin. 
In  some  samples  the  weight  of  iodin  absorbed  is  less,  falling  as  low  as  77  per- 
cent, but  this  is  only  in  very  extraordinary  cases.  Occasionally  it  goes  above  90 
percent.  Probably  the  number  87  would  represent  about  the  mean  percen- 
tage of  iodin  absorbed  by  most  edible  oils. 

Method  of  Preparation. — The  very  finest  quality  of  olive  oil  is  that  derived 
from  the  hand-picked  olive.  Just  as  in  the  preparation  eti  fruits  for  the  market 
the  very  best  qualities  are  carefully  picked  one  by  one  from  the  tree,  so  in  the 
preparation  of  the  highest  grade  of  oil  the  olives  are  picked  one  by  one,  only 
those  of  uniform  maturity  and  character  being  selected.  This  specially 
selected  fruit  is  pressed  cold,  and  the  first  running  from  this  pressure  collected 
separately  is  designated  in  English  by  the  term  "virgin  oil."  Virgin  olive  oil, 
therefore,  ranks  the  highest  in  quality.  Unfortunately  the  use  of  the  term  for 
commercial  purposes  has  not  been  restricted  to  the  quality  of  oil  to  which  it 
actually  belongs,  and  at  the  present  time  the  expression  "  pure  virgin  olive  oil" 
which  is  placed  upon  the  bottles  or  containers  is  no  guarantee  that  this  quality 
of  oil  is  found  therein.  In  fact,  this  expression  upon  the  label  has  been  found 
in  many  instances  of  olive  oil  highly  adulterated  and  belonging  to  the  cheapest 
grade.  It  would  be  impossible  here  to  enumerate  all  the  different  names  by 
which  olive  oil  is  found  upon  the  market.  The  consumer  has  to  depend  for 
protection  upon  his  knowledge  of  the  character  of  the  dealer  and  hereafter, 
to  a  greater  extent  than  ever  before,  he  may  be  protected  by  the  application  of 
the  pure  food  laws  of  the  various  countries. 

After  the  first  pressing  from  which  the  best  oil  is  secured  the  resulting  pomace 
is  removed  from  the  press,  heated  or  mixed  with  hot  water,  and  again  subjected 
to  a  much  higher  pressure  from  which  a  second  quantity  of  oil  is  secured,  still 
suitable  for  edible  purposes  but  of  a  lower  quality  than  that  first  produced. 
While  the  oils  which  are  obtained  in  this  way  are  used  largely  for  technical  pur- 
poses such  as  lubricating,  soap  making,  etc.,  they  are  not  infrequently  employed 
as  edible  oils. 

In  the  largest  establishments  for  the  preparation  of  olive  oil  the  kernels  are 
separated  from  the  pulp,  but  in  the  smaller  works  the  pulp  and  kernel  are 
pressed  together.  Finally  the  residue  from  the  second  pressure  may  be  dried 
and  extracted  with  bisulfid  of  carbon  or  petroleum  ether,  by  which  means 
practically  all  the  residual  oil  which  the  cake  contains  may  be  secured.  Oils 
extracted  in  this  manner  are  wholly  unfit  for  edible  purposes  and  are  used  or 
should  be  used  solely  for  technical  purposes,  among  which  soap  making  is 
perhaps  the  most  important. 

Olive-kernel  Oil. — An  oil  is  extracted  from  the  kernel  of  the  olive  which  as 
regards  some  of  its  physical  and  chemical  properties  resembles  olive  oil  itself. 
It  is  usually  not  considered  suitable  for  edible  purposes.    Its  taste  resembles 


4o6  VEGETABLE   OILS   AND   FATS,   AND   NUTS. 

more  that  of  almond  oil  than  that  of  olive  oil.  Some  of  this  oil  is  doubtless 
mixed  with  olive  oil  when  the  pulp  and  kernel  of  the  olive  are  pressed  together, 
but  the  quantity  thus  secured  is  not  very  great  and  does  not  introduce  into  the 
substance  anything  which  gives  a  specific  reaction.  It  is  by  no  means  as  high 
a  grade  of  oil  as  that  expressed  from  the  flesh  of  the  olive  alone. 

Peanut  Oil. — Peanut  oil  is  the  refined  expressed  oil  of  the  peanut,  prepared 
in  the  manner  above  described,  and  is  highly  valued  as  a  table  or  salad  oil  and, 
unfortunately,  is  used  very  often  as  an  adulterant  of  olive  oil,  the  mixture  being 
sold  under  the  name  of  the  more  valuable  of  its  constituents. 

Peanut  oil  contains  arachidic  acid,  which  in  combination  with  glycerine  forms 
one  of  the  constituents  which  serves  to  distinguish  it  particularly  from  other 
edible  oils.  There  is  no  other  edible  oil  which  contains  arachidic  acid  in 
sufficient  quantities  to  lead  to  any  mistake  concerning  its  relationship  to  pea- 
nut oil. 

Renard^s  Test  for  Peanut  Oil  as  Modified  by  Tolman. — Place  20  grams  of 
oil  in  an  Erlenmeyer  flask.  Saponify  with  alcoholic  potash,  neutralize 
exactly  with  dilute  acetic  acid,  using  phenolphthalein  as  indicator,  and  wash 
into  a  500  c.c.  flask  containing  a  boiling  mixture  of  100  c.c.  of  water  and  120  c.c. 
of  a  20  percent  lead  acetate  solution.  Boil  for  a  minute,  and  then  cool  the  pre- 
cipitated soap  by  immersing  the  flask  in  water,  occasionally  giving  it  a  whirling 
motion  to  cause  the  soap  to  stick  to  the  sides  of  the  flask.  After  the  flask  has 
cooled,  the  water  and  excess  of  lead  can  be  poured  off  and  the  soap  washed 
with  cold  water  and  with  90  percent  (by  volume)  alcohol.  Now  add  200  c.c. 
of  ether,  cork  the  flask,  and  allow  to  stand  for  some  time  until  the  soap  is 
disintegrated,  then  heat  on  the  water  bath,  using  a  reflux  condenser,  and  boil 
for  about  five  minutes.  In  the  oils  most  of  the  soap  will  be  dissolved,  while 
in  lards,  which  contain  so  much  stearin,  part  will  be  left  undissolved.  Cool 
the  ether  solution  of  soap  down  to  from  15°  to  17°  C,  and  let  stand  until  all 
the  insoluble  soaps  have  crystallized  out — about  twelve  hours  are  required. 

Filter  and  thoroughly  wash  the  precipitate  with  ether.  Save  the  filtrate  for 
the  determination  of  the  iodin  number  of  the  liquid  fatty  acids  by  the  Muter 
method.  The  soaps  on  the  filter  are  washed  back  into  the  flask  by  means  of  a 
stream  of  hot  water  acidified  with  hydrochloric  acid.  Add  an  excess  of  dilute 
hydrochloric  acid,  partially  fill  the  flask  with  hot  water,  and  heat  until  fatty 
acids  form  a  clear,  oily  layer.  Fill  the  flask  with  hot  water,  allow  the  fatty 
acids  to  harden  and  separate  from  the  precipitated  lead  chlorid;  wash,  drain, 
repeat  washing  with  hot  water,  and  dissolve  the  fatty  acids  in  100  c.c.  of  boiling 
90  percent  (by  volume)  alcohol.  Cool  down  to  15°  C,  shaking  thoroughly  to 
aid  crystallization.  From  5  to  10  percent  of  peanut  oil  can  be  detected  by  this 
method,  as  it  effects  a  complete  separation  of  the  soluble  acid  from  the  in- 
soluble, which  interferes  with  the  crystallization  of  the  arachidic  acid.  Filter, 
wash  the  precipitate  twice  with  10  c.c.  of  90  percent  (by  volume)  alcohol, 


RAPE   OIL.  407 

and  then  with  alcohol  of  70  percent  (by  volume).  Dissolve  off  the  filter  with 
boiling  absolute  alcohol,  evaporate  to  dryness  in  a  weighed  dish,  dry  and 
weigh.  Add  to  this  weight  0.0025  gram  for  each  10  c.c.  of  90  percent  alcohol 
used  in  the  crystallization  and  washing  if  done  at  15°  C;  if  done  at  20°,  0.0045 
gram  for  each  10  c.c.  The  melting  point  of  arachidic  acid  obtained  in  this 
way  is  between  71°  and  72°  C.  Twenty  times  the  weight  of  arachidic  add  will 
give  the  approximate  amount  of  peanut  oil  present.  No  examination  for 
adulterants  in  olive  oil  is  complete  without  making  the  test  for  peanut  oil. 

The  above  process  can  only  be  successfully  carried  out  by  an  experienced 
chemist,  and  even  then  if  only  small  quantities  of  peanut  oil  are  present,  namely, 
not  to  exceed  five  percent,  the  results  obtained  may  not  be  exact. 

Peanut  oil  is  obtained  from  the  peanut  by  the  ordinary  method  of  hydraulic 
pressure.  The  first  cold  pressing  furnishes  the  oil  of  finest  character  for 
edible  purposes.  Subsequent  pressure  or  pressure  with  heat  furnishes  a  greater 
quantity  of  oil  but  of  inferior  palatability.  Peanut  oil  is  highly  prized  as  a 
salad  oil  either  alone  or  mixed  with  other  oil,  notably  olive  oil  and  sesame. 
The  oil  is  purified  by  settling  followed  by  filtration  and  by  the  processes 
usually  practiced  with  other  oils  of  vegetable  origin.  The  oil  is  easily  and 
completely  digested  and  furnishes  an  abundant  source  of  heat  and  energy  to 
the  system.  The  number  of  calories  produced  by  the  combustion  of  one  gram 
of  oil,  either  by  ordinary  burning  or  by  oxidation  in  the  body,  is  about 
9,300. 

The  cake  which  is  left  after  the  pressing  out  of  the  oil  is  very  highly  nu- 
tritious, containing  still  considerable  quantities  of  'oil,  the  whole  of  the  protein 
matter,  and  other  digestible  solids  of  the  nut. 

As  before  stated,  it  is  extensively  used  as  cattle  food  and  as  fertilizer.  It 
may  also  be  ground  to  a  meal  and  used  as  human  food,  but  furnishes  an 
unbalanced  ration  in  which  the  protein  is  far  in  excess. 

Rape  Oil  (Colza  Oil)  {Brassica  campestris  L.). — There  are  different  kinds 
of  oil  which  belong  to  the  general  class  which  is  known  as  rape  oil  or  rapeseed  oil. 
The  different  kinds  are  derived  from  different  varieties  of  Brassica  campes- 
tris. The  English  names  of  the  three  most  important  varieties  are — (i)  colza 
oil,  derived  from  the  seeds  of  Brassica  campestris;  (2)  rape  oil,  derived  from  the 
seeds  of  Brassica  napus  L.;  (3)  riibsen  oil,  derived  from  the  seeds  of  Brassica 
rapa  L.  The  character  of  the  oil  also  varies  according  to  the  manner  of  its 
extraction.  The  first  pressings  from  the  cold  powdered  seeds  is  of  a  finer 
quality  for  salad  purposes  than  the  heavier  later  pressings  from  the  hot  seeds. 
The  oil  is  also  sometimes  chilled  and  the  cr}'stallized  stearin  separated  in  order 
to  keep  it  in  a  liquid  state  during  the  winter  time,  so  that  the  winter  and 
summer  varieties  are  sometimes  recognized  in  trade.  There  is,  however,  no 
difference  in  the  other  characteristics  of  the  oil. 


4o8  VEGETABLE    OILS    AND    FATS,    AND    NUTS. 

The  specific  gravity  of  rape  oil  at  15.5  degrees  C,  compared  with  water  at 
the  same  temperature,  is  about  .916.  The  variations  from  this  mean  number 
are  not  very  great.  Rapeseed  oil  absorbs  almost  its  exact  weight  of  iodin, — 
the  average  iodin  number  being  not  far  from  99. 

The  Chief  Adulterations  of  Rape  Oil — The  chief  adulteration  of  rape  oil  con- 
sists in  the  admixture  of  cheaper  or  flavoring  oils.  Among  those  which  are 
often  used  in  the  adulteration  of  rape  oil  are  linseed  oil,  hempseed  oil,  poppy- 
seed  oil,  chamomile  oil,  cottonseed  oil,  the  various  mustard  oils,  refined  fish 
and  blubber  oils,  rosin  oil,  and  paraffin.  Some  of  these  adulterations,  it  is 
seen,  cannot  be  added  to  rapeseed  oil  when  used  for  edible  purposes.  The 
chief  adulteration  of  rapeseed  oil,  when  intended  for  edible  purposes,  is  the 
addition  of  cottonseed  oil.  The  detection  of  these  various  adulterations,, 
with  the  exception  of  that  of  cottonseed  oil,  can  be  accomplished  only  by  aa 
expert  chemist.  The  presence  of  cottonseed  oil  can  be  detected  by  the  appli- 
cation of  the  Halphen  test  already  described. 

Technique  of  Extraction. — The  extraction  of  oil  from  the  rape  seed  is  not 
different  from  that  of  other  oily  seeds.  It  is  either  extracted  by  pressure,  which 
is  the  proper  way  always  when  it  is  to  be  used  for  edible  purposes,  or  when  used 
for  technical  purposes  it  may  be  extracted  by  means  of  carbon  bisulfid  or 
petroleum  ether.  When  extracted  by  pressure  for  edible  purposes  the  oil 
should  be  refined  by  a  similar  treatment  to  that  applied  to  cottonseed  oil  and 
finally  filtered,  preferably  after  mixing  with  fuller's  earth  or  other  similar 
material,  in  order  that  it  may  be  perfectly  pure  and  bright  and  free  from  sus- 
pended matter  which  interferes  with  its  utility  as  an  edible  oil. 

A  very  common  treatment  of  the  expressed  oil,  in  order  to  coagulate  and 
separate  the  mucilaginous  matter  which  it  contains,  is  with  sulfuric  acid. 
This  acid  has  the  very  valuable  property  of  coagulating  this  class  of  bodies. 
When  treated  with  sulfuric  acid  it  is  necessary  that  the  oil  be  thoroughly 
washed  many  times  in  pure  water  in  order  to  remove  the  last  trace  of  the  acid. 

The  residue  or  oil  cake  is  prized  as  a  cattle  food  or  as  a  fertilizer.  The 
average  content  of  oil  in  rape  seed  is  about  37  percent. 

Sesam^  Oil. — Sesame  oil  is  very  commonly  used  for  salad  oil  and  for  the  other 
purposes  to  which  the  edible  oils  are  devoted.  It  is  also  known  as  gingili  oil 
and  teel  oil.  Sesame  oil  is  obtained  by  pressure  from  the  seed  of  the  sesame 
plant, — Sesamum  orientate  L. 

Sesame  oil  possesses  a  light  amber  color  when  properly  made,  is  free  from  any 
unpleasant  odor,  has  an  agreeable  taste,  and  when  expressed  cold  produces  what 
is  known  as  the  cold-drawn  oil  which  is  regarded  by  many  as  of  equal  palatable 
value  with  olive  oil.  Sesam^  oil,  in  addition  to  containing  stearin,  palmitin,  and 
olein,  also  contains  a  small  quantity  of  a  glycerid  which  exists  in  large  quantities 
in  flaxseed  oil,  namely,  linolein.     When  prepared  for  edible  purposes  it  con- 


SUNFLOWER   OIL.  409 

tains  only  a  small  quantity  of  free  acid,  is  free  from  rancidity,  clear,  and  brilliant 
in  appearance  and  has  a  sweet  agreeable  taste.  The  specific  gravity  of  sesame 
oil  at  15  degrees  C.  varies  from  .9225  to  .9237.  It  absorbs  from  103  to  108 
percent  of  its  weight  of  iodin  and  has  a  refractive  index  at  15  degrees  of  about 
1.4748. 

Adulteration  oj  Sesame  Oil. — Some  of  the  other  vegetable  oils  are  cheaper  than 
sesame  and  are  added  to  it  for  the  purpose  of  adulteration  and  cheapening  the 
product.  Among  the  most  common  oils  used  for  the  adulteration  of  sesame  are 
poppyseed  oil,  cottonseed  oil,  and  rape  oil.  The  presence  of  cottonseed  oil 
in  sesame  oil  is  easily  distinguished  by  the  Halphen  test  already  given.  The 
presence  of  poppyseed  oil  is  revealed  by  the  high  iodin  number  and  the  high 
degree  of  heat  produced  when  mixed  with  sulfuric  acid. 

Only  the  best  variety  of  cold-drawn  sesame  oil  is  used  for  edible  purposes  and 
for  making  oleomargarine.  The  inferior  qualities  are  used  in  soap  making, 
the  making  of  perfumes,  etc.,  and  the  lowest  quality  of  oil  is  used  for  burning 
purposes. 

Characteristic  Reaction. — A  test  which  is  known  as  Baudouin's  is  extremely 
delicate  and  reliable  and  is  easily  applied.  It  consists  in  the  development  of  a 
red  color  when  a  small  quantity  of  sesame  oil  is  treated  with  hydrochloric  acid 
in  the  presence  of  furfural.  The  test  is  easily  carried  out  as  follows :  Place  a 
few  drops  of  a  two  percent  solution  of  furfural  in  a  test-tube  with  10  cubic 
centimeters  of  sesame  oil  or  the  oil  to  be  tested  for  sesame  and  10  cubic  centi- 
meters of  hydrochloric  acid  of  1.19  specific  gravity,  and  shake  the  mixture  well 
for  half  a  minute.  When  the  tube  is  left  at  rest,  if  sesame  oil  be  present  the 
aqueous  acid  layer  which  forms  will  have  a  distinct  crimson  color.  Any 
coloration  which  is  produced  by  other  oils  is  entirely  distinct  from  this  one  and 
therefore  can  be  easily  distinguished. 

Geographical  Distribution. — The  sesame  plant  is  grown  chiefly  for  com- 
mercial purposes  in  India,  China,  Japan,  and  West  Africa.  The  technical 
preparation  of  the  oil,  in  so  far  as  is  known,  is  not  practiced  in  the  United 
States.  It  is  pressed  and  prepared  for  commerce  chiefly  in  France.  The  seeds 
are  rich  in  oil,  yielding  a  larger  percentage  by  pressure  or  extraction  than  most 
of  the  oil-bearing  seeds. 

Sunflower  Oil. — The  oil  extracted  from  the  seed  of  the  sunflower  is  of  high 
quality  for  edible  purposes.  Although  not  in  general  use  in  this  country,  it  is 
very  extensively  used  in  Russia  and  some  other  parts  of  Europe.  There  is 
every  reason  to  believe  that  a  profitable  industry  could  be  established  in  the 
preparation  of  edible  oils  from  sunflower  seeds.  The  plant  grows  in  the  great- 
est luxuriance  in  nearly  all  parts  of  the  country,  and  the  yield  is  sufficiently 
great  to  make  it  an  object  of  more  interest  to  our  agricultural  population  than 
it  is  at  the  present  time. 


4IO  VEGETABLE   OILS   AND   FATS,   AND   NUTS. 

The  oil  is  obtained  from  the  seed  of  the  sunflower  (Helianthus  annuus  L.). 
It  is  of  a  pure  amber  tint  with  an  agreeable  odor  and  pleasant  taste.  As  has 
already  been  said  it  is  grown  largely  in  Russia  and  also  in  Indo-China.  The 
seeds  are  very  rich  in  oil.  Before  expression  the  hulls  should  be  removed,  since 
these  form  a  porous  substance,  and  if  the  seeds  are  crushed  with  the  hulls  large 
quantities  of  oil  are  absorbed  and  cannot  be  recovered. 

The  method  of  preparation  is  the  same  as  that  for  other  edible  oils, 
the  kernel,  after  the  removal  of  the  hull,  being  ground  and  cold-pressed 
for  the  highest  grade.  By  heating  and  renewing  pressure  lower  grades  of  oil 
are  secured  suitable  for  soap  making.  Where  all  the  oil  is  required  the  ex- 
traction with  bisulfid  of  carbon  or  gasoline  is  advised.  Such  oils,  however,  are 
not  suitable  for  edible  purposes  because  of  the  difficulty  of  removing  the  last 
traces  of  the  solvent.  The  specific  gravity  of  sunflower  oil  at  15  degrees  is 
approximately  .925.  It  absorbs  a  very  high  percentage  of  iodin,  and  in  this 
respect  it  may  be  classified  with  the  drying  oils.  Its  iodin  number  ranges 
from  120  to  130.  No  specific  color  reactions  have  been  established  by  means 
of  which  sunflower  oil  may  be  readily  distinguished  from  the  other  edible  oils. 

In  fact  sunflower  oil  has  not  been  subjected,  by  any  means,  to  as  critical 
a  study  as  many  other  vegetable  oils. 

Vegetable  Fats. 

The  fatty  principles  in  vegetables  which  are  solid,  at  ordinary  temperatures 
are  commonly  termed  fats  instead  of  oils.  They  present,  as  a  rule,  a  soft 
mass,  usually  of  an  amber  tint  and  somewhat  of  the  consistence  of  butter. 
Only  a  few  of  these  solid  fats  or  semi-solid  fats  are  used  for  food.  Among  them 
the  most  important  are  palm-nut  oil  or  coconut  oil  or  fat,  though  the  fat  of  the 
cacao  also  may  be  regarded  as  belonging  to  this  group.  These  solid  or  semi- 
solid fats  are  used  to  a  considerable  extent  for  edible  purposes  in  many  parts  of 
the  world.  Coconut  fat  and  cacao  fat  are  used  very  extensively  in  this 
country  either  in  a  pure  state  or  in  chocolate  or  cocoa. 

Cacao  Butter. — Cacao  butter  is  the  semi-solid  fat  obtained  by  pressure  from 
cacao  beans,  the  seeds  of  the  cacao  tree  (Theobroma  cacao  L.).  These  beans 
are  extremely  rich  in  fat,  the  content  of  which  varies  from  35  to  50  percent. 
On  a  large  scale  the  cacao  beans  are  roasted,  ground,  and  the  fat  expressed 
while  still  hot  by  hydraulic  pressure.  In  order  to  remove  the  free  acid  which 
it  contains  the  carbonates  of  the  alkalies  are  mixed  with  the  material  after  grind- 
ing and  before  extraction.  In  these  cases  the  expressed  fat  naturally  does  not 
contain  any  free  acid,  though  the  soaps  which  are  formed  by  this  process  are 
apt  to  contaminate  the  expressed  fat. 

Adulterations. — By  reason  of  its  high  price  cacao  butter  is  often  adulterated 
by  the  addition  of  various  fats  usually  of  a  vegetable  character.  Those  most 
generally  employed  are  the  stearin  derived  from  the  coconut  fat  and  the  palm- 


COCONUT    OIL    OR    BUTTER.  4II 

nut  fat.  The  addition  of  ordinary  edible  vegetable  oils  Is  easily  detected  by  the 
usual  chemical  tests  and  is  especially  recognized  by  the  increase  in  the  per- 
centage of  iodin  absorbed.  They  also  reduce  the  melting  point  of  cacao  butter, 
and  for  this  reason  these  oils,  with  the  exception  of  coconut,  are  not  used 
very  extensively  as  adulterants.  Beeswax  and  paraffine  wax  are  also  used  to 
some  extent  as  adulterants,  and  when  used  in  connection  with  vegetable  oils 
they  serve  to  keep  the  melting  point  from  going  too  low.  Tallow  has  also 
been  used  quite  extensively  as  an  adulterant.  The  detection  of  these  adul- 
terants is  so  difficult  as  to  be  accomplished  only  by  a  skilled  chemist. 

Composition. — Cacao  butter  is  composed  chiefly  of  stearin  and  palmitin, 
though  other  fats  and  oils  are  present  in  small  quantities.  Although  it  is 
generally  supposed  that  cacao  butter  does  not  tend  to  become  rancid,  this  is  a 
mistake,  since,  when  exposed  to  the  conditions  which  favor  rancidity,  the  fer- 
mentation which  produces  this  condition  takes  place  in  the  butter,  though  some- 
what more  slowly  and  more  incompletely  than  in  many  other  fats.  The  specific 
gravity  of  cacao  butter  at  50  degrees  C.  is  .892.  It  absorbs  about  35  percent 
of  its  weight  of  iodin.  It  has  a  much  lower  melting  point  than  palm  fats  and 
even  lower  than  butter.  Its  melting  point  varies  from  30  to  33  degrees  C. 
Cacao  butter  has  some  of  the  properties  of  ordinary  butter  and  has  been  recom- 
mended as  a  substitute  therefor,  but  it  is  not  likely  that  it  will  ever  come  into 
common  use  both  because  it  is  less  desirable  than  butter  and  also  because  of  its 
high  price. 

Properties. — Cacao  butter  has  a  light  amber  tint  and  tends  to  become 
bleached  on  long  standing.  It  has  a  very  pleasant  flavor,  reminding  one  of  the 
flavor  of  the  preparations  of  chocolate.  At  ordinary'  temperature,  70  degrees 
F.,  it  is  quite  solid  and  sometimes  even  brittle. 

Coconut  Oil  or  Butter. — This  is  a  very  abundant  natural  fat  and  is 
obtained  from  the  kernel  of  the  coconut,  especially  the  two  species  Cocos 
nucijera  L.  and  Cocos  butyracea  L.  At  ordinary  temperatures  coconut  oil 
is  of  the  consistency  of  fat.  Its  taste  is  pleasant,  and  it  possesses  an  odor  which 
is  not  disagreeable  or  undesirable.  It  differs  from  cacao  butter  in  the  ease 
with  which  it  becomes  rancid,  at  which  time  it  takes  on  a  very  disagreeable 
flavor  and  taste.  The  coconut  oil  of  commerce  is  distinguished  by  different 
names,  according  to  the  country  in  which  it  is  made. 

Cochin  oil  is  a  variety  which  is  regarded  as  of  the  finest  quality,  being  almost 
colorless,  and  is  prepared  in  Malabar. 

Ceylon  oil  is  another  very  important  variety  made  in  the  neighborhood  of 
and  imported  from  Ceylon.  It  is  regarded  as  somewhat  inferior  to  Cochin  oil, 
due  probably  to  less  care  being  taken  in  the  cultivation  of  the  plant  and  the 
preparation  of  the  oil. 

Another  variety  of  coconut  oil  is  known  as  copra  oil.  The  term  "copra" 
is  applied  to  the  sun-dried  or  kiln-dried  kernel  of  the  coconut.    In  this  dried 


412  VEGETABLE    OILS   AND   FATS,    AND   NUTS. 

State  the  fruit  can  be  shipped  in  bulk  and  large  quantities  of  it  can  be  sent  to 
Europe  or  other  countries,  where  the  oil  is  either  obtained  by  extraction  or  by 
compression  in  a  hydraulic  press.  This  is  regarded  as  of  the  least  desirable 
quality. 

Coconut  oil  resembles  palm-nut  oil  in  its  chemical  composition,  with  the 
exception  of  the  relative  proportion  of  palmitic  acid.  The  specific  gravity  of 
coconut  oil  or  fat  at  40  degrees  C.  is  about  .912  and  reduced  to  15  degrees 
C.  about  .925.  Coconut  oil  absorbs  very  little  iodin,  which  is  one  of  its  principal 
characteristic  chemical  properties.  The  quantity  of  iodin  absorbed  may  be 
taken  as  about  eight  percent  of  the  weight  of  the  oil.  Coconut  oil  is  one  of  the 
vegetable  fats  which  resembles  butter  to  some  extent  in  the  high  content  of  vola- 
tile acid  which  it  contains.  If,  under  given  conditions,  butter  may  be  regarded 
as  having  a  volatile  acid  number  of  27,  coconut  oil  will  have  upon  the  same 
scale  a  volatile  acid  number  of  about  7,  whereas  ordinary  vegetable  oils  and 
fats  will  have  less  than  0.5  on  a  similar  scale.  Coconut  oil  may  be  regarded 
as  the  one  edible  oil  which  approximates  in  constitution  ordinary  butter. 
Coconut  oil  has  been  used  very  extensively  as  an  adulterant  for  oleomargarine, 
since  by  reason  of  its  high  volatile  acid  it  brings  that  substance  much  nearer  to 
the  composition  of  butter  or  indicates  a  larger  percentage  of  butter  therein  than 
is  actually  present.  While  it  is  used  extensively  as  human  food  its  principal 
value  is  for  soap  making.  It  appears  as  an  edible  fat  under  various  names, 
such  as  "  vegetable  butter,"  "  lactine,"  "  nucoline,"  "  palmin,"  etc.  Coconut 
oil  is  also  very  extensively  used  in  the  manufacture  of  candies  and  confections. 

Adulterations. — Coconut  oil  is  rarely  adulterated.  About  the  only  adulter- 
ation of  any  consequence  is  that  of  the  admixture  with  palm-kernel  oil,  which 
has  properties  very  much  like  that  of  coconut  oil.  These  two  oils  are  or- 
dinarily about  the  same  price  and  therefore  there  is  no  inducement  to  practice 
adulteration. 

Palm  Oil  or  Fat. — This  oil  is  obtained  from  the  fleshy  part  of  the  fruit  of 
the  palm  tree  Elceis  Guineensis  Jacq.  and  Elceis  melanococca  Gaertn.  Ex- 
tensive groves  of  these  trees  are  found  in  Africa  and  also  in  the  Philippines. 
In  Africa  they  grow  particularly  upon  the  western  coast.  There  is  a  large 
number  of  varieties  of  palm  trees  that  afford  this  fat,  but  the  two  mentioned  are 
the  principal  ones.  This  fat  becomes  solid  at  about  the  temperature  of  the 
body.  It  has  a  somewhat  higher  melting  point  than  butter,  which  becomes 
liquid  at  a  temperature  of  from  34  to  36  degrees  C.  When  solidified  the  fat 
may  be  heated  to  41  or  42  degrees  before  it  again  becomes  liquid.  Palm  oil 
has  rather  a  pleasant  taste  and  is  regarded  as  an  edible  fat  of  high  quality,  and 
is  largely  used  as  such  by  Europeans  and  in  Africa  and  other  countries  where 
the  fat  is  produced.  The  fat  also  has  a  very  pleasant  odor  which  is  said  to 
resemble  somewhat  that  of  violets.  This  pleasant  odor  is  quite  persistent 
and  remains  even   in  the   fatty  acids  after  they  have  been  converted  into 


THE   ACORN.  413 

soap.  Palm  oil  is  manufactured  in  the  crudest  possible  way  by  the  natives, 
and  immense  quantities  are  lost  for  this  reason.  By  reason  of  this  crude 
method,  which  leaves  the  oil  in  contact  with  the  putrescible  matter,  palm  oil 
often  comes  into  the  market  in  a  rancid  state  or  at  least  with  a  high  content 
of  free  fatty  acid.  Appreciable  quantities  of  water  are  also  found  in  the  crude 
article. 

Inasmuch  as  the  natural  color  of  palm  oil  is  somewhat  too  deep  for  the  taste 
of  the  ordinary  consumer,  ranging  from  yellow  to  a  dirty  red  color,  it  is  often 
bleached  in  the  refining  process  before  being  sent  into  commerce.  Ordinary 
exposure  to  the  air  tends  to  bleach  this  oil,  and  ozone  is  also  employed  as  a 
bleaching  agent.  The  bichromate  process  of  bleaching  palm  oil  is  very  com- 
monly practiced.  By  this  method  the  oil  is  freed  from  its  principal  impurities 
and  treated  with  from  one  to  three  percent  of  potassium  bichromate  and  with 
hydrochloric  acid  which  decomposes  the  "chrome"  liquor,  and  in  the  chemical 
process  which  attends  this  reaction  decided  bleaching  effects  are  produced. 
The  bleaching  agents  are  withdrawn  and  the  oil  thoroughly  washed  with 
water  until  all  traces  of  chromate  and  mineral  acid  are  removed. 

Adulterations. — On  account  of  its  great  cheapness  and  the  fact  that  the  ad- 
mixture of  other  oils  of  lower  melting  point  would  detract  from  its  value,  palm 
oil  has  not  been  subjected  to  any  extensive  adulteration.  The  most  common 
adulterations  are  the  impurities  which  are  left  in  the  oil  in  the  slovenly  method 
of  manufactiure  employed  by  the  natives  of  Africa. 

Constituents. — As  would  be  expected  from  the  name,  one  of  the  chief  con- 
stituents of  palm  oil  is  palmitin.  If  palm  oil  is  saponified  and  the  solid  sepa- 
rated from  the  liquid  fatty  acid,  the  former  is  found  to  consist  almost  ex- 
clusively of  palmitic  acid.  The  specific  gravity  of  palm  oil  is  taken  at  a  high 
temperature,  as  much  as  50  degrees  C.  or  above.  The  specific  gravity  at  this 
temperature  is  about  .893.  Palm  oil  absorbs  a  little  over  one  half  its  weight  of 
iodin.  The  average  iodin  number  may  be  regarded  as  varying  from  53  to  55. 
Aside  from  the  limited  use  of  palm  oil  for  human  food  it  is  used  chiefly  in  the 
manufacture  of  soap  and  of  candles.  It  is  also  used  extensively  in  the  tin 
plate  industry  to  spread  over  the  hot  iron  surface  to  preserve  it  from  oxidation 
until  it  is  dipped  into  the  bath  of  melted  tin. 

NUTS. 

The  Acorn. — Many  varieties  of  acorns  are  used  for  human  food.  All  of 
the  nuts  of  the  oak  family  are  edible,  but  some  of  the  larger  and  more  com- 
mon varieties  contain  such  a  quantity  of  tannin  as  to  be  rather  bitter  to  the 
taste.  The  wild  acorns  were  formerly  utilized  very  extensively  for  the  fat- 
tening of  swine,  producing  an  article  of  pork  of  high  palatable  value  but  with 


414  VEGETABLE   OILS   AND   FATS,   AND   NUTS. 

the  production  of  a  fat  of  a  low  melting  point,  unsuitable  for  the  manufacture 
of  lard  for  summer  use.  The  term  applied  to  the  natural  nuts  eaten  by- 
swine  for  this  purpose  is  "mast,"  and  formerly  "mast-fed"  pork  was  an 
extensive  article  of  commerce.  The  disappearance  of  the  oak  and  beech 
forests,  however,  have  practically  eliminated  this  variety  of  pork  from  the 
markets,  as  far  as  commercial  considerations  are  concerned. 
Composition  of  the  Acorn. — Edible  portion,  64.4;  refuse,  35.6. 

Edible  Portion. 

Water, 4.1  percent 

Protein, 8.1      " 

Fat, 37.4      " 

Starch  and  sugar, 48.0      " 

Ash, 2.4      " 

Calories  per  pound, 2,718 

The  acorn  resembles  the  chestnut  in  its  composition,  containing  more 
carbohydrates  than  fat.  It  is  therefore  not  an  oily  seed,  but  one  of  a  fari- 
naceous character. 

Almonds. — There  are  two  species  of  almond  trees,  the  Amygdalus  com- 
munis, which  is  the  common  or  sweet  almond,  and  the  Amygdalus  amara,  or 
the  bitter  almond  which  flourishes  very  extensively  in  the  south  of  Europe. 
California  has  a  climate  which,  with  artificial  irrigation,  is  favorable  to  the 
growth  of  the  almond,  and  practically  all  that  are  produced  in  the  United 
States  for  commercial  purposes  grow  in  that  state.  It  is  also  cultivated  ex- 
tensively in  France,  Italy,  and  Spain,  large  supplies  of  the  almonds  of  com- 
merce coming  from  those  localities.  The  almond  is  delicious  when  eaten 
in  the  green  state,  that  is  when  the  seed  is  fully  formed  but  before  the  hull 
is  hardened.  It  is  rarely  eaten  in  this  condition  in  the  United  States,  but 
forms  a  common  article  of  diet  upon  the  table  of  the  Europeans  in  the  early- 
summer. 

Composition  of  the  Almond.— 


Sample. 

Water. 

Protein. 

Fat. 

Total 
Carbohy- 
drates. 

Ash. 

Edible  portion : 

California  almonds,.   . 

Percent. 
4.8 
6.0 

Percent. 
21.0 

23-5 

Percent. 
54.9 
53-0 

Percent. 

17-3 
14.4 

Percent. 
2.0 

European  almonds, 

3-1 

In  the  United  States  the  almond  is  eaten  very  extensively,  often  roasted 
and  salted.  In  this  condition  it  is  found  as  a  relish  in  many  menus.  The 
roasting  improves  to  a  certain  extent  the  flavor  of  the  nut,  but  the  quantity 
of  salt  which  is  used  is  not  always  beneficial,  inasmuch  as  an  abundance 
of  salt  is  eaten  with  other  portions  of  the  food.  One  of  the  most  valued 
varieties  is  the  Jordan  almond,  illustrated  in  the  accompanying  colored  plate. 


Jordan  Almond 

From  Yearbook,  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture,  iq02 


(f  OFTHE  ^ 


BRAZIL-NUT. 


415 


Beechnuts. — The  beech  tree  is  a  very  common  forest  tree  throughout 
the  northern  part  of  the  United  States.  Formerly  immense  areas  in  southern 
Ohio  and  Indiana  were  covered  almost  exclusively  by  the  beech  tree  (Fagus 
americana  Sweet).  The  beechnut  is  triangular  in  shape,  resembling  buck- 
wheat, and  formerly  was  produced  in  immense  quantities  over  the  region  men- 
tioned above.  In  the  early  days  it  was  the  principal  food  for  swine.  The 
hogs  which  are  fattened  by  eating  the  beechnut  and  acorn  produce  a  species  of 
pork  of  a  peculiar  and  very  highly  prized  flavor.  The  celebrated  hams  and 
bacons  of  the  southern  Appalachian  ranges  were  produced  from  the  variety 
of  hogs  known  as  razor-backs  fattened  on  mast,  namely,  the  chestnut,  beech- 
nut, and  acorn.  The  beechnut  is  also  one  of  the  principal  winter  foods  of  the 
squirrel  and  other  animals  which  store  their  food  for  winter  use.  In  the 
cutting  of  the  forests  in  the  winter  often  large  stores  of  beechnuts  are  found 
stored  away  by  squirrels  and  birds.  The  beechnut  is  not  very  abundant 
upon  the  markets  of  the  country,  but  is  eaten  very  largely  by  those  who  live 
in  the  vicinity  of  beech  woods. 

Composition  of  the  Beechnut. — 


Sample. 


Fagus  Americana: 

Edible  portion,. 

As  purchased,-. 
Fagus  sylvestris: 

Edible  portion,. 

As  purchased, . . 


Refuse. 


Percent. 
40.8 


Water. 


Percent. 
4.0 

2-3 
9.1 

6.1 


Protein 


Percent. 
21.9 
13.0 

21.7 
14-5 


Fat. 


Percent. 

57-4 
34-0 

42.4 
28.4 


Total 
Carbohy- 
drates. 


Percent. 
12.2 

7.8 

22.9 
154 


Ash. 


Percent. 

3-5 


3-9 
2.6 


Calo- 
ries. 


Per  pound 
3^263 
1,932 


Brazil-nut  (Bertholletia  excelsa  Humb.  and  BonpL). — Large  quantities  of 
this  nut  are  imported  into  the  United  States  from  Brazil  and  form  an  im- 
portant article  of  food  in  many  localities.  This  nut  is  not  grown  in  the 
United  States.  It  is  also  known  as  cream  nut.  The  nut  is  triangular 
in  shape  and  has  a  dark  brown  rough  exterior.  The  kernel  is  highly  flavored 
and  quite  oily.  The  tree  is  so  sensitive  to  the  cold  that  it  will  not  grow  suc- 
cessfully even  in  southern  Florida,  although  many  attempts  have  been  made 
to  introduce  it  into  that  locality. 

Composition  of  the  Brazil-nut. — Edible  portion,  50.4;  refuse,  49.6. 


Sample. 

Refuse. 

Water. 

Protein. 

Fat. 

Total 
Carbohy- 
drates. 

Ash. 

Calo- 
ries. 

Edible  portion,     . 

Percent. 
49.6 

Percent. 

5-3 

2.7 

Percent. 

17.0 

8.6 

Percent. 
66.8 
33-6 

Percent. 
7.0 

3-5 

Percent. 

3-9 

2.0 

Per  pound 
1,678 

As  purchased, 

■ 

4l6  VEGETABLE   OILS   AND   FATS,   AND   NUTS. 

Butternut  (Juglans  cinerea  L.). — The  butternut  is  another  variety  of  walnut 
which  grows  very  extensively  in  the  United  States  and  has  the  same  geograph- 
ical distribution  as  the  walnut,  except  that  the  butternut  is  not  so  common 
west  of  the  Mississippi.  The  tree  does  not  grow  so  large  as  the  walnut 
tree,  nor  is  its  wood  so  highly  valued  for  commercial  purposes.  While  the 
walnut  is  a  round  nut  the  butternut  is  very  much  elongated,  forming  an  oval- 
shaped  nut  which  is  very  highly  valued  as  a  food.  The  coloring  matter  of 
the  butternut  is  practically  the  same  as  that  of  the  walnut.  The  butternut 
also  has  a  fleshy  outer  covering  not  so  thick  as  that  of  the  walnut  and  which 
is  removed  in  the  same  way  in  the  harvesting. 

Composition  oj  the  Dry  Butternut. — 

Edible  Portion.  As  Purchased. 

Refuse, 86.4  percent 

Water, 4.4  percent  .6       " 

Protein, 27.9       "  3.8       " 

Fat, 61.2       "  8.3       " 

Sugar,  etc., 3.5       "  .5       " 

The  Chestnut  {Castanea  dentata  (Marsh.)  Bork). — The  chestnut  tree 
grows  in  great  abundance  wild  in  the  United  States,  especially  in  the  eastern 
portion  on  the  foothills  of  the  Alleghanies.  In  some  localities  it  originally 
formed  vast  forests.  The  value  of  the  timber  and  the  fact  that  the  chestnut 
grows  only  on  good  soil  were  prominent  factors  in  the  destruction  of  many 
of  the  original  forests,  especially  those  covering  the  arable  lands.  The  trees 
still  grow  in  great  abundance,  especially  in  the  hilly  regions. 

In  France  the  chestnut  is  very  widely  grown,  and  the  nut  is  used  very  ex- 
tensively  as  food  by  the  poor  classes.  The  nuts  are  often  dried  and  ground 
to  a  flour  which  is  mixed  with  water  and  baked  in  thin  sheets,  forming  a  very 
heavy  but  a  sweet  and  nutritious  cake.  The  chestnut  is  used  in  the  prep- 
aration of  many  dishes,  prized  even  by  those  who  are  well-to-do.  In  Italy 
the  chestnut  is  also  widely  cultivated,  and  the  nut  is  ground  to  form  a  kind 
of  porridge  known  as  polenta  which  is  very  extensively  used  as  food.  In 
the  Apennines  a  cake  made  of  chestnut  flour  and  baked  on  hot  stones  is  used 
under  the  name  of  necci.  In  Corea  the  chestnut  is  said  to  be  a  very  common 
article  of  food,  taking  the  place  of  the  potato.  It  is  eaten  raw,  boiled,  roasted, 
or  cooked  with  meats.  The  chestnut  differs  from  the  oily  nuts  in  the  smaller 
proportion  of  fat  and  the  very  much  larger  proportion  of  sugar  and  starch, — 
in  fact,  starch  is  almost  missing  in  some  of  the  oily  nuts,  the  carbohydrates 
in  the  very  oily  ones  being  chiefly  sugars.  In  the  chestnut  the  starch  is  more 
abundant  than  the  sugar,  and  for  this  reason  the  chestnut  meal  is  more  like 
the  meal  of  the  ordinary  cereal  than  that  of  the  oily  seeds.  The  chestnut, 
also,  as  it  is  gathered  fresh  contains  a  great  deal  more  water  than  the  ordinary 
fresh  seeds,  the  quantity  ranging  from  40  to  50  percent. 


CHINESE   NUT.  417 

The  average  composition  of  the  fresh  chestnut,  edible  portion,  is  repre- 
sented by  the  following  data: 

Water, 42.7  percent 

Protein, ' 6.5        " 

Fat, 6.3       « 

Starch  and  sugar, 43.1        " 

Ash, 1.4       " 

The  dried  chestnuts,  that  is,  those  which  have  been  kept  for  several  months 
or  which  have  been  artificially  dried,  have  a  composition  represented  by  the 
following  data: 

Water, 4.8  percent 

.   Protein, 11.6       " 

Fat, 15.3       " 

Sugar  and  starch, 65.7       " 

Ash, 2.6       " 

The  average  weight  of  the  hull  of  the  chestnut  is  15.9  percent  of  the  total 
weight  of  the  fresh  nut,  and  23.4  percent  of  the  average  weight  of  the  dried 
nut.  The  above  data  are  confirmatory  of  the  statement  that  the  meal  of 
the  chestnut  in  its  composition  is  very  much  like  that  of  the  oily  cereals,  for 
instance,  of  Indian  corn  meal  or  oats.  It,  however,  contains  more  oil  and 
less  protein  than  the  cereals  referred  to.  It  is  readily  seen  from  the  above 
data  that  chestnut  meal  may  not  properly  take  the  place  of  Indian  corn  as 
human  food.     The  nut  of  the  chestnut  tree  ripens  at  the  time  of  frost. 

The  wild  chestnut  shrub,  which  springs  up  in  great  numbers  where  the 
the  original  trees  are  cut  away,  is  now  extensively  grafted  with  cultivated 
varieties.  In  Pennsylvania  there  are  large  orchards  of  the  Paragon  chestnut 
which  have  been  grown  in  this  manner. 

Chinese  Nut  (Nephelium  litchi  Cambess.). — This  is  not  a  true  nut  in  the 
ordinary  sense  of  the  word,  but  is  usually  classed  with  nuts.  It  is  a  product 
of  China  and  is  imported  into  the  United  States  for  consumption  by  our 
Chinese  population.  In  the  fresh  state  in  China  it  has  the  reputation  of 
being  one  of  the  best  fruit  products  of  that  country,  having  flesh  of  a  white 
color  and  a  flavor  resembling  that  of  high-grade  grapes;  41.6  percent  of 
the  fresh  nut  is  refuse  matter.  The  edible  portion  has  the  following  com- 
position: 

Water, 17.9    percent 

Protein, 2.9          " 

Fat, -     .2 

Starch  and  sugar, 77.5         " 

Ash, 1.5 

Calories  per  pound, i>4S3 

The  above  data  show  that  in  chemical  composition  the  Chinese  nut  does 
not  belong  to  the  class  of  nuts  at  all.     It  is  a  fruit,  its  nutritive  material  being 
almost  exclusively  carbohydrates,  while  in  the  true  nut  the  principal  nutritive 
substances  are  the  protein  and  the  oil. 
28 


4i8 


VEGETABLE   OILS   AND   FATS,   AND   NUTS. 


Coconut. — The  coconuts  which  are  consumed  in  the  United  States  are 
mostly  imported.  It  is  estimated  that  three  hundred  thousand  coconut  trees 
(Cocos  nucijera  L.)  have  been  planted  in  Florida,  and  from  15  to  20  percent 
of  them  are  already  bearing.  The  common  name  of  the  tree  is  the  coco- 
nut palm.  The  fruit  of  the  coconut  palm  is  used  for  many  purposes.  The 
immature  nuts  are  often  used  medicinally,  forming  the  base  of  a  valuable 
ointment  for  external  use.  The  jelly  which  lines  the  shell  of  the  more  mature 
nut  furnishes  a  food  product  of  great  delicacy  and  high  nutritive  value.  The 
milk  of  the  coconut  is  itself  highly  esteemed  as  a  delicious  article  of  food. 
Grated  coconut  is  one  of  the  basic  constituents  of  that  familiar  condimental 
substance,  East  Indian  curry.  Coconut  oil  is  a  very  highly  edible  fat  from 
which  a  butter  is  made.  The  fat  itself  is  valuable  for  cooking  purposes. 
The  composition  of  the  coconut  is  shown  in  the  following  table: 


Sample. 

Refuse. 

Water. 

Protein. 

Fat. 

Total 
Carbohy- 
drates. 

Ash. 

Calo- 
ries. • 

Edible  portion, 

As  purchased, .   .          

Percent. 
4*8.8 

Percent. 

14.I 

7.2 

Percent. 

5-7 
2.9 

P^cent. 
50.6 

259 

Percent. 
27.9 
14.3 

Percent. 

1-7 

•9 

Per  Pound 
2,986 

1,529 

The  solid  edible  portion  of  the  nut  is  highly  oleaginous  and  contains  also 
a  considerable  quantity  of  starch  and  sugar.  Coconut  milk  is  much  poorer 
in  nutrients  than  cow's  milk,  containing  over  92  percent  of  water,  only  .4 
percent  of  protein,  and  only  1.5  percent  of  fat.  The  carbohydrates  con- 
tained therein  are  chiefly  sugars. 

Filberts. — The  term  filbert,  according  to  some  etymologists,  is  a  corrup- 
tion of  the  term  "full  beard,"  and  is  so  named  on  account  of  its  having  many 
long  beards  or  husks.  The  filbert  is  the  fruit  of  the  cultivated  hazel  tree 
(Corylus  avellana  L.).  The  nut  contains  a  kernel  having  a  pleasant  taste 
and  is  quite  oily  and  nutritious.  It  is  not  cultivated  to  any  extent  in  this 
country  where  we  rely  principally  upon  the  wild  hazel  for  the  hazelnut. 
The  composition  of  the  filbert  is  shown  in  the  following  table  (edible  por- 
tion, 47.9;   refuse,  52.1): 

Edible  Portion. 

Water, 3.7  percent 

Protein, 15.6       " 

Fat, 65.3       " 

Sugar  and  starch, 13,0       " 

Ash,. 2.4       " 

Calories  per  pound, 3,432 

The  filbert  is  produced  in  large  quantities  on  the  Asiatic  shore  of  the  Black 
Sea.     The  region  of  Trebizond  is  the  most  prolific  source  of  the  filbert. 


HICKORY-NUT. 


419 


Hazelnut. — The  hazelnut  grows  on  a  small  tree  or  large  shrub  (Corylus 
avellana  L.).  The  species  which  grows  wild  in  the  United  States  is  known 
chiefly  as  Corylus  america  Walt.  It  is  from  this  shrub  that  the  common 
wild  hazelnut  is  obtained.  There  is  also  another  variety  grown  in  this 
country,  Corylus  rosirata  Ait.  The  hazelnut  is  a  small,  nutritious,  and  pala- 
table nut  of  a  brown  color  and  grows  over  a  very  large  area  of  the  United 
States,  especially  in  the  northern  part  of  the  country.  It  is  quite  an  articb 
of  commerce,  but  is  not  cultivated  to  any  great  extent.  The  cultiva4;ed 
variety,  as  has  already  been  stated,  is  known  as  the  filbert. 

Composition  of  the  Hazelnut. — 


Sample. 

Refuse. 

Water. 

Protein. 

FAT. 

Total 
Carbohy- 
drates. 

Ash.        Calo- 
ries. 

Edible  portion,              

Percent. 
52.1 

Percent. 

Percent. 
15.6 

7-5 

Perce^a. 
65.3 
31-3 

Percent. 

13.0 

6.2 

Percent. 
2.4 
I.I 

Per  pound 

3>432 
1,644 

As  purchased,          

Hickory-nut. — The  hickory-nut  is  another  one  of  the  nuts  which  sometimes 
is  classed  with  walnuts  and  grov.s  v. ild  very  extensively  throughout  the  United 
States,  having  the  same  geological  distribution  as  the  walnut  and  butternut. 
The  hickory  tree  (Hicoria  ovata  (Mill.)  Britton)  produces  a  nut  of  highest 
quality.  On  account  of  the  character  of  the  bark,  which  becomes  detached 
and  often  widely  separated  from  the  trunk,  it  is  known  as  the  shagbark  or 
shellbark  hickory. 

Another  variety  of  the  hickory  tree  is  known  as  the  pignut  (Carya  glabra). 
The  nut  produced  by  this  tree  is  much  less  prized  than  the  other  hickories, 
often  containing  a  sufficient  amount  of  tannin  to  make  it  distinctly  bitter. 
The  wood  of  the  hickory  is  very  tough  and  elastic  and  is  used  extensively  in 
the  manufacture  of  spokes  for  wagon-wheels,  axe-handles,  etc.  The  young 
hickory  trees  grow  thickly  together  and  have  a  slender  reed-like  growth.  They 
are  used  extensively  in  the  manufacture  of  hoop-poles.  The  hickory  has  suf- 
fered from  the  advance  of  the  farmer  much  in  the  same  manner  as  the  walnut 
and  other  valuable  timber  trees.  The  original  trees  have  almost  entirely  dis- 
appeared. The  young  trees  grow  vigorously  and  in  a  few  years  will  bear 
nuts,  and  in  some  localities  the  care-  and  cultivation  of  the  wild  tree  has  been 
established  for  the  purpose  of  securing  new  forests  of  nut-bearing  trees.  The 
hickory-nut  is  even  more  highly  prized  for  eating  purposes  than  the  butter- 
nut and  walnut,  but  should  be  eaten  under  the  same  conditions,  namely, 
before  the  passing  of  the  first  wanter  after  their  production.  They,  also,,  on 
account  of  their  high  content  of  oil,  tend  to  become  rancid  when  they  are 
kept  through  the  warm  summer. 


420  VEGETABLE   OILS   AND   FATS,   AND   NUTS. 

Composition  of  the  Dry  Hickory-nut. — Edible  portion,  37.8;  refuse,  62.2. 

Edible  Portion, 

Water, 3.7  percent 

Protein, 15.4       " 

Fat, 67.4       " 

Sugar  and  starch, 1 1.4       " 

Ash, 2.1       " 

Calories  per  pound, " 3,495 

Peanuts. — The  peanut  is  a  widely  cultivated  plant.  It  grows  extensively 
in  the  United  States,  and  is  especially  regarded  as  a  crop  of  high  value  in  North 
Carolina  and  Virginia.  Very  large  quantities  of  peanuts  are  grown  in  Sene- 
gal, in  Algiers,  in  Egypt,  and  in  many  other  localities. 

The  pod  containing  the  seed  grows  underground,  but  is  not  a  part  of  the 
roots,  properly  so-called.  The  pods  are  attached  by  slender  stems  to  the 
stalk  of  the  peanut,  and  may  be  regarded  as  the  seed  of  the  plant,  entering 
and  maturing  underground.  When  embedded  they  are  soon  covered  by  a 
soft  envelop  and  then  by  several  similar  coverings.  For  edible  purposes  they 
are  much  improved  by  roasting,  which  gives  them  an  aromatic,  nutty  flavor 
that  is  much  liked.  A  striking  illustration  of  the  plant  showing  the  seed- 
pods  is  given  in  the  accompanying  colored  plate. 

Peanuts  are  used  as  food  both  directly,  as  after  roasting,  and  indirectly, 
by  the  expression  of  oil,  which  after  proper  refining  is  considered  of  high  value 
for  edible  purposes.  The  oil  of  the  peanut  forms  an  edible  oil  of  rich  flavor, 
pleasant  taste,  and  high  nutritive  value.  It  is  used,  either  alone  or  mixed 
with  other  edible  oils,  notably  with  olive  oil  for  table  purposes  and  for  the 
making  of  salad  dressing.  The  residue  of  the  pressings  for  peanut  oil  are 
highly  valued  as  a  cattle  food,  containing  large  quantities  of  nitrogenous 
nutriment,  and  also  as  a  manure. 

The  composition  of  the  peanut  varies  greatly  in  different  localities.  Its 
chief  value  as  a  food  material  lies  in  the  high  percentage  of  protein  it  contains 
and  the  high  percentage  of  fat.  The  composition  of  the  typical  hulled  peanut 
is  shown  in  the  following  table: 

Water, 9.2  percent 

Protein, 25.8 

Fat  or  oil, 38.6 

Sugar,  starch,  etc., 24.4 

Insoluble  cellulose, 2.5 

Ash, 0.9 

Only  the  blossoms  which  form  on  the  lower  part  of  the  stalk  produce  the 
fruit,  since  it  is  necessary  that  the  long  stem  should  strike  the  earth  and  the 
young  fruit  penetrate  to  the  depth  of  from  five  to  six  centimeters  in  order 
that  the  fruit  may  mature.  This  method  of  penetrating  the  earth  is  shown 
very  well  in  the  colored  figure  already  mentioned. 


Peanut  (Arichide) 

From  Huilleries  Calve-Delft  (Holland) 


•^  OF  THE 

UNIVERSITY 

OF 
ALJFO^tlid 


PEANUT   BUTTER  AND   PEANOLIA.  42 1 

The  original  home  of  the  peanut  is  not  definitely  known,  but  is  supposed 
to  be  Africa.  It  was  first  described  as  occurring  on  the  American  continent 
by  Ferdinand  de  Oviedo  in  San  Domingo  in  the  beginning  of  the  i6th  century. 
It  is  now  very  generally  distributed  in  all  the  tropical  countries  in  South  Amer- 
ica, Asia,  and  Africa,  and,  as  before  described,  grows  very  well  as  far  north 
as  the  northern  boundary  of  North  Carolina  and  in  southern  Virginia.  Pea- 
nuts are  used  for  food  in  all  the  countries  mentioned  with  previous  prepara- 
tion and  roasting. 

The  above  data  show  that  the  peanut  is  a  food  product  extremely  rich  in 
oil  and  protein  and  comparatively  poor  in  carbohydrates.  For  dietetic  pur- 
poses it  should  be  eaten  with  some  highly  amylaceous  substance,  such  as 
potato,  rice,  or  tapioca. 

The  value  of  the  peanut  for  food  purposes  is  not  fully  realized  in  this  country, 
where  it  is  eaten  rather  as  a  relish  and  as  an  incident  to  the  circus  or  the  picnic. 
In  such  cases  they  are  usually  consumed  in  too  large  quantities  and  by  un- 
balancing the  ration  may  produce  unpleasant  effects  from  which  an  unrea- 
sonable prejudice  against  this  valuable  food  product  might  arise. 

Peanut  Butter. — An  oily  preparation  of  the  peanut  or  the  oil  therefrom 
deprived  of  a  part  of  its  stearin  is  known  as  peanut  butter  and  is  used  as  a  sub- 
stitute for  ordinary  butter.  What  has  been  said  of  the  nutritive  value  of  the 
oil  of  the  peanut  applies  also  to  this  product.  The  butter  has  the  peculiar 
flavor  of  the  peanut  which  is  not  agreeable  to  some  persons,  but  is  con- 
sidered extremely  palatable  by  others.  The  nuts  are  also  powdered  more  or 
less  finely  and  mixed  with  other  food  products.  Peanuts  which  grow  in 
northern  Senegambia  are  regarded  very  highly  for  the  manufacture  of  fine 
salad  oil,  and  peanut  oil  is  used  extensively  for  this  purpose. 

Peanut  Butter  and  Peanolia. — Peanut  butter  and  peanolia  are  used  to 
a  considerable  extent  in  the  United  States  as  food  products.  They  are  pre- 
pared from  peanuts,  properly  roasted,  ground  to  a  fine  powder,  and  mixed 
with  an  appropriate  quantity  of  salt.  The  analyses  of  the  samples  of  these 
products,  made  in  the  Connecticut  Agricultural  Experiment  Station,  show 
the  following  composition: 

Peanut  Butter.        Peanolia. 

Water, 2.10  1.98 

Protein, 28.66  29.94 

Fat, 46.41  46.68 

Sugar  and  dextrin,.. 6.13  5.63 

Starch, 6.15  5.58 

Insoluble  cellulose, 2.30  2.10 

Common  salt, 3.23  4.95 

Ash, 80  1.08 

The  above  analyses  show  that  the  preparations  are  produced  from  the  roasted 
peanuts,  which  process  reduces  the  water  to  about  2  percent.     The  ground, 


422 


VEGETABLE   OILS   AND   FATS,    AND*   NUTS. 


roasted  product  is  mixed  with  about  4  percent  of  common  salt.  The  other 
constituents  are  the  same  as  those  of  the  peanuts  from  which  the  preparations 
were  made.  Of  the  carbohydrate  content  of  the  peanut  about  4  percent  has 
been  found  to  be  pentosans. 


Fig.  58.— Pecan  Tree,  30  Years  Old,  Morgan  City,  "Lk.— {Courtesy  of  H.  E.  Van  Deman.) 

Where  Peanuts  are  Grown. — Virginia  is  one  of  the  most  important  of 
the  peanut-growing  states,  especially  in  its  southeastern  portion.  The  Com- 
missioner of  Agriculture  of  Virginia  reports  that  about  one  hundred  thou- 
sand acres  are  planted  annually  in  the  state  of  Virginia,  producing  over  four 


WHERE   PEANUTS   ARE   GROWN. 


423 


million  bushels.     Fifty  bushels  per  acre  is  considered  a  good  average  yield. 
An  important  point  in  the  production  of  good  peanuts  is  the  selection  of  the 


O  S 
w  « 

^1 


seeds.     The  most  vigorous  and  well  formed  kernels  are  to  be  selected  for 
planting,  and  especially  those  that  are  produced  by  plants  of  identical  size  and 


424  VEGETABLE   OILS   AND   FATS,   AND   NUTS. 

shape.  By  a  selection  of  this  kind  the  quality  of  the  crop  can  be  greatly  im- 
proved. 

One  of  the  peculiarities  of  the  peanut  is  that  it  is  an  underground  legume. 
All  other  leguminous  fruits  mature  above  the  soil.  Its  underground  habitat 
is  the  reason  for  its  botanical  name,  hypogaea.  If  the  stem  carrying  the  small, 
yellow,  butterfly-shaped  flowers,  which  springs  from  the  axis  of  the  branch 
above  the  ground,  fails  to  reach  the  soil  no  fruit  is  formed.  If  the  soil  is 
properly  cultivated  the  germ  may  penetrate  of  its  own  accord.  However, 
art  assists  nature  in  this  matter  and  covers  up  the  pods  so  as  to  give  them 
a  better  start.  The  peanut,  like  some  other  leguminous  crops,  develops 
nodules  upon  its  roots  in  which  the  bacteria  that  assimilate  free  nitrogen 
live  in  symbiotic  union  with  the  plant  itself. 

Pecan-nut  {Hicoria  pecan  (Marsh.)  Britton;  Carya  olivcBJormis  Nuttall). 
— The  pecan  is  a  nut  which  is  very  much  valued  and  grows,  with  a  most  excel- 
lent flavor,  in  the  southern  part  of  the  United  States.  Texas,  Louisiana, 
southern  Alabama,  Mississippi,  Georgia,  and  Florida  are  the  principal  regions 
where  the  pecan  grows,  although  it  is  cultivated  in  some  instances  much 
further  north. 

The  pecan  belongs  to  the  same  family  as  the  hickory-nut  and  is  indigenous 
to  the  United  States.  It  grows  wild  over  a  large  area,  extending  from  south- 
ern Illinois  and  Indiana  to  the  Gulf.  It  often  forms  very  large  trees  in  the 
forests.  There  are  several  species  of  Hicoria.  The  fruit  of  the  pecan 
is  especially  valued  on  account  of  the  thinness  of  the  shell  and  its  extremely 
pleasant  and  aromatic  flavor.  As  is  the  case  with  most  nuts,  it  is  composed 
chiefly  of  oil  and  proteids,  the  sugar  and  starch  being  in  minute  proportions. 
The  composition  of  the  fruit  of  the  pecan,  when  divested  of  its  hard  shell, 
is  given  in  the  following  table: 

Edible  Portion. 

Water, 2.9    percent 

Protein, 10.3  " 

Fat, 70.8 

Sugar,  starch,  etc., 14.3  " 

Ash, 1.7 

Calories  per  pound, 3)445 

For  marketing  purposes  the  pecans  are  now  largely  grown  in  orchards,  as 
the  supply  of  the  wild  nut  is  uncertain,  and  its  texture  and  flavor  are  not  so 
fine  as  the  cultivated  variety.  The  cultivated  variety  may  also  be  grafted 
upon  the  wild  tree  with  good  effects.  The  tree  begins  to  bear  at  four  or  five 
years  of  age.  A  comparative  appearance  of  the  wild  and  cultivated  nut  is 
shown  in  the  accompanying  Fig.  59.  The  tree,  when  fuU  grown,  is  handsome 
in  appearance,  and  is  valued  as  a  shade  tree  as  well  as  a  fruit  producer.  The 
full  grown  tree  is  shown  in  the  accompanying  Figs.  58  and  60. 

Pine-nuts. — In  many  portions  of  the  western  part  of  our  country  pine- 


PECAN-NUT. 


425 


nuts  are  consumed  largely  as  food.  There  are  several  species  of  pines  yield- 
ing edible  nuts  on  the  Pacific  coast  of  the  United  States  and  as  far  east  as 
Colorado  and  New  Mexico.     These  nuts  are  articles  of  considerable  impor- 


FlG.  60.— Full  Grown  Pecan  T^kk.— {By  permission  Field  Columbian  Museum.) 


tance  in  the  commerce  of  many  of  the  cities  of  California.  The  principal 
specimens  of  pine  which  yield  edible  nuts  are  Pinus  fnonophylla  Torr. 
and  Frem.,  Pinus  edulis  Engelm.,  Pinus  sabiniana  Dougl.  The  refuse  is 
usually  less  than  50  percent  of  the  total  weight  of  the  nut. 


426  VEGETABLE   OILS   AND   FATS,   AND   NUTS. 

Composition  oj  the  Edible  Portion.— 


Botanical  Name. 


Pinus  monophylla , 

"       edulis, 

"       sabiniana... 


Water. 

Protein. 

Fat. 

60.7 
61.9 
53-7 

Starch 

AND 

Sugar. 

Ash. 

3-8 
3-4 
-5-1 

6-5 
14.6 
28.1 

26.2 

17-3 
8.4 

2.8 
2.8 
4-7 

Calories 

Per 

Pound. 


3.327 
3,364 
3,161 


Pistachio. — ^The  nut  of  the  pistachio  [Pistachia  vera)  is  used  very  largely 
for  flavoring  purposes  ^and  also'  for  food.  The  tree  is  a  native  of  Syria  but 
has  been  cultivated  in  southern  Europe  for  many  years.  The  nut  produced 
in  America,  though  larger  than  the  native  S3Tian  fruit,  is  not  considered 
so  palatable.  The  pistachio  is  also  grown  to  some  extent  in  the  southern  part 
of  the  United  States  as  well  as  in  California.  The  kernel  of  the  fruit  is  green 
in  color  and  has  a  flavor  which  in  some  respects  is  reminiscent  of  almonds.  It 
is  used  chiefly  in  this  country  in  the  manufacture  of  confectionery  and  ice 
creams. 

Composition  oj  the  Pistachio. — 

Edible  Portion. 

Water, 4.2    percent 

Protein, 22.3  " 

Fat, 54. 

Starch  and  sugar, 16.^  " 

Ash, 3.2 

Calories  per  pound, 3,235 

Walnuts  {Jiiglans  nigra  L.). — The  American  walnut  grows  wild  over  a  very 
large  portion  of  the  country,  especially  the  middle  section  west  of  Maryland  to 
the  Missi.ssippi  river.  The  walnut  tree  is  especially  abundant  along  the 
Ohio  river,  where  it  forms  in  the  early  summer  a  dense  foliage.  The  trees 
often  attain  a  very  great  size,  reaching  a  diameter  as  great  as  five  feet. 

The  walnut  trees  grow  only  on  rich  soil,  hence,  unless  the  country  was  very 
hilly  and  unsuitable  for  cultivation,  the  walnut  forests  were  the  first  to  fall  before 
the  axe  of  the  pioneer.  Later  the  demand  for  walnut  lumber  completed  the 
devastation  of  the  walnut  forests,  until  now  very  often  in  the  regions  where  fifty 
years  ago  the  trees  were  extremely  abundant  a  large  walnut  tree  is  rarely 
seen.  The  walnut  lumber  has  peculiar  lasting  powers,  and  on  account  of  its 
natural  color  and  grain  is  of  the  highest  value  for  building  and  ornamental 
purposes.  The  early  farmers  in  the  Ohio  valley  made  their  rail  fences  out  of 
walnut  trees.  The  wild  nut  grows  in  a  dense  kernel  and  is  covered  with 
a  thick  pericarp  which  is  green  even  at  the  time  when  the  fruit  is  ripe.  After  a 
frost  when  the  fruit  naturally  falls  from  the  trees  the  outer  covering  disintegrates. 
When  the  nuts  are  gathered  by  boys  the  outer  covering  is  usually  beaten  off 
with  clubs.     It  contains  a  coloring  matter  of  a  brown  or  brownish-black  tint 


GENERAL   DISCUSSION.  427 

which  the  early  housewives  used  for  dying  homespun  cloth.  The  bark  of  the 
tree  also  contains  to  a  greater  or  less  extent  the  same  coloring  matter.  The 
kernel  of  the  walnut,  that  is,  the  edible  portion,  is  extremely  rich  in  oil  and  pro- 
tein and  has  a  very  pleasant  taste.  Like  other  nuts  the  walnut  is  best  during  its 
first  winter,  since  on  longer  keeping  the  oil  tends  to  become  rancid  and  the  fruit 
unpalatable. 

White  Walnut  {Juglans  regia  L.) . — The  white  walnut,  commonly  known  as 
the  English  walnut,  is  grown  very  extensively  in  France.  All  the  departments 
of  south  central  and  southeastern  France  grow  these  walnuts  as  a  valued  crop. 
The  best  walnut  orchards  are  at  an  altitude  of  from  600  to  900  feet.  Only  the 
outer  or  exposed  limbs  produce  perfect  nuts.  In  planting  the  most  important 
precaution  is  to  give  the  trees  plenty  of  room,  15  yards  is  about  the  usual  dis- 
tance at  which  they  are  planted.  The  trees  are  cultivated  and  fertilized  with 
manure  and  commercial  fertilizers  every  two  or  three  years.  A  bearing  or- 
chard of  these  white  walnuts  in  France  is  worth  from  four  to  five  hundred  dol- 
lars per  acre  and  may  yield  a  revenue  of  from  seventy-five  to  one  hundred 
dollars  a  year  per  acre.  The  nuts  ripen  from  the  middle  of  September  to  the 
end  of  October.  These  nuts  are  used  largely  in  America  as  a  food,  for 
which  purpose  the  kernels  are  carefully  extracted  in  halves,  commonly  known 
as  "walnut  halves."  In  France  an  excellent  table  oil  is  expressed  from  the 
dry  nut  which  for  many  culinary  purposes  is  valued  as  highly  as  olive  oil. 
After  extraction  the  oil  cake  is  used  for  stock  food.  The  white  walnut  is 
supposed  to  have  been  originally  introduced  from  Persia,  though  it  is  com- 
monly known  as  the  English  walnut.  In  the  United  States  the  butternut  tree 
is  commonly  known  as  the  white  walnut. 

The  composition  of  the  kernel  of  the  dry  w^alnut  is  shown  by  the  following 
data: 

Edible  portion: 

Water, 2.5  percent 

Protein, 16.6       " 

Fat, 63.4       " 

Total  carbohydrates, 16.  i        " 

Ash, 1.4       " 

As  purchased: 

Refuse, 58.  i  percen 

Water, i  .0 

Protein, 7.0 

Fat, 26.6 

Total  carbohydrates, 6.7 

Ash, 6 

General  Discussion. — A  brief  description  has  been  given  above  of  the 
principal  edible  nuts  used  in  the  United  States,  accompanied  by  a  statement 
of  their  chemical  composition.    The  character  of  these  food  products  is  well 


428  VEGETABLE   OILS   AND   FATS,    AND   NUTS. 

shown  by  the  analytical  data.  Nuts  as  a  whole  are  extremely  oily  substances 
and  contain  next  in  importance  as  a  food  material,  protein.  Alone  they 
constitute  an  unbalanced  ration  in  which  the  fat  and  protein  are  abundantly 
present  at  the  expense  of  the  starch  and  sugar.  For  this  reason  an  exclu- 
sively nut  diet  cannot  be  recommended,  as  it  surely  tends  to  unbalance  the 
ratio  and  to  disturb  the  digestion  in  the  great  majority  of  cases.  There 
are  doubtless  individuals  of  a  peculiar  temperament  who  can  thrive  on  a 
diet  of  nuts  alone,  but  such  a  case  is  exceptional.  On  the  other  hand  the 
value  of  the  nut  as  a  food  is  undeniable,  both  as  a  nutrient  and  as  a 
pleasant  condimental  addition  to  the  food.  The  large  percentage  of  oil  in 
nuts  also  in  many  cases  is  beneficial  from  the  well-known  effect  of  oil  in  pro- 
moting the  digestive  activities,  mechanical  and  otherwise.  Nuts  should  be 
eaten  in  as  fresh  a  state  as  possible,  especially  those  of  a  highly  oily  character. 
Rancidity  not  only  spoils  the  taste  but  interferes  largely  with  their  dietetic 
value.  On  account  of  the  high  amount  of  oil,  nuts  are  preeminently  a  heat- 
forming  food  and  thus  can  be  eaten  very  freely  by  those  engaged  in  vigorous 
bodily  exercise  and  during  cold  weather.  They  also  form  a  food  especially 
useful  during  periods  of  extreme  exertion,  since  by  their  combustion  they 
furnish  abundant  stores  of  heat  and  energy. 

Many  fads  relating  to  foods  flourish  in  various  localities.  Among  them 
the  school  of  dietetics,  which  advises  a  diet  solely  of  nuts,  is  worthy  of  men- 
tion. It  is  true  that  life  can  be  sustained  for  an  indefinite  time  on  a  diet  of 
nuts  alone.  If  the  nuts  are  sought  in  the  forests  and  fields  the  good  effects  of 
the  exercise  and  outdoor  life  are  to  be  taken  into  consideration.  There  is  no 
reason  to  believe,  however,  that  the  general  condition  of  mankind,  from  a 
dietetic  point  of  view,  would  be  improved  by  an  exclusive  nut  diet.  The  im- 
possibility of  supplying  man  with  such  a  food  product  is  also  a  factor  in  the 
discussion  of  the  problem  that  should  not  be  forgotten. 

Food  Fads  Self-limiting. — Nearly  all  the  vagaries  relating  to  diet  are 
self-corrective.  Should  the  human  family  suddenly  adopt  as  a  sole  diet  any  of 
the  articles  so  enthusiastically  advertised  by  their  partisans,  these  articles 
would  at  once  so  increase  in  price  as  to  be  beyond  the  reach  of  all  but  the  very 
rich.  The  choice  for  the  masses  would  then  be  between  the  adherence  to  a 
theory  or  starvation.  That  many  people  would  willingly  starve  for  devotion  to 
a  principle  is  well  attested  by  historical  facts.  But  few  would  be  found  to 
keep  the  faith.  We  are,  therefore,  content  to  receive  the  good  which  most  of 
these  theories  contain  and  feel  no  concern  as  to  ultimate  injury  to  the  race. 

It  is  a  matter  of  surprise,  however,  to  find  that  the  greater  the  vagary  in  a  food 
fad  the  more  extensive  the  vogue.  The  appeal  of  the  extreme  to  the  human 
imagination  seems  at  times  quite  irresistible.  Sooner  or  later,  however,  the 
errant  knight  returns  to  reason  and  common  sense. 


PART  Vill. 

FUNGI  AS  FOODS. 


Mushrooms. — Certain  fungi  growing  wild  cr  in  cultivated  soils  and 
having  an  expanded  top  on  a  hooded  stem  are  known  as  mushrooms.  The 
common  form  of  mushroom  (Agaricus  campestris  L.)  grows  wild  over  a  large 
portion  of  the  United  States.  It  is  especially  abundant  in  the  autunm,  grow- 
ing sometimes  during  the  night  after  a  warm  rain,  over  large  areas.  When 
properly  cooked  it  forms  a  delicious  food  and  condimental  substance,  highly 
prized  by  connoisseurs  and  others.  Belonging  to  the  family  of  mushrooms, 
however,  are  many  poisonous  varieties  which,  when  eaten  inadvertently, 
often  cause  serious  illness  and  sometimes  death.  For  this  reason  mushrooms 
sold  in  the  open  market  should  be  carefully  inspected  by  experts  authorized 
to  see  that  the  poisonous  varieties  are  excluded.  It  not  only  requires  a  good 
botanist,  but  also  one  skilled  in  the  practical  differentiation  of  the  different 
varieties  by  physical  appearance  rather  than  by  botanical  analysis,  to  properly 
separate  the  poisonous  from  the  edible  varieties. 

Historical. — Mushrooms  have  been,  since  historical  times,  extensively 
used  as  human  food.  In  a  book  written  five  centuries  before  the  Christian 
era,  Athenee,  in  his  "  Banquet  of  Learned  Men, "  speaks  of  the  poisoning  of 
a  mother  and  her  three  children  by  mushrooms.  Hippocrates  speaks  of  a 
girl  who  had  been  poisoned  by  mushrooms  and  who  was  cured  by  the  admin- 
istration of  hot  honey  and  by  a  hot  bath.  Theophrastes  and  Nicandre  also 
speak  of  mushrooms  and  the  poisoning  that  occurs  therefrom.  Both  Cicero 
and  Horace  make  reference  to  mushrooms.  Horace  advises  that  Epicureans 
should  confine  themselves  to  the  mushrooms  that  grow  upon  meadows  and 
refuse  to  eat  all  others  on  account  of  the  danger  from  poisoning.  Ovid  also 
makes  frequent  allusions  to  mushrooms  and  speaks  of  the  influence  of  warm 
rains  upon  their  growth.  Tacitus  refers  to  the  use  of  mushrooms  for  food, 
and  Suetonius,  in  his  "History  of  the  Twelve  Caesars,"  relates  that  the  Em- 
peror Claudius  was  poisoned  by  a  dish  of  mushrooms.  It  is,  therefore,  evi- 
dent that  from  the  earliest  times  mushrooms  were  extensively  used  and 
the  poisonous  properties  of  some  of  the  varieties  understood. 

Production  of  Mushrooms. — As  has  already  been  mentioned,  mushrooms 
grow  wild  over  a  large  area  of  the  United  States.  They  are  also  cultivated 
very  extensively,  though  not  to  so  great  an  extent  as  in  European  countries. 

429 


430  FUNGI   AS    FOODS. 

The  best  place  for  growing  cultivated  mushrooms  is  one  where  the  light  is 
excluded  or  diffused  and  where  the  temperature  remains  reasonably  constant. 
Cellars*,  caves,  and  the  artificial  caverns  made  by  quarrying  are  peculiarly 
well  suited  for  the  growth  of  different  varieties  of  fungi,  such  as  mush- 
rooms.    They  grow  well  in  some  localities  in  uncovered  beds. 

The  art  of  growing  mushrooms  is  not  easily  acquired.  The  directions 
given  by  the  best  authorities  may  be  rigidly  followed  and  failure  ensue.  The 
skill  of  the  grower  appears  to  be  largely  intuitive  and  those  who  have  it  succeed 
where  theoretical  knowledge  fails.  For  cultural  purposes,  the  Agaricus 
campestris  is  most  universally  employed. 

Soil. — The  soil  best  suited  for  the  growth  of  mushrooms  is  one  rich  in 
decayed  or  decaying  vegetable  matter.  Mushrooms  are  often  found  grow- 
ing in  locaHties  where  a  log  or  stump  has  decayed  or  where  the  inorganic 
matter  from  the  manure  of  cattle  or  horses  has  been  distributed  on  the  soil. 
Artificial  beds  for  the  growth  of  mushrooms  are  made  up  largely  of  organic 
manurial  substances. 

Spores. — Mushrooms  are  grown  from  spores.  The  mushroom  produces 
a  brown  powdery  material  which  consists  of  almost  innumerable  simple  cells 
of  ovate  shape  to  which  the  term  "spore"  has  been  applied.  A  spore  is 
not  in  the  strict  sense  of  the  word  a  seed,  but  simply  a  cell  which  by  prolifera- 
tion produces  the  new  fungus.  Generally  growers  do  not  use  these  spores 
directly  in  seeding  mushroom  beds.  Each  complete  spore,  however,  is,  under 
favorable  conditions,  capable  of  proliferation  or  germination,  producing  a 
thread-like  growth  of  a  spider-web  character  which  penetrates  through  the 
soil,  prepared  and  manured,  upon  which  a  spore  is  gerrpinated.  This  spider- 
web-like  growth,  in  the  common  language  of  mushroom  growers,  is  called 
the  spawn,  more  properly  called  the  mycelium  of  the  mushroom.  When 
the  conditions  are  favorable,  there  are  formed  on  the  threads  of  this  mycelium 
small  nodules,  which  are  the  earlier  stages  of  the  complete  fungus  itself.  From 
the  beginning  of  this  growth  until  the  final  production  of  the  mushroom 
two  or  three  days  or  even  a  week  may  elapse.  The  earlier  periods  of  this 
growth  take  place  under  ordinary  circumstances,  but  the  advent  of  a 
warm  rain  or  other  extremely  favorable  conditions  causes  the  budding  mush- 
room to  grow  at  an  enormously  rapid  rate.  The  mushroom  may  not  be 
said  to  have  a  root,  stem,  and  leaf,  as  is  the  case  with  an  ordinary  green  plant, 
but  is  practically  a  single  organism,  assuming  different  shapes  which  are 
represented  by  the  different  varieties  and  species  of  growth. 

Differing  Varieties  oj  Edible  Mushrooms. — There  is  a  very  large  variety 
of  edible  mushrooms  differing  in  form,  size,  and  shape  from  the  Agaricus 
campestris.  In  the  Washingtoh  markets  there  are  four  principal  kinds  of 
mushrooms  which  are  found  growing  wild  in  the  vicinity  of  the  city.  These 
comprise  the  common  mushroom — Agaricus  campestris^  the  horse  mushroom — 


MUSHROOMS.  431 

Agaricus  arvensis,  shaggy  mushroom — Coprinus  comatus,  and  the  puff-ball — 
Lycoperdon  cyathijorme. 

Conditions  of  Growth. — The  proper  shed  or  cellars  having  been  selected, 
the  first  thing  to  do  is  to  see  that  the  temperature  is  favorable  to  the  growth 
of  the  fungi.  Temperatures  above  60  degrees  F.,  or  below  50  degrees  F., 
are  not  favorable  to  the  growth.  The  best  temperatures  are  from  55  to  58 
degrees.  The  locality  where  the  mushrooms  are  grown  should  be  kept  very 
damp  and  the  air  highly  saturated  with  aqueous  vapor.  The  reason  that 
mushrooms  grow  best  in  covered  places,  such  as  has  been  mentioned,  is  due 
to  the  particularly  favorable  influence  which  the  even  temperature  mentioned 
and  a  practically  saturated  atmosphere  have  upon  the  growth.  In  locali- 
ties where  the  changes  of  temperature  are  not  very  severe,  mushrooms  grow 
very  well  in  the  open.  In  the  county  of  Kent,  England,  I  have  seen  mush- 
rooms growing  in  the  open  garden,  where,  by  covering  with  straw,  they  flourish 
during  the  greater  part  of  the  year.  In  the  winter  time  the  temperature 
may  be  kept  quite  even  by  the  covering  so  as  to  yield  abundant  crops,  while  in 
the  months  of  August,  September,  and  October  they  grow  in  the  open  in  great 
abundance. 

Preparation  oj  Seed  Bed. — The  seed  bed  for  the  growth  of  mushrooms, 
as  has  already  been  indicated,  is  made  principally  of  well  decayed  stable 
or  stall  manure.  The  manure  must  be  well  fermented,  thoroughly  disin- 
tegrated, and  exposed  for  a  sufficient  length  of  time  to  be  in  the  proper  condi- 
tion. Mushrooms  cannot  be  obtained  until  the  heat  attending  the  fermen- 
tation of  manure  has  entirely  disappeared. 

Directions  for  growing  mushrooms  cannot  be  given  here,  but  those  who 
are  intending  to  enter  the  business  should  consult  the  best  authorities  and 
begin  in  a  small  w^ay  until  they  acquire  the  necessary  skill  before  commercial 
success  can  be  obtained. 

Growth  oj  Mushrooms  in  France. — Perhaps  in  no  country  has  the  culti- 
vation of  mushrooms  been  carried  to  such  a  large  extent  as  in  France.  The 
principal  industries  in  France  are  confined  to  those  regions  where  artificial 
caves  have  been  made  by  the  quarrying  of  building  stone.  The  most  exten- 
sive caverns  of  this  kind  exist  in  the  neighborhood  of  Paris,  near  Bordeaux, 
and  particularly  in  the  neighborhood  of  Sceaux.  These  artificial  caverns 
are  often  miles  in  extent  and  furnish  exceptionally  favorable  opportunities 
for  the  growth  of  mushrooms.  The  soils  or  manures  on  which  they  are  grown 
must  be  carried  into  these  caverns,  and  experience  has  shown  that  mushrooms 
do  not  continue  to  grow  well  in  the  same  locality,  and,  therefore,  the  place 
of  growth  must  be  moved  from  time  to  time  to  different  parts  of  the  caves. 
The  galleries  of  these  abandoned  quarries  are  sometimes  of  enormous  extent 
and  are  from  30  to  150  feet  below  the  surface.  They  are  generally  from  seven 
to  ten  feet  high,  but  occasionally  so  low  that  a  man  cannot  stand  upright  in 


432 


FUNGI   AS   FOODS. 


them.  In  general  they  are  wide  enough  for  two  rows  of  beds  with  a  foot 
way  1 8  inches  wide  in  the  center.  Where  a  mushroom  bed  has  been  well 
prepared  and  properly  seeded,  it  produces  about  six  pounds  of  mushrooms 
per  square  yard.  These  mushrooms  bring,  in  the  market,  an  average  of 
about  15  cents  per  pound.  It  is  stated  by  some  authorities  that  the  reason 
the  bed  ceases  to  bear  after  a  time  and  has  to  be  abandoned  or  moved  is 
not  because  of  the  exhaustion  of  the  food  but  is  due  to  the  ravages  of  an  insect 
or  fly  which  produces  a  worm  which  is  fatal  to  the  growth  of  the  fungus. 
At  any  rate,  it  is  customary  to  abandon  the  beds  after  they  have  been  bearing 
for  six  or  eight  months  and  to  return  to  them  after  a  year,  when  they  are  found 
to  again  be  productive. 

It  is  not  expected  that  the  general  consumer  will  become  an  expert  in 
the  selection  of  mushrooms.  Where  mushrooms  are  exposed  in  a  public 
market,  it  is  the  duty  of  the  municipal  officers  in  charge  of  food  products  to  see 
to  it  that  poisonous  varieties  are  not  exposed  for  sale.  It  will  be  of  value, 
however,  to  the  reader  to  have  some  idea  of  the  general  shape  of  some  of 
the  more  common  edible  and  poisonous  varieties.  It  is  generally  supposed 
that  mushrooms,  toadstools,  and  puff-balls  are  entirely  distinct  species  and 
that  only  the  mushroom,  so-called,  is  edible.  On  the  contrary,  there  are 
many  edible  toadstools  and  many  edible  puff-balls,  and  all  three  classes  of 
fungi  belong  to  the  same  general  family. 

Food  Value  of  Mushrooms. — The  nutritive  value  of  mushrooms  is  not 
exceptionally  high,  although  there  is  a  popular  opinion  to  the  contrary.  Fre- 
quently it  has  been  stated  that  the  mushroom  in  the  vegetable  world  holds 
a  similar  position  to  beefsteak  among  meats,  being  particularly  rich  in  diges- 
tible protein.  The  analytical  data  which  have  been  collected  from  numerous 
sources  on  the  composition  of  mushrooms  do  riot  bear  out  this  popular  impres- 
sion, but,  on  the  contrary,  show  that  the  mushroom  is  a  food  product  consisting 
very  largely  of  water  and  of  only  very  small  quantities  of  protein,  fat,  and 
carbohydrates. 

The  composition  of  some  of  the  common  mushrooms  is  shown  in  the  fol- 
lowing table  (Farmers'  Bulletin,  No.  79,  Mushrooms  as  Food) : 


Q    • 

9 
0  , 

i 

Kind. 

!2 

1. 

2  w 
go 

SS5 

r 

(2 

1 

i 

i 
< 

Common  mushroom, 

91.30 

0.60 

0.36 

0.24 

3-75 

0.20 

3-50 

0.80 

0.50 

ShacTErv  Coorinus 

92.19 
92.31 
89-54 

.49 

•  -15 

.30 

281 

.26 

1.40 

•57 
.72 
.91 

.98 
1.29 
1.08 

Inkv  Coorinus           .        ... 

2.25 
3.06 

.24 
•50 

Common  Morel,           

•37 

.12 

1.60 

MUSHROOMS.  433 

These  data  may  be  compared  with  the  composition  of  the  beefsteak: 

Water, 62.5  percent 

Protein, 19.5        " 

Fat, 1 7.0 

jr\  Ash, i.o        " 

From  the  above  data  it  is  seen  that  the  mushroom  does  not  contain  anything 
like  the  amount  of  protein  found  in  beefsteak.  It  has  one-third  more  water, 
■one-sixth  as  much  protein,  and  only  one-fortieth  as  much  fat.  Beefsteak 
contains  no  carbohydrates  except  less  than  one  percent  of  glycogen,  while  the 
amount  of  carbohydrates  in  the  mushroom  varies  from  1.5  to  3.5  percent. 
It  is  evident  that  the  mushroom  is  principally  valuable  as  a  condimental 
substance  and  not  as  a  food  product. 

Distinction  between  Poisonous  and  Edible  Varieties. — It  has  already  been 
stated  that  only  the  expert  is  able  to  distinguish  between  the  poisonous  var- 
ieties of  mushrooms  and  those  that  are  edible.  Even  the  skilled  botanist, 
as  well  as  the  expert,  may  sometimes  make  mistakes  in  this  matter.  Hence 
the  only  perfectly  sure  method  of  protection  against  the  poisonous  varieties 
is  the  eating  of  only  those  which  are  cultivated  and  which  are  known  to  be 
free  of  poisonous  properties.  On  the  other  hand,  the  wild  variety,  by  many 
connoisseurs,  is  much  more  highly  valued  as  being  more  delicate  and  pala- 
table. It  should  also  be  remembered  that  the  cultivation  of  mushrooms 
is  not  very  widely  extended,  and  if  the  supply  of  the  wild  variety  should  be 
excluded  there  would  be  a  great  diminution  of  the  quantity  which  is  accessible 
to  the  consumer.  This  would  be  an  especial  hardship  in  the  United  States, 
where  mushrooms  grow  wild  over  such  wide  areas  and  so  abundantly  and 
where  the  cultivation  of  them  as  compared  with  some  other  coimtries  is- 
somewhat  restricted.  There  are  some  general  characteristics  by  means  of 
which  a  distinction  can  be  made  between  the  edible  and  the  poisonous  varieties. 

The  following  rules  are  given  for  the  rejection  of  the  probably  poisonous 
mushroom  by  George  Francis  Atkinson  ("  Studies  of  American  Fungi — 1900  ") : 
*'  In  the  selection  of  mushrooms  to  eat,  great  caution  should  be  employed  by 
those  who  are  not  reasonably  familiar  with  the  means  of  determination  of 
the  species,  or  those  who  have  not  an  intimate  acquaintance  with  certain 
forms.  Rarely  should  the  beginner  be  encouraged  to  eat  them  upon  his 
own  determination.  It  is  best  at  first  to  consult  someone  who  knows  or  to 
send  first  specimens  away  for  determination,  though  in  many  cases  a  careful 
comparison  of  the  plant  with  the  figures  and  descriptions  given  in  this  book 
will  enable  a  novice  to  recognize  it.  In  taking  up  a  species  for  the  first  time 
it  would  be  well  to  experiment  cautiously." 

No  Certain  Rule  to  Distinguish  the  Poisonous  from  the  Edible. — "There  is 
no  test  like  the  '  silver-spoon  test '  which  will  enable  one  to  tell  the  poisonous 
mushroom  from  the  edible  ones.     Nor  is  the  presence  of  the  so-called  *  death- 
29 


434  FUNGI   AS   FOODS. 

cup'  a  sure  sign  that  the  fungus  is  poisonous,  for  Amanita  cccsarea  has 
this  cup.  For  the  beginner,  however,  there  are  certain  general  rules,  which, 
if  carefully  followed,  will  enable  him  to  avoid  the  poisonous  ones,  while  at 
the  same  time  necessarily  excluding  many  edible  ones. 

"  I  St. — Reject  all  fungi  which  have  begun  to  decay,  or  which  are  infested 
with  larvae. 

"  2d. — Reject  all  fungi  when  in  the  button  stage,  since  the  characters  are 
not  yet  shown  which  enable  one  to  distinguish  the  genera  and  species.  But- 
tons in  pasture  lands  which  are  at  the  surface  of  the  ground,  and  not  deep- 
seated  in  the  soil,  would  very  likely  not  belong  to  any  of  the  very  poisonous 
kinds. 

"  3d. — Reject  all  fungi  which  have  a  cup  or  sac-like  envelope  at  the  base 
of  the  stem,  or  which  have  a  scaly  or  closely  fitting  layer  at  the  base  of  the 
stem  and  rather  loose  warts  on  the  pileus,  especially  if  the  gills  are  white. 
A  manita  cccsarea,  however,  has  a  sac-like  envelope  at  the  base  of  the  stem  and 
yellow  gills  as  well  as  a  yellow  cap,  and  is  edible.  Amanita  ruhescens  has 
remnants  of  a  scaly  envelope  on  the  base  of  the  stem  and  loose  warts  on  the 
cap,  and  the  flesh,  where  wounded,  becomes  reddish.     It  is  edible. 

"4th. — Reject  all  fungi  with  a  milky  juice  unless  the  juice  is  reddish.  Sev- 
eral species  with  copious  white  milk,  sweet  or  mild  to  the  taste,  are  edible. 

"  5th. — Reject  very  brittle  fungi  with  gills  nearly  all  of  equal  length  where 
the  flesh  of  the  cap  is  thin,  especially  those  with  bright  caps. 

"  6th. — Reject  all  Boleti  in  which  the  fiesh  changes  color  where  bruised  or 
cut,  or  those  in  which  the  tubes  have  reddish  mouths,  also  those  the  taste 
of  which  is  bitter.  Strohilomyces  strohilaceus  (Scop.)  Berk,  changes  color 
when  cut,  and  is  edible. 

"  7th. — Reject  fungi  which  have  a  cobwebby  veil  or  ring  when  young,  and 
those  with  slimy  caps  and  clay-colored  spores. 

"  In  addition,  proceed  cautiously  in  all  cases,  and  make  it  a  point  to  become 
very  familiar  with  a  few  species  first,  and  gradually  extend  the  range  of  species 
rather  than  attempt  the  first  season  to  eat  a  large  number  of  different  kinds. 
All  puff-balls  are  edible  so  long  as  they  are  white  inside,  though  some  are 
better  than  others.     All  coral-like  or  club  fungi  are  edible." 

Popular  Distinction  between  Toadstools  and  Mushrooms. — There  is  a  general 
opinion  that  the  toadstool  is  poisonous  and  the  mushroom  is  not.  There 
is,  however,  no  scientific  distinction  between  the  two  kinds  of  fungi,  popularly 
known  as  toadstools  and  mushrooms.  The  distinction  is  purely  an  arbitrary 
one.  The  small  toadstools  are  often  as  delicious  and  as  harmless  as  the  small 
mushroom.  The  small  mushroom,  on  the  other  hand,  may  be  as  deadly 
and  as  undesirable  as  the  worst  specimen  of  toadstool.  There  is  danger 
especially  to  two  classes  of  people  in  the  discrimination  between  the  poisonous 
and  edible  varieties  of  mushrooms  and  toadstools.     The  first  class  is  com- 


MUSHROOMS.  435 

posed  of  those  who  are  practically  unaware  pf  the  existence  of  poisonous 
varieties  and  the  second  class  of  persons  are  those  who  claim  to  be  able  to 
tell  an  edible  mushroom  from  a  certain  number  of  tests  or  claims  which  they 
regard  as  infallible.  Both  of  these  classes  of  persons  are  apt  to  be  deceived 
or  injured  by  dangerous  varieties. 

The  following  popular  signs  of  distinguishing  between  the  poisonous  and 
non-poisonous  varieties  are  pronounced  worthless  by  Gibson  ("Our  Edible 
Toadstools  and  Mushrooms  and  How  to  Distinguish  Them"): 

"Favorable  Signs. 

1 .  Pleasant  taste  and  odor. 

2.  Peeling  of  the  skin  of  the  cap  from  rim  to  center. 

3.  Pink  gills,  turning  brown  in  older  specimens. 

4.  The  stem  easily  pulled  out  of  the  cap  and  inserted  in  it  like  a  parasol 
handle. 

5.  Sohd  stems. 

6.  Must  be  gathered  in  the  morning. 

7.  'Any  fungus  having  a  pleasant  taste  and  odor,  being  found  similarly 
agreeable  after  being  plainly  broiled  without  the  least  seasoning  is  perfectly 
safe.'* 

"Unfavorable  Signs. 

8.  Boihng 'with  a  'silver  spoon,'  the  staining  of  the  silver  indicating 
danger. 

9.  Change  of  color  in  the  fraction  of  the  fresh  mushroom. 

10.  Slimy  or  sticky  on  the  top. 

11.  Having  the  stems  at  their  sides. 

12.  Growing  in  clusters. 

13.  Found  in  dark,  damp  places. 

14.  Growing  on  wood,  decayed  logs,  or  stumps. 

15.  Growing  on  or  near  manure. 

16.  Having  bright  colors. 

17.  Containing  milky  juice. 

18.  Having  the  gill  plates  of  even  length. 

19.  Melting  into  black  fluid. 

20.  Biting  the  tongue  or  having  a  bitter  or  nauseating  taste. 

21.  Changing  color  by  immersion  in  salt-water,  or  upon  being  dusted  with 
salt. 

"These  present  but  a  selection  of  the  more  prevalent  notions.  Taken  in 
toto,  they  would  prove  entirely  safe,  as  they  would  practically  exclude  every 
species  of  toadstool  or  mushroom  that  grows.  But  as  a  rule  the  village  oracle 
bases  his  infallibitity  upon  two  or  three  of  the  above  'rules,'  and  inasmuch 


436  .  FUNGI   AS    FOODS. 

as  the  entire  list  absolutely  omits  the  only  one  test  by  which  danger  is  to  be 
avoided,  it  is  a  seven  days'  wonder  that  the  grewsome  toadstool  epitaph  is 
not  more  frequent. " 

The  following  tests  are  regarded  as  favorable  by  Gibson: 

1.  Avoid  every  mushroom  having  a  cup  or  suggestion  of  such,  at  base; 
the  distinctly  fatal  poisons  are  thus  excluded. 

2.  Exclude  those  having  an  unpleasant  odor,  a  peppery,  bitter,  or  other 
unpalatable  flavor,  or  tough  consistency. 

3.  Exclude  those  infested  with  worms  or  in  advanced  age  or  decay. 

4.  In  testing  others  which  will  pass  the  above  probation  let  the  specimen 
be  kept  by  itself,  not  in  contact  with  or  enclosed  in  the  same  basket  with 
other  species. 

Begin  by  a  mere  nibble,  the  size  of  a  pea,  and  gentle  mastication,  being 
careful  to  swallow  no  saliva,  and  finally  expelling  all  from  the  mouth.  If 
no  noticeable  results  follow,  the  next  trial,  with  the  interval  of  a  day,  with 
the  same  quantity  may  permit  of  a  swallow  of  a  little  of  the  juice,  the  frag- 
ments of  the  fungus  expelled  as  before.  No  unpleasantness  following  for 
twenty-four  hours,  the  third  trial  may  permit  of  a  similar  entire  fragment 
being  swallowed,  all  of  these  experiments  to  be  made  on  an  empty  stomach. 
If  this  introduction  of  the  actual  substance  of  the  fungus  into  the  stomach 
is  succeeded  by  no  disturbance  in  twenty-four  hours,  a  larger  piece,  the  size 
of  a  hazelnut,  may  be  attempted,  and  thus  the  amount  gradually  increased 
day  by  day  until  the  demonstration  of  edibility,  or  at  least  harmlessness, 
is  complete  and  the  species  thus  admitted  into  the  "safe"  list.  By  following 
this  method  with  the  utmost  caution  the  experimenter  can  at  best  suffer  but 
a  slight  temporary  indisposition  as  the  result  of  his  hardihood,  in  the  event 
of  a  noxious  species  having  been  encountered,  and  will  at  least  thus  have 
the  satisfaction  of  discovery  of  an  enemy  if  not  a  friend. 

It  may  be  said  that  any  mushroom,  omitting  the  Amanita,  which  is  pleasant 
to  the  taste  and  otherwise  agreeable  as  to  odor  and  texture  when  raw,  is 
probably  harmless  and  may  safely  be  thus  ventured  on  with  a  view  of 
establishing  its  edibility.  A  prominent  author  on  our  edible  mushrooms 
(Mcllvaine)  applies  this  rule  to  all  the  Agarics  with  confidence.  "  This  rule 
may  be  established,"  he  says:  "All  Agarics — excepting  the  Amanitae — mild 
to  the  taste  when  raw,  if  they  commend  themselves  in  other  ways,  are  edible. " 
This  claim  is  borne  out  in  his  experience,  with  the  result  that  he  now  numbers 
over  one  hundred  species  among  his  habitual  edible  list  out  of  the  three  hun- 
dred which  he  has  actually  found  by  personal  test  to  be  edible  or  harmless. 
"So  numerous  are  toadstools,"  he  continues,  "and  so  well  does  a  study  oi 
them  define  their  habits  and  habitats,  that  the  writer  never  fails  upon  any 
day  from  April  to  December  to  find  ample  supply  of  healthy,  nutritious,  delicak 
toadstools  for  himself  and  family." 


MUSHROOMS.  437 

"In  gathering  mushrooms  one  should  be  supplied  with  a  sharp  knife.  The 
mushrooms  should  be  carefully  cut  off  an  inch  or  so  below  the  cap,  or  at 
least  sufficiently  far  above  the  ground  to  escape  all  signs  of  dirt  on  the  stems. 
They  should  then  be  laid  gills  upward  in  their  receptacle,  and  it  is  well  to 
have  a  special  basket,  arranged  with  one  or  two  removable  bottoms  or  hori- 
zontal partitions,  which  are  kept  in  place  by  upright  props  within,  thus  reliev- 
ing the  lower  layers  of  mushrooms  from  the  weight  of  those  above  them. 
Such  a  basket  is  almost  indispensible. 

"Before  preparing  mushrooms  for  the  table,  the  specimens  should  be  care- 
fully scrutinized  for  a  class  of  fungus  specialists  which  we  have  not  taken 
into  accoimt,  and  which  have  probably  anticipated  us.  The  mushroom  is 
proverbial  for  its  rapid  development,  but  nature  has  not  allowed  it  thus  to 
escape  the  usual  penalties  of  lush  vegetation,  as  witness  this  swarming,  squirm- 
ing host,  minute  grubs,  which  occasionally  honey-comb  or  hollow  its  entire 
substance  ere  it  has  reached  its  prime;  indeed,  in  many  cases,  even  before 
it  has  fully  expanded  or  even  protruded  above  ground. 

"Like  the  carrion  flies,  the  bees,  and  wasps,  which  in  early  times  were  believed 
to  be  of  spontaneous  origin — flies  being  generated  from  putrefaction,  bees 
from  dead  bulls,  and  the  martial  wasps  from  defunct  "  war-horses  " — these 
fungus  swarms,  which  so  speedily  reduce  a  fair  specimen  of  a  mushroom  to 
a  melting  loathsome  mass,  were  also  supposed  to  be  the  natural  progeny 
of  the  'poisonous  toadstool.'  But  science  has  solved  the  riddle  of  their 
mysterious  omnipresence  among  the  fungi,  each  particular  swarm  of  grubs 
being  the  witness  of  a  former  visit  of  a  maternal  parent  insect,  which  has 
sought  the  budding  fungus  in  its  haunts  often  before  it  has  fully  revealed 
itself  to  human  gaze,  and  implanted  within  its  substance  her  hundred  or  more 
eggs.  To  the  uneducated  eye  these  larvae  all  appear  similar,  but  the  special- 
ist in  entomology  readily  distinguishes  between  them  as  the  young  of  this 
or  that  species  of  fly,  gnat,  or  beetle. 

"As  an  illustration  of  the  assiduity  with  which  the  history  of  these  tiny 
scavenger  insects  has  been  followed  by  science,  I  may  mention  that  in  the 
gnat  group  alone  over  seven  hundred  species  have  been  discovered  and  scien- 
tifically described,  many  of  them  requiring  a  powerful  magnifier  to  reveal 
their  identities. 

"  Specimens  of  infected  or  decaying  mushrooms  preserved  within  a  tightly 
closed  box — and,  we  would  suggest,  duly  quarantined — will  at  length  reveal 
the  imago  forms  of  the  voracious  larvae;  generally  a  swarm  of  tiny  gnats  or 
flies,  with  an  occasioral  sprinkling  of  small  glossy  black  beetles,  or  perhaps 
a  beautiful  indigo-blue  insect  half  an  inch  in  length  of  most  nervous  habit, 
and  possessed  of  a  long  and  very  active  tail.  This  insect  is  an  example  of 
the  curious  group  of  rove-beetles — staphylinus — a  family  of  insect  scavengers, 
many  of  whose  species  depend  upon  the  fungi  for  subsistence. 


438  FUNGI   AS    FOODS. 

"Even  the  large  woody  growth  known  as  *punk'  or  'touchwood,'  so 
frequently  seen  upon  decaying  trunks,  is  not  spared.  A  huge  specimen 
in  my  keeping  was  literally  reduced  to  dust  by  a  single  species  of  beetle. 

"Considering  the  prevalence  of  these  fungus  hosts,  it  is  well  in  all  mushrooms 
to  take  the  precaution  of  making  a  vertical  section  through  stem  and  cap, 
excluding  such  specimens  as  are  conspicuously  monopolized,  and  not  being 
too  critical  of  the  rest,  for  the  over-fastidious  gourmet  will  often  thus  have 
little  to  show  for  his  morning  walk.  I  have  gathered  a  hundred  specimens 
of  fungi  in  one  stroll,  perhaps  not  a  quarter  of  which,  upon  careful  scrutiny, 
though  fair  of  exterior  would  be  fit  for  the  table.  The  fungus  hunter  par 
excellence  has  usually  been  there  before  us  and  left  his  mark — a  mere  fine 
brown  streak  or  tunnel,  perhaps  winding  through  the  pulp  or  stem,  where 
his  minute  fungoid  identity  is  even  yet  secreted.  But  we  bigger  fungus 
eaters  gradually  learn  to  accept  him — if  not  too  outrageously  promiscuous — as 
a  natural  part  and  parcel  of  our  Hachis  aux  Champignons,  or  our  simple 
mushrooms  on  toast,  even  as  we  wink  at  the  similar  lively  accessories  which 
sophisticate  our  delectable  raisins,  prunes,  and  figs,  to  say  nothing  of  prime 
old  Rochefort  "  (pages  33-34). 

E.  Faupin,  the  author  of  the  work  "Les  Champignons  Comestibles  et  Vene- 
neux, "  gives  some  valuable  hints  respecting  the  confusion  of  edible  and  poison- 
ous varieties  of  mushrooms.  He  also  says  that  the  so-called  rules  which  are  often 
formulated  to  distinguish  the  good  mushrooms  from  the  bad  are  nearly  all 
misleading.  If  they  are  applicable  in  a  few  particular  cases  they  surely  are 
not  in  all,  and  consequently  ought  to  be  judged  as  of  no  value.  For  instance, 
it  has  been  commonly  said  that  the  mushrooms  whose  flesh  changes  color 
when  exposed  are  poisonous.  This  is  true  for  certain  kinds  but  it  is  not 
true  for  others.  There  are,  indeed,  some  mushrooms  whose  flesh  undergoes 
an  alteration  when  it  is  exposed  and  which  are,  nevertheless,  of  most  excellent 
quality.  As  an  example  of  this,  the  variety  known  as  "delicious  lactaire" 
may  be  cited.  On  the  contrary  there  are  other  kinds  whose  flesh  remains 
white  on  exposure  and  which  are  decidedly  poisonous,  as  for  example  Ama- 
nita citrina  Pers.  It  is  also  said  that  a  mushroom  whose  stem  is  surrounded 
by  a  ring  is  to  be  considered  edible.  This  indication  is  altogether  deceptive. 
Some  of  the  most  poisonous  varieties  have  well  formed  rings.  It  is  also 
misleading  to  credit  the  action  of  the  juice  of  the  mushroom  in  coloring  a 
piece  of  silver.  It  is  said  that  those  mushrooms  whose  juice  blackens  silver 
are  poisonous,  while  those  which  do  not  are  harmless.  This  perhaps  is  the 
most  dangerous  of  all  the  rules  to  go  by,  as  some  of  the  most  poisonous  varieties 
would  be  admitted  on  this  test.  It  is  also  misleading  to  suppose,  as  is  com- 
monly the  case,  that  mushrooms  which  are  attacked  by  insects,  larvae,  etc.,  can 
be  eaten  without  danger.  Likewise  misleading  is  the  general  opinion  that 
mushrooms  whose  odor  is  agreeable  or  which  have  no  appreciable  odor  are 


MUSHROOMS.  439 

not  poisonous.  It  is  high  time  to  eradicate  these  misleading  notions  and  to 
let  the  people  know  with  certainty  that  aside  from  the  botanical  character 
there  does  not  exist  any  particular  sign  nor  any  particular  means  of  affirming 
that  a  given  mushroom  is  edible  or  poisonous.  Science  alone,  therefore, 
has  the  sole  power  of  teaching  to  distinguish  the  poisonous  from  the  non- 
poisonous  varieties.  For  many  "years  attempts  have  been  made  to  popularize 
the  science  which  will  give  to  the  people  the  desired  information,  but  in  spite 
of  these  efforts  the  number  of  cases  of  poisoning  does  not  seem  to  diminish, 
and  why?  The  response  is  evident.  It  is  because  tfie  efforts  which  have 
been  made  by  mycologists  have  not  yet  been  appreciated  by  the  mass  of 
people,  and  because  it  has  not  yet  been  possible  to  point  out  to  the  pubhc 
at  large  the  poisonous  species.  The  number  of  species  of  poisonous  mush- 
rooms which  are  capable  of  causing  death  is  happily  not  very  great.  The 
Amanitas  and  the  Volvarias  are  almost  exclusively  the  poisonous  species. 
Let  it  be  understood,  therefore,  by  the  people  that  there  do  exist  mushrooms 
which  are  capable  of  killing.  If  the  people  desire  to  place  themselves  out 
of  danger  let  them  begin  by  learning  these  varieties.  '  Their  number  is  very 
limited,  -as  there  are  only  five  or  six  species  at  most.  When  they  are  well 
known  it  will  be  very  easy  to  distinguish  them  and  to  recognize  all  others 
as  edible.  Following  is  a  list  of  the  most  poisonous  mushrooms  known,  and 
all  that  are  likely  at  any  time  to  produce  death: 

Amanita  phalloides  Fr. 

"       citrina  Pers. 

"       verna  Bull. 

"       virosa  Fr. 
Volvaria  gloiocephala,  var.  speciosa  (Fr.). 
Amanita  muscaria  (L.)  Pers. 

"       pantherina  DC. 
Lactarius  torminosus  (Schaeff.)  Fr. 

"         rufus  Fr. 

"         zonarius  (Bull.)  Fr. 

"         pyrogalus  (Bull.)  Fr. 
Russula  emetica  Fr. 

"       queletii  Fr. 

"       foetens  (Pers.)  Fr. 
Boletus  felleus  Bull. 

"       satanus  Lenz. 

"       erythropus  Cke. 

"       luridus  Schaeff. 
Entoloma  lividum  Bull. 

The  Most  Poisonous  of  Mushrooms. — The  most  poisonous  of  the  common 


i40 


FUNGI  AS   FOODS. 


mushrooms  is  known  as  Amanita  verna  Bull.  -  So  active  is  its  poison  that 
this  variety  has  become  known  as  the  "deadly  Amanita." 

Types  of  Edible  Mushrooms. — While  it  is  quite  impossible  for  a  manual 
of  this  kind  to  give  any  directions  by  which  a  person,  not  an  expert,  may  make 
certain  distinctions  between  the  edible  and  poisonous  varieties  of  mushrooms, 
it  is  thought  advisable  to  give  a  fair  technical  illustration  of  the  two  classes. 
The  common  mushroom,  Agaricus  campestris,  is  shown  in  the  accompanying 
Fig.  6i, — three-fourths  its  natural  size.  The  second  specimen  from  the  left 
is  young  and  is  in  a  state  of  development  known  as  a  button.  The  figure 
at  the  extreme  left  is  a  larger  specimen,  showing  the  slightly  checked  surface 
that  sometimes  occurs  in  this  species.  In  fresh  specimens  the  surface  is 
white,  but  various  shades  of  light  brown,  either  checked  or  plain,  are  often 
found.     The  specimen  at  the  right  shows  the  gills  on  the  lower  surface  of 


Fig.  6i.— Common  Mvshroom,  Ag-ar7c?is  campesin's.     Ediblk.     (Three-fourths  Natural  Size.) 
—(/'".  y.  Coville,  Circular  No.  ij,  Division  of  Botany,  Department  of  Agriculture.) 


the  cap.  These  gills  in  a  newly  expanded  mushroom,  fresh  from  the  field, 
are  of  a  beautiful  delicate  pale  pink  color,  often  with  a  touch  of  salmon.  In 
the  older  samples  the  gills  turn  to  a  light  brown  and  finally  almost  to  a  black 
color.  This  discoloration  is  chiefly  due  to  the  development  of  almost  innu- 
merable spores  from  which  new  plants  are  propagated.  If  the  stem  of  a 
common  mushroom  be  broken  off  and  the  cap  be  laid  gills  downward  on  a 
piece  of  white  paper,  the  spores  will  drop  off  and  after  a  few  hours  will  appear 
as  a  brown  dust.  The  usual  diameter  of  full-grown  specimens  of  this  variety 
of  mushroom  is  from  i^  to  3  inches,  though  many  smaller  and  many  larger 
samples  are  found. 

This  variety  of  mushroom  is  the  principal  one  which  is  exposed  upon  the 
markets  of  Washington.  They  are  especially  abundant  in  the  autumn  after 
copious  rains  often  succeeding  the  usual  period  of  drought  in  that  region. 


MUSHROOMS. 


441 


October  is  the  banner  month  for  this  variety  of  mushroom.  The  mycehum 
from  which  the  autumn  mushroom  grows  is  formed  in  the  spring,  and  after 
the  dry  period  of  summer  the  Httle  spheroid  granules  formed  upon  the  myce- 
hum are  capable  of  absorbing  the  moisture  of  the  warm  autumnal  rains 
and  rapidly  expand  to  the  full-grown  mushroom.  After  all  the  conditions 
of  growth  are  fulfilled  it  usually  requires  only  a  single  night  for  a  button  to 
push  through  the  surface  of  the  soil  and  expand  its  cap.  Mushrooms  are 
particularly  obnoxious  to  the  ravages  of  insects,  and  it  is  always  advisable 
that  they  should  be  gathered  and  eaten  immediately  after  they  are  formed. 
The  insect  larvae  attack  the  mature  mushroom,  travelling  up  through  the 
stem  into  the  cap,  and  decomposition  rapidly  follows. 

It  is  easy  to  determine  whether  a  mushroom  is  wormy  or  not  by  breaking 


Fig.  62 —Edible  Mushrooms  {Agaricus  arz/^w5w  SchaefE.). — {F.  V.  Coville) 


off  the  stem  close  to  the  cap  and  observing  if  there  are  little  holes  through 
which  the  larvae  have  passed  upward  into  the  cap.  The  common  mushroom 
occurs  most  frequently  on  lawns  and  in  pastures,  and  especially  in  neglected 
fields  where  weeds  have  been  succeeded  by  a  scant  covering  of  grass.  Some- 
times during  the  spring  and  summer,  as  well  as  in  the  autumn,  the  common 
mushroom  is  found  upon  the  market.  These  mushrooms  usually  are  pro- 
duced upon  the  garbage  dumping  grounds  near  the  city.  The  garbage 
and  refuse  from  the  city  furnish  the  manurial  conditions  required  for  a  speedy 
development  of  the  mushroom  from  the  mycelium. 

The  Horse  Mushroom  {Agaricus  ari'ensis  Schaeff.). — This  variety  of 
mushroom  is  also  one  which  grows  in  great  abundance  in  the  neighborhood 
of  Washington  and  in  other  latitudes  affording  a  similar  environment.  This 
specimen  is  in  many  respects   like  Agaricus  campestris  but  the  surface  of 


442 


FUNGI   AS   FOODS. 


the  cap  is  somewhat  darker  colored.  The  ring  on  the  stem  is  also  wider 
and  thicker  than  in  campestris.  This  variety  also  grows  larger  than  cam- 
pesiris,  and  the  diameter  of  the  cap  is  commonly  from  three  to  six  inches. 


Fig.  63.— Shaggy  Mushroom,  Coprinus  comatus.      Edible.     (Three-fourths  Natural  Size.)— 
( Coville,  Circular  ij.  Division  of  Botany. ) 


The  figure  is  only  about  one -half  the  natural  size.  The  horse  mushroom 
is  frequently  confounded  with  the  common  mushroom,  and  there  is  practically 
no  difference  in  their  edible  qualities.  It  grows  preferably  in  gardens  rather 
than  fields,  and  especially  in  gardens  which  have  been  heavily  fertilized.     It 


MUSHROOMS. 


443 


also  frequently  appears  in  old  beds  composed  of  decayed  stable  manure 
which  has  been  used  for  forcing  beds  for  early  vegetables. 

Shaggy  Mushroom  (Coprinus  comatiis  Fr.). — The  accompanying  Fig.  63 
represents  a  group  of  three  specimens  of  this  variety  of  mushroom  growing 
from  a  single  base.  The  largest  one  is  already  showing  signs  of  liquefac- 
tion and  decomposition  and  a  part  of  the  cap  has  partially  disappeared.  One 
of  the  peculiarities  of  this  species  is  that  beginning  with  the  edge  of  the  cap  the 
whole  mushroom  dissolves  sometimes  within  a  day,  when  it  is  full  grown,  into 
an  inky-black  fluid.  A  portion  of  this  inky  fluid  has  run  partly  down  the  white 
stem  of  the  largest  mushroom.  The  cap  of  this  mushroom,  except  when 
it  begins  to  liquefy,  resembles  somewhat  the  form  of  a  partially  closed  umbrella. 
In  the  early  stages  of  growth  the  cap,  gills,  and  stem  are  white,  except  the  apex 
of  the  cap,  which  is  generally  dark-colored.  The  surface  of  the  cap  is  covered 
with  delicate  lacerated  scales,  the  characteristic  from  which  the  name  comatiis 
or  shaggy  is  derived.  The  juice  from  the  fresh  sample  is  colorless  as  water. 
When  it  first  begins  to  turn  it  is  wine-colored,  and  until  the  juice  is  very  deeply 
discolored  the  sample  is  still  edible.  After  the  juice  has  turned  completely 
black  it  is  considered  too  old  to  be  eaten.  This  species  of  mushroom  grows 
best  in  shady  places,  in  a  soil  well  supplied  w  ith  humus.  The  season  in  which 
this  variety  of  mushroom  is  most  abundant  is  late  in  the  autumn  or  early 
in  the  winter,  when  the  nights  are  cold  but  the  ground  is  not  yet  frozen.  The 
liquefaction  and  decay  of  this  mushroom  come  on  so  quickly  that  it  is  not  usu- 
ally infested  with  larvae  which  do  not  have  time  to  develop  before  the  mush- 
room is  reduced  to  a  shapeless  mass.  The  most  common  organism  found  is 
the  myriapod,  a  thou  sand -legged  worm,  which  often  finds  its  way  between 
the  gills  and  stem.  This  cavity  should  always  be  examined  for  w'orms  of  this 
kind  when  the  mushroom  is  being  prepared  for  the  table. 

Fairy  Ring  Mushroom  (Marasmius  oreades  Fr.). — This  variety  is  one  which 
is  interesting  both  on  account  of  its  edible  properties  and  by  reason  of  the 
circular  areas  which  it  encloses  and  around  w^hich  it  often  forms  a  symmetrical 
border.  The  tendency  of  this  variety  to  grow  in  the  annular  form  designated 
is  beautifully  shown  in  the  accompanying  figure,  from  a  photograph  taken 
on  the  grounds  of  the  Department  of  Agriculture.  The  ring  in  question 
is  seven  feet  in  diameter  and  the  photograph  was  taken  early  in  Novem- 
ber. The  stem  in  this  variety  has  no  ring, — the  gills  are  few  and  widely 
separated  and  the  cap  as  it  becomes  fully  expanded  has  a  peculiar  knob- 
like projection  in  the  center.  This  gives  a  characteristic  appearance  to 
this  variety  of  mushroom.  The  cap  and  stem  are  colored  a  pinkish-buff, 
and  the  gills  have  a  lighter  shade  of  the  same  color  varying  in  early  grow^th 
toward  a  cream  tint.  The  spores  are  white  and  can  be  observed  by  plac- 
ing  the    cap,   as   already   indicated,   on   a   dark-colored   paper,   preferably 


444 


FUNGI   AS   FOODS. 


black  glazed  paper.  The  fairy  ring  mushroom  is  one  of  the  commonest 
species  which  grows  on  the  lawns  in  Washington  and  vicinity.  As  many 
as  twenty  of  these  fairy  rings  have  been  found  on  the  grounds  of  the  Depart- 
ment of  Agriculture  in  one  season.  In  the  earlier  days,  when  superstition 
was  more  rife  than  at  present,  these  rings  were  supposed  to  mark  the  places 
of  the  dances  of  the  fairies.  Another  fanciful  cause  assigned  for  the  pro- 
duction of  the  rings  was  that  it  was  due  to  the  effect  of  lightning  striking  the 
ground  and  burning  the  grass  in  a  circle,  and  thus  favoring  the  growth  of 
fungi.  Investigations,  however,  show  that  the  fairy  ring  is  due  to  a  peculiar 
way  in  which  the  mycelium  is  produced,  i.  e.,  beginning  at  a  central  point 


Fig.  64. 


-Fairy  Ring  Formed  by  Marasmius  oreades,  an  Ediblk  Mushroom.~(Coz//7/^,  Circular 
I  J,  Division  of  Uoiaiiy.) 


and  growing  uniformly  in  all  directions  a  few  inches  a  year.  After  a  while 
the  centraj  portion,  being  older,  begins  to  die,  and  thus  a  small  circular  band 
is  formed  which  each  year  increases  in  size,  growing  regularly  on  the  outside 
and  dying  as  regularly  on  the  inside.  The  fairy  rings  are  not  always  com- 
plete circles, — they  are  sometimes  broken  and  often  are  crescent-shaped. 
This  variety  of  mushroom  is  quite  permanent,  does  not  tend  to  decay  as 
rapidly  as  some,  and  resists  better  than  most  varieties  the  attacks  of  insects. 
They,  however,  are  very  small  as  compared  with  the  other  common  varieties. 
Puff-balls. — A  typical  mushroom  known   as   the   puff-ball  is   the  variety 


MUSHROOMS. 


445 


known  as  Lycoperdon  cyathijorme  Bosc.  The  puff-ball  is  so  plain  in  its  form 
that  a  description  of  its  appearance  is  difficult.  Usually  the  outside  is  colored 
brown  and  the  covering  is  more  or  less  irregularly  checked,  the  white  color 
of  the  interior  showing  between  the  darker,  elevated  areas.  WTien  still 
quite  young  the  flesh  is  solid,  of  a  milk-white  color,  and  apparently  quite 
dry.  After  two  or  three  days  it  becomes  soft,  has  a  yellow  tint,  and  acquires 
a  watery  and  later  an  amber-colored  juice  as  it  continues  its  development 
through  to  the  later  stages.  If  the  mushroom  remains  ungathered,  the  inte- 
rior dries  up  into  a  fine  brown  powder  which  is  projected  into  the  air  when 
pressed  by  the  finger.  It  is  often  blown  away  by  the  wind.  When  the  fun- 
gus reaches  this  stage  of  decay  it  is  very  commonly  known  as  "the  devil's 


"Fig.  ^.—Puff-ball,  Z.jvco/^r(fo«  cyathifomie.  Tov  \\¥\\.    Edible.    (Three-fourths  Natural 
SizE.^ — {Coviile,  Circular  ij,  Uizision  of  Botany.) 

snuff-box. "  Finally  the  spores  and  other  dust-like  bodies  are  blown  away, 
and  there  is  left  only  a  dry  and  leather}-  framework.  In  the  latter  stages 
the  puff-ball  is  not  regarded  as  edible,  not  because  of  its  being  poisonous, 
but  on  account  of  its  dry  and  leather}-  consistency.  In  the  neighborhood 
of  Washington  puff-balls  are  found  commonly  in  the  autumn  on  lawns  and 
in  gardens,  and  especially  on  vacant  lots  where  the  soil  has  remained  un- 
cultivated and  been  closely  grazed  by  cattle.  The  puff-ball  also  tends  to 
grow  in  a  fairy  ring  form,  and  in  the  circular  area  in  which  it  grows  the  grass 
is  likely  to  be  darker  in  color,  showing  the  existence  of  a  richer  soil.  It  is 
only  while  the  interior  of  the  puff-ball  is  still  solid  and  white,  with  something 
like  the  texture  of  cheese,  that  it  has  its  highest  edible  value. 

Cepe  {Boletus  edulis  Bull.). — This  variety  of  mushroom  is  one  of  the  most 


446 


FUNGI   AS   FOODS. 


highly  esteemed,  especially  in  the  south  of  France.  It  is  large  and  has  a 
very  large,  half-pear  shaped  stem.  The  flesh  of  this  variety  of  mushroom  is 
white  and  quite  firm  in  the  young  mushroom,  but  becomes  softer  with  age  and 
assumes  on  the  outside  a  wine  tint.  It  grows,  especially  in  the  late  summer 
and  through  the  autumn,  wild  in  the  forest.  In  the  extreme  south  of  France 
it  sorpetimes  appears  as  early  as  April.  (''Nouvel  Atlas  de  Champignon,"' 
Paul  Dumee,  page  45.)  (''The  Mushroom  Book,"  by  Nina  L.Marshall,  page 
109.)  The  cap  is  usually  from  four  to  six  inches  in  diameter  and  is  a  gray, 
brownish-red  or  tawny-brown  in  color. 


Fig.  66.— Amanita    (Full-grown). 


(One-half  Natural  SiZR.)—{Coville,  Circular  /j,  Division 
of  Botany.) 


The  Fly  Amanita  {Amanita  muscaria  (L.)  Fr.). — This  is  one  of  the  very  pois- 
onous varieties  of  mushrooms.  In  the  illustration  the  fully  matured  mush- 
room is  shown  at  one-half  its  natural  size.  This  is  the  most  common  poisonous 
mushroom  which  grows  in  the  District  of  Columbia  and  other  nearby  localities. 
The  points  especially  to  be  noticed  are  the  bulbous  enlargement  at  the  base 
of  the  stem,  breaking  into  thick  scales  above,  the  very  broad  drooping  ring 
near  the  top  of  the  stem,  and  the  corky  particles  loosely  attached  to  the  smooth, 
glossy  upper  surface  of  the  cap.  The  stem,  gills,  and  the  spores  are  white, 
the  corky  particles  commonly  of  a  buff  color,  but  sometimes  varying  almost 


MUSHROOMS.  447 

to  white.  The  glossy  upper  surface  of  the  cap,  beneath  the  corky  particles, 
varies  from  a  brilliant  red  to  orange-yellow,  buff,  and  even  white.  Commonly 
in  the  vicinity  of  Washington  the  coloration  is  orange  in  the  center,  shading 
to  yellow  toward  the  margin.  Brilliant  red  ones  are  rarely  seen  in  this  locality, 
but  white  ones  are  not  infrequent,  especially  late  in  the  season.  This  was  the 
variety  of  mushroom  that  lately  caused  the  death  of  a  well  known  man  in  Wash- 
ington.    This  poisonous  variety  is  one  of  the  largest,  handsomest,  and  most 


Fig.  67.— Fly  Amanita  Buttons  {Amanita  muscaria).     (Natural  Size.) 

dangerous  of  mushrooms,  and  is, one  whose  poisonous  character  has  been  most 
fully  studied.  It  is  abundant  in  the  vicinity  of  Washington  in  the  fall,  growing 
chiefly  in  the  pine  woods  and,  especially,  in  the  localities  which  have  been 
frequented  by  hogs.  The  chief  active  poisonous  principle  of  the  fly  amanita 
is  an  alkaloid  called  muscarine,  but  other  poisonous  substances  whose  exact 
nature  has  not  yet  been  discovered  also  occur  in  the  plant. 

When  this  variety  of  mushroom  is  reduced  to  a  paste  and  exposed  where 


448  FUNGI  AS   FOODS. 

it  can  be  eaten  by  flies  the  latter  are  readily  poisoned,  and  hence  the  common 
nsime  oi  ^' fly  amanita." 

Symptoms  of  Mushroom  Poisonmg. — The  symptoms  of  poisoning 
from  the  fly  amanita,  as  deduced  from  a  number  of  cases,  are  varied.  In 
some  instances  they  begin  only  after  several  hours,  but  usually  in  from  one- 
half  to  one  or  two  hours.  Vomiting  and  diarrhea  almost  always  occur,  with 
a  pronounced  flow  of  saliva,  suppression  of  the  urine,  and  various  cerebral 
phenomena,  beginning  with  giddiness,  loss  of  confidence  in  one's  ability  to 
make  ordinary  movements,  and  derangement  of  vision.  This  is  succeeded 
by  stupor,  cold  sweats,  and  a  very  marked  weakening  of  the  heart's  action. 
In  case  of  rapid  recovery  the  stupor  is  short  and  usually  marked  with  mild 
delirium.  In  fatal  cases  the  stupor  continues  from  one  to  two  or  three  days, 
and  death  at  last  ensues  from  the  gradual  weakening  and  final  stoppage  of 
the  heart's  action. 

Treatment  for  Poisoning. — The  treatment  for  poisoning  by  Amanita 
muscaria  consists  primarily  in  removing  the  unabsorbed  portion  of  the^ma- 
nita  from  the  alimentary  canal  and  in  counteracting  the  effect  of  the  muscarine 
on  the  heart.  The  action  of  this  organ  should  be  fortified  at  once  by  the 
subcutaneous  injection,  by  a  physician,  of  atropin,  in  doses  of  from  one 
one-hundredth  to  one-fiftieth  of  a  grain.  The  strongest  emetics,  such  as 
tartarized  antimony  or  apomorphin,  should  be  used,  though  in  case  of  pro- 
found stupor  even  these  may  not  produce  the  desired  action.  Freshly  ignited 
charcoal  or  two  grains  of  a  one  percent  alkaline  solution  of  permanganate 
of  potash  may  then  be  administered  in  order,  in  the  case  of  the  former  sub- 
stance, to  absorb  the  poison,  or  in  case  of  the  latter,  to  decompose  it.  This 
should  be  followed  by  oils  and  oleaginous  purgatives,  and  the  intestines 
should  be  cleaned  and  washed  out  with  an  enema  of  warm  water  and 
turpentine. 

Experiments  on  animals  poisoned  by  the  fly  amanita  and  with  pure  mus- 
carine show  very  clearly  that  when  the  heart  has  nearly  ceased  to  beat  it  may 
be  stimulated  to  strong  action  almost  instantly  by  the  use  of  atropin.  Its 
use  as  thus  demonstrated  has  been  the  means  of  saving  numerous  lives.  We 
have  in  this  alkaloid  an  almost  perfect  physiological  antidote  for  muscarine, 
and  therefore  in  such  cases  of  poisoning  its  use  should  be  pushed  as  heroically 
as  the  symptoms  of  the  case  will  warrant. 

The  presence  of  phallin  in  Amanita  muscaria  is  possible  and  its  effects 
should  be  looked  for  in  the  red  color  of  the  blood  serum  discharged  from 
the  intestines.     (Circular  13,  Div.  of  Botany.) 

Removal  of  the  Poisonous  Principle. — In  some  parts  of  Europe  the 
fly  amanita  is  soaked  in  vinegar  and  then  is  eaten  with  impunity.  Some 
of  the  colored  people  in  Washington  and  vicinity  are  acquainted  with  this 
method  of  treatment,  and  the  practice  of  soaking  these  fungi  in  vinegar  and 


ADULTERATION   OF   MUSHROOMS.  449 

then  eating  them  is  not  unknown,  though  the  majority  of  colored  women 
in  the  markets  who  deal  in  mushrooms  look  upon  this  species  with  unrestrained 
horror. 

The  poisonous  variety  is  denatured  as  follows:  The  stem  is  well  scraped, 
and  the  gills  are  removed  from  the  cap  and  the  upper  surface  peeled  off.  The 
mushrooms  prepared  in  this  w^ay  are  boiled  in  salt  and  water  and  afterward 
steeped  in  vinegar.  They  are  finally  washed  in  clear  water  and  then  cooked 
in  the  ordinary  manner  and  eaten  without  any  injurioi^s  results.  It  is  not 
recommended,  however,  that  a  mushroom  which  contains  so  much  deadly 
poison  should  be  eaten  at  all,  even  after  a  preparation  of  this  kind.  Any 
carelessness  in  the  preparation  or  any  failure  to  carry  out  the  process  com- 
pletely would  result  fatally. 

Canned  Mushrooms. — The  canning  of  mushrooms  is  an  industry  of  large 
magnitude,  especially  in  France.  The  young,  unexpanded  mushrooms  in  the 
form  of  buttons  are  those  which  are  usually  subjected  to  the  canning  process. 
Mushrooms  are  brought  to  the  factory  w^here  they  are  cleaned  and  scraped, 
the  stem  cut  to  a  proper  length,  thoroughly  washed  in  several  washings  of 
clean  water,  and  taken  to  a  sulfuring  furnace  where  they  are  exposed  to  the 
fumes  of  burning  sulfur  for  some  time.  The  purpose  of  this  treatment  is 
to  bleach  the  mushroom  and  make  it  as  white  as  possible.  Decayed  or 
deformed  buttons  are  not  included  in  the  cans  of  highest  quality.  The  pre- 
pared mushrooms  are  then  placed  in  cans,  usually  of  tin,  and  preserved  by 
subjecting  them  to  a  temperature  at  or  above  boiling  water  until  thoroughly 
sterilized.    Mushrooms  are  also  preserved  by  desiccation. 

Canned  Pieces  and  Stems  of  Mushrooms. ^The  imperfect  portions, 
the  pieces  which  are  cut  away,  and  other  fragments  of  the  mushroom,  result- 
ing from  the  preparation  of  the  product  described  above,  are  treated  practically 
in  the  same  manner  for  sterilizing  purposes  and  are  sold  to  the  trade  under 
various  names,  the  most  common  of  which  is  Champignons  d' Hotel.  They 
also  frequently  appear  under  the  name  of  Champignon  Choix  and  other 
deceptive  labels. 

Adulteration  of  Mushrooms. — There  is  no  adulteration  practiced  of 
fresh  mushrooms  unless  the  occasional  occurrence  of  poisonous  varieties 
may  be  so  considered.  It  is  evident,  however,  that  the  introduction  of  poison- 
ous varieties  is  the  result  of  carelessness  or  mistake  and  not  for  any  purpose. 
Nevertheless  a  most  exacting  supervision  over  the  preparation  of  fresh  mush- 
rooms for  the  market  should  be  required,  and  any  failure  to  exercise  this  care 
may  be  considered  as  resulting  in  adulteration  or  depreciation  of  the  character 
of  the  product. 

In  canned  mushrooms  the  presence  of  sulfurous  acid  may  be  regarded  as 
an  adulterant,  and  such  a  substance,  believed  to  be  inimical  to  health,  is  not 
necessary  in  the  preparation  of  the  goods.  It  is  quite  certain  that  the  public 
30 


4SO  FUNGI   AS    FOODS. 

taste  would  soon  adapt  itself  to  an  amber-  or  brown-colored  product  in  canned 
mushrooms  and  value  it  as  highly  as  the  buttons  which  are  white.  Since  the  sole 
purpose  of  the  use  of  sulfur  is  for  bleaching,  the  end  secured  scarcely  justifies  the 
means.  It  is  claimed,  naturally,  that  the  use  of  sulfur  is  also  a  safeguard  in  secur- 
ing a  better  keeping  of  the  product,  but  such  an  adjunct  for  keeping  purposes 
is  only  necessary  when  the  sterilization  is  not  complete.  It  is  to  be  hoped 
that  the  day  will  soon  come  when  mushrooms  bleached  with  sulfurous  acid 
shall  no  longer  be  found  upon  our  market.  The  use  of  other  preservatives 
than  sulfurous  acid  has  at  times  been  practiced,  but  it  is  not  believed  that  there 
are  many  cans  of  mushrooms  offered  upon  the  market  which  contain  any 
chemical  preservatives  whatever  save  the  sulfurous  acid  above  noted.  Since 
the  canned  mushrooms  are  valued  principally  as  a  condiment,  the  inclusion  of 
imperfect  or  partially  decayed  or  malformed  buttons  is  extremely  unusuaL 
The  buttons  are  separated  into  sizes  of  approximately  the  same  magnitude,, 
so  that  a  can  of  the  product  is  uniform  in  size  as  well  as  in  quality.  The 
customer  may  be  reasonably  certain  that  he  is  getting  a  good,  young,  care- 
fully selected  product,  free  from  disease  and  from  accidental  impurities  which 
might  render  the  product  unwholesome  or  unpalatable. 

Truffles. — The  truffle  has  been  known  almost,  if  not  quite  as  long  as  the 
mushroom  as  an  edible  delicacy.  The  use  of  truffles  in  France  became 
very  common  during  the  14th  century,  but  on  account  of  their  high  price  they 
remained  for  a  long  time  a  luxury  and  not  a  general  article  of  commerce. 
It  is  only  within  the  19th  century,  after  1840,  that  their  consumption  became 
general.     The  truffle  belongs  to  the  botanical  family  Tuberaceae. 

The  propagation  of  truffles  is  similar  to  that  of  mushrooms,  by  spores^ 
which  first  give  rise  to  a  mycelium  which  furnishes  the  nutrients  for  the  tubercle 
during  a  certain  time  of  its  early  growth.  In  the  cultivation  of  the  truffle,, 
artificially,  it  is  necessary  to  make  use  of  a  forest  or  some  similar  artificial 
covering.  If  trees  are  planted  especially  for  the  development  of  truffles  it 
requires  six  or  eight  years  growth  before  the  cultivation  of  truffles  is  successful. 
The  truffle  grow.s  very  readily  in  the  shade  of  nut-bearing  trees  and  in  the 
shade  of  the  oak.  The  mycelium  does  not  produce  truffles  until  after  several 
years  of  vegeta^ion.  When  it  once  begins  to  fructify  and  produce  the  truffle 
it  continues  to  bear  for  many  years.  The  truffle,  like  the  mushroom,  grows- 
rapidly.  At  first,  as  has  already  been  stated,  it  is  nourished  by  the  mycelium^ 
but  when  this  is  exhausted  it  is  nourished  by  absorbing  the  nutritious  elements- 
from  the  scil  and  air.  When  it  reaches  maturity  and  its  spores  are  well 
formed  the  truffle  acquires  its  maximum  of  aroma  and  palatability.  After  it 
has  reached  maturity  it  can  remain  a  certain  time  in  the  soil  without  being 
changed.  However,  after  a  time  it  is  rapidly  decomposed  and  its  tissues 
become  the  seat  of  various  chemical  reactions  or  it  is  devoured  by  insects. 


TRUFFLES.  45 1 

Cultivation  of  Truffles. — The  truffle  may  only  be  grown  in  the  midst  of 
very  favorable  conditions  of  climate,  altitude,  mellowness  of  the  soil,  moisture, 
and  proper  shade.  The  planting  of  truffle  trees  serves  as  a  vehicle  for  the  spores 
which  are  later  to  give  birth  to  the  mycelium  which  itself  produces  the  truffle. 
The  spores  of  the  truffles  usually  reach  the  forests  in  which  they  are  grown 
by  natural  means  without  being  particularly  planted.  Sometimes,  however, 
the  spores  are  carried  directly  to  the  soil  where  the  new  crop  is  to  be  grown. 

Geographic  Distribution. — The  truffle,  like  the  mushjroom,  is  spread  over 
all  parts  of  the  earth.  In  Europe  it  is  especially  abundant  in  France  and 
Italy.  The  provinces  in  France  where  it  grows  in  greatest  abundance  are 
Provence,  Dauphine,  Languedoc,  and  Perigord. 

Principal  Varieties. — The  varieties  of  truffles  are  not  so  numerous  as 
mushrooms,  of  which  perhaps  a  thousand  different  varieties  are  known, 
but  still  they  are  sufficiently  numerous.  One  of  those  frequently  cultivated  in 
France  is  known  as  truffles  of  Perigord  (Tuber  melanosporum  Vittad.) .  It  grows 
best  under  the  shade  of  a  growing  walnut  or  a  young  oak.  The  tubers  of 
these  plants,  which  are  the  part  valuable  for  food,  may  weigh  from  60  to  500 
grams.  Other  botanical  varieties  which  are  much  cultivated  are  Tuber  brumale 
Vittad.,  Tuber  cestivum  Mich.,  Tuber  magnatum  Vittad.,  and  many  others. 

Harvesting  of  Truffles. — The  truffle  comes  into  production  from  the  sixth 
to  the  tenth  year  after  planting  the  appropriate  forest  trees.  It  is  easy  to 
determine  the  year  when  the  harvest  should  begin,  since  during  the  preceding 
year  there  is  found  in  the  soil  some  hypogaean  mushrooms  which  may  be 
considered  as  precursors  of  the  truffles.  Moreover,  the  soil  under  the  tree 
becomes  practically  free  of  all  vegetation.  The  truffle  ripens  from  November 
to  April,  according  to  its  variety.  It  is  important  that  it  should  not  be  har- 
vested except  at  the  period  of  complete  maturity.  For  harvesting  purposes 
certain  animals  are  made  use  of,  such  as  the  dog  and  hog.  These  animals 
have  a  delicate  smell*  in  these  matters  and  only  bring  out  of  the  soil  the  ripe 
truffles  while  they  leave  the  others.  Man  is  not  able  to  make  this  nice  dis- 
tinction, and  harvests  all  indiscriminately,  from  which  there  results  great 
financial  loss.  In  the  harvesting  of  truffles  the  ground  should  be  gone  over 
about  once  in  eight  days  in  order  that  the  tubercles  may  be  secured  during 
the  whole  winter  at  the  proper  time  of  maturity.  When  the  truffles  are  devel- 
oped the  soil  above  them  is  hilled  or  cracked,  especially  after  rains.  These 
are  the  places  which  are  selected  for  the  harvesting  when  it  is  done  by  the 
hand  of  man. 

Harvesting  by  Means  of  Flies. — When  the  weather  is  warm  and  clear  there 
is  seen  above  the  place  where  the  tubers  are  lying,  a  multitude  of  flies, — these 
mark  the  place  where  the  harvest  should  be  made.  The  best  time  for  this 
kind  of  a  harvest  is  about  nine  o'clock  in  the  morning.  Good  results  are 
not  obtainable  from  this  sign  except  when  the  sun  rises  clear  and  becomes 


452  FUNGI   AS   FOODS. 

afterward  warm.  In  order  to  find  the  flies  the  husbandman  stoops  down 
near  the  surface  of.  the  soil  and  looks  horizontally  over  it.  The  colonies  of 
flies  are  thus  easily  distinguished,  and  below  each  one  of  these  colonies  the 
truffles  are  found.  This  is  also  an  ineffective  method  because  only  the  over- 
ripened  tubercles  attract  the  flies  while  those  in  their  very  prime  are  not  thus 
marked. 

Harvesting  with  Hogs. — The  utilization  of  hogs  for  harvesting  purposes 
is  by  far  the  best  and  most  economical  method.  It  is  employed  especially 
in  Perigord  and  Midi.  The  harvesting  can  be  either  in  the  morning  or  after- 
noon. The  hogs  which  are  used  for  harvesting  should  be  previously  well 
fed  in  order  to  prevent  them  from  eating  the  truffles  which  they  dig  out 
of  the  ground.  Each  animal  is  led  with  a  rope.  As  soon  as  the  hog 
gets  the  scent  of  truffles  it  pounces  upon  them  and  rapidly  uncovers  them 
with  its  snout.  When  the  weather  is  favorable  a  hog  can  easily  smell 
a  truffle  at  a  distance  of  150  feet.  As  soon  as  the  animal  has  brought  the 
truflle  to  the  surface  instead  of  allowing  him  to  eat  it  he  should  be  recompensed 
by  giving  him  some  suitable  food  such  as  maize.  If  this  little  attention  is  ne- 
glected the  animal  soon  becomes  discouraged  and  refuses  to  work  any  longer. 
Before  leaving  the  spot  the  hog  assures  himself  that  no  other  truffles  are  con- 
tained in  that  neighborhood.  When  the  hog  becomes  very  tired  he  walks  very 
slowly  and  with  his  mouth  open.  It  is  then  necessary  to  give  him  a  period 
of  rest  before  continuing  the  harvest.  If  the  search  for  truffles  does  not 
bring  good  results  the  animal  becomes  morose,  indolent,  and  refuses  to  obey. 
Sometimes  when  the  hog  is  hungry  and  wants  to  eat  the  truffles  it  is  necessary 
to  give  him  a  smart  blow  on  the  snout  with  a  stick.  A  special  race  of  hogs 
is  used  in  this  harvesting  whose  parents  have  also  possessed  the  skifl,  and  thus 
it  becomes  hereditary.  A  good  hog  is  able  to  engage  in  the  harvesting  from 
the  age  of  two  to  25  years  but  they  do  their  best  work  at  three  or  four  years. 
A  single  animal  may  be  able  to  harvest  from  six  to  40  pounds  of  truffles 
per  day,  according  to  their  abundance  in  the  soil.  This  class  of  hogs  have 
a  very  high  value,  and  are  often  sold  in  the  south  of  France  for  this  sole  pur- 
pose at  from  $30.00  to  $70.00  per  head. 

Harvesting  with  the  Dog. — The  dog  is  also  employed  in  regions  where 
truffles  are  produced,  and  especially  in  those  regions  where  the  yield  is  not 
so  great  and  where  the  area  to  be  gone  over  is  very  large.  The  dog  is  used 
especially  in  the  Dauphine,  Champagne,  Bourgogne,  Provence,  and  Langue- 
doc,  and  also  in  the  neighborhood  of  Paris.  These  dogs  are  trained,  as  in 
the  case  of  hogs,  especially  for  this  purpose  and  should  be  rewarded  when 
a  find  is  made,  in  the  same  manner  as  the  hog.  This  recognition  of  their 
services  should  never  be  forgotten  if  animals  of  the  greatest  skill  are  to  be 
secured.  The  dog,  as  is  the  case  with  the  hog,  locates  the  truffles  by  the  scent 
and  digs  with  his  four  paws  until  the  truffles  are  laid  bare, — the  husbandman 


TRUFFLES.  453 

then  draws  them  out  of  the  soil  with  long  forceps.  The  hog  is  preferable 
to  the  dog  because  it  does  the  whole  harvesting  itself,  whereas  in  the  case  of 
the  dog  the  husbandman  must  finish  the  operation. 

The  yield  of  the  truffle  farm  is  naturally  extremely  valuable,  varying  with 
the  relative  abundance  of  growth  and  character  of  the  soil  itself.  Some- 
times the  yield  drops  as  low  as  five  pounds  per  acre  and  sometimes  rises  as 
high  as  70  pounds  per  acre.  The  average  price  of  truffles  is  $2.00  per 
pound.  The  largest  yield  is  found  in  the  truffle  farms  from  the  tenth  to  the 
twentieth  year. 

Properties  of  Truffles. — It  is  difficult  to  describe  the  properties  of  truffles. 
They  are,  when  prepared  for  the  table,  black,  rather  firm  in  flesh,  and  have 
a  distinct  and  most  agreeable  odor  and  taste.  A  good  truffle  is  extremely 
firm  and  resists  the  ordinary  pressure  of  the  finger.  If  it  is  soft  it  shows 
that  it  is  lacking  in  its  best  characteristic. 

The  size  of  the  truffle  has  a  marked  influence  upon  its  value  because  the 
small  truffle  loses  a  large  part  of  its  weight  in  the  preparation  for  eating. 
Truffles  of  good  size  are  those  which  weigh  from  40  to  50  grams,  those  of 
first  choice  weighing  from  60  to  100  grams.  After  the  truffle  passes  loo 
grams  in  weight  the  increased  weight  does  not  proportionately  increase  the 
value.  The  truffles  which  come  from  light  soil  are  considered  superior  to 
those  which  come  from  rich  soil.  If  the  soil  contains  a  large  quantity  of  iron 
the  truffles  are  usually  of  finer  quality.  All  truffles  are  not  black,  though  the 
best  ones,  like  those  of  Perigord,  are  black.     Others  are  gray  or  brown. 

Adulteration  0}  Truffles. — Commerce  in  truffles  is  the  subject  of  considerable 
fraud  on  account  of  the  very  high  price  of  the  -genuine  article.  The  princi- 
pal adulterations  are  the  mixture  of  the  inferior  or  imperfect  varieties  with 
the  choicest  or  best  varieties.  This  adulteration  is  easily  discovered  by 
making  a  careful  examination  of  the  tubercles  individually.  Another  fraud 
which  is  very  much  practiced  is  the  introduction  of  soil  into  the  cracks  or 
crevices  in  order  to  increase  their  weight.  This  adulteration,  of  course,  is 
easily  discovered  by  anyone  who  prepares  the  truffles  for  the  table.  Another 
form  of  adulteration  is  the  mingling  with  the  ripe  truffle  of  those  which  have 
not  reached  maturity.  The  unripe  tubercles  have  very  little  flavor  or  taste 
and  are  thus  easily  distinguished  from  those  which  are  mature.  Also 
practiced  is  the  pressing  together  with  some  kind  of  a  glue  of  a  number  of 
smaller  truffles  in  order  to  form  a  large  mass,  as  if  it  were  an  entire  truffle, 
and  thus  securing  a  larger  price.  This  is  also  a  fraud  easily  discovered.  Still 
another  form  of  sophistication  is  the  production  of  artificial  truffles  made 
from  potatoes  and  especially  those  which  are  partially  spoiled  which  are 
colored  in  imitation  of  the  truffle  itself.  Only  those  who  are  ignorant  of  the 
texture  of  the  truffle  can  be  deceived  by  this  gross  imitation.  Another  form 
of  adulteration  is  the  sale  of  the  truffle  coming  from  regions  less  esteemed 


454  FUNGI   AS   FOODS. 

for  their  products  for  those  of  other  more  esteemed  regions  as  for  instance, 
the  sale  of  truffles  from  Sarladais  or  from  Domme  for  those  of  Perigord. 

Preservation  of  the  Truffle  During  Transit. — For  the  purpose  of  keeping 
truffles  in  good  condition  during  transit  they  may  be  placed  in  moss,  fine 
sand,  or  powdered  chalk.  They  can  be  kept  in  this  way  for  a  few  days 
during  transit,  but  should  not  be  long  preserved  in  this  manner.  Truffles 
may  also  be  preserved  indefinitely  by  sterilization.  It  is  necessary  to  do 
this  whenever  they  are  to  be  sent  over  long  distances  or  kept  for  a  long  time. 
The  methods  of  sterilizing  are  not  different  from  those  described  for  ordinary 
vegetables.  Truffles  are  also  preserved  by  desiccation,  but  in  this  case  they 
lose  something  of  their  odor  and  taste  and  are  not  so  highly  esteemed.  Finally 
the  truffles  are  sometimes  preserved  by  cooking  them  and  preserving  them 
in  wine  or  olive  oil.  (Raymond  Brunet,  "Manuel  Pratique  de  la  Culture 
des  Champignons  et  de  la  Truffe.") 

Food  Value  of  Fungi. — While  the  mushroom  and  the  truffle  are  the  prin- 
cipal fungi  used  as  food  they  axe  by  no  means  the  only  kinds.  Their  value, 
as  has  already  been  indicated,  is  rather  condimental  than  nutritive.  Those, 
however,  who  have  eaten  fresh  or  well  preserved  mushrooms  or  truffles, 
cooked  in  the  best  style  of  the  culinary  art,  are  fully  acquainted  with  their 
value.  The  fear  of  poisoning  does  much  to  restrict  the  use  of  the  wild  mush- 
rooms. The  fields  and  forests  are  full  of  many  varieties  of  these  fungi,  espe- 
cially in  the  autumn.  Very  few  of  the  varieties  are  poisonous,  but  the  con- 
servative gourmand  hesitates  to  consume  the  fruits  of  his  own  activity  as  a 
collector.  In  the  hills  of  the  Blue  Ridge  Mountains  near  Harper's  Ferry  I 
have  seen  large  areas  of  the  forest  almost  covered  with  these  growths  in  August 
and  September,  but  the  courage  leading  to  their  consumption  was  wanting. 

In  order  to  guard  against  any  danger  in  the  consumption  of  fungi  of  this 
kind  it  is  highly  desirable  that  some  more  certain  index  of  innocence  be  avail- 
able than  mere  appearance.  Experiments  might  be  made  to  see  whether  the 
extract  of  the  sample  would  poison  flies  when  fed  mixed  with  some  sweet  sub- 
stance which  would  encourage  consumption.  Even  a  small  chicken  or  other 
small  domesticated  animal  could  be  fed  a  considerable  quantity  of  the  sample 
and  the  result  awaited.  Such  precautions  would  largely  or  entirely  prevent 
the  very  serious  consequences  of  ingesting  poisonous  varieties.  If  such  pre- 
cautions are  not  used  the  quantity  of  a  mushroom  of  unknown  character  con- 
sumed should  be  limited  to  a  very  small  amount.  This  would  avoid  the  danger 
of  a  fatal  result.  The  best  of  all  precautions,  however,  in  the  presence  of 
strange  varieties  of  mushrooms,  is  complete  abstention. 

It  is  quite  dangerous  for  the  unskilled  to  be  guided  by  the  pictures  or  de- 
scriptions of  the  toxic  fungi.  In  this  case,  however,  nature  has  provided  very 
many  innocent  varieties  for  each  one  that  is  poisonous.  The  probabihty  of 
immunity,  however,  is  not  a  license  to  promiscuous  consumption. 


PART  IX. 

SUGAR,  SIRUP,  CONFECTIONERY, 
AND  HONEY. 


SUGAR. 

The  term  "sugar"  is  applied  by  common  consent  to  the  pure  sugar  com- 
mercially prepared  from  the  sugar  cane  and  the  sugar  beet.  These  two 
kinds  of  sugar  are  sometimes  designated  by  their  own  name,  as,  for  instance, 
the  purchaser  will  ask  for  cane  sugar  or  beet  sugar.  When  no  other  name 
appears  the  term  sugar  is  applied  as  above. 

In  Europe  the  principal  sugar  used  is  that  derived  from  the  sugar  beet. 
In  the  United  States  the  principal  sugar  is  that  derived  from  the  sugar  cane. 
Notable  quantities  of  sugar  are  also  found  in  commerce  derived  from  the 
maple  tree,  a  small  quantity  from  sorghum,  and  in  Asia  a  considerable  quantity 
is  made  from  the  palm. 

Chemically,  sugar  belongs  to  the  class  of  bodies  known  as  sucrose  or  sac- 
charose and  is  a  compound  in  a  pure  state  consisting  solely  of  carbon,  oxygen, 
and  hydrogen,  typical  of  that  class  of  foods  of  which  starch  is  the  most  impor- 
tant member,  known  as  carbohydrates.  The  elements  mentioned  are  com- 
bined in  sugar  in  the  proportion  of  12  parts  of  carbon,  22  of  hydrogen, 
and  II  of  oxygen. 

The  quantity  of  sugar  consumed  by  the  people  of  the  United  States  is 
very  large.  Excluding  molasses,  honey,  and  sirups  the  quantity  consumed 
in  the  United  States  in  the  year  ending  December  31,  1905,  was  2,632,216  tons. 
There  should  be  added  to  this  the  total  quantity  of  sugar  found  in  the  articles 
of  diet  which  are  so  common  in  this  country  in  the  form  of  honey,  sirups,  and 
molasses. 

Origin  of  Sugar. — In  the  earliest  times  practically  the  only  sugar  which 
was  used  by  man  was  that  stored  by  the  bees,  namely,  honey.  The  sugar 
cane  is  indigenous  to  Asia  and  was  not  known  as  a  source  of  sugar  in  Europe 
until  the  13th  or  14th  century,  when  it  was  brought  by  Eastern  merchants  to 
Europe.  The  discovery  of  America  and  the  introduction  of  sugar  cane  into 
the  islands  adjacent  thereto  opened  up  a  new  field  for  the  culture  of  that 
plant  and  laid  the  foundation  of  the  great  industry  which  followed.     It  was 

455 


456  SUGAR,    SIRUP,    CONFECTIONERY,    AND    HONEY. 

not,  however,  until  100  years  ago  that  the  sugar  cane  industry  assumed  any- 
thing like  the  proportions  which  indicated  its  subsequent  growth.  About 
1747  sugar  cane  was  introduced  into  Louisiana  and  soon  thereafter,  about  1790, 
became  one  of  the  most  important  crops  of  that  state.  Until  the  beginning 
of  the  Civil  War  Louisiana  produced  a  large  proportion  of  the  cane  sugar 
consumed  in  the  United  States.  During  the  Civil  War  the  industry  was 
almost  totally  destroyed,  but  since  then  it  has  grown  until  it  has  assumed 
greater  proportions  than  ever  before  but  constantly  diminishing  proportions 
in  relation  to  the  total  supply.  Louisiana  is  somewhat  too  far  north  for  the 
most  economic  production  of  sugar  cane,  since  it  is  subject  to  injury  by  frosts. 
Sugar  cane  is  a  plant  which  is  very  sensitive  to  cold  weather  and  is  usually 
killed  by  a  hard  frost.  For  this  reason  its  greatest  development  has  occurred 
in  tropical  countries,  especially  in  Cuba,  the  Hawaiian  Islands,  and  in  other 
similar  localities.  At  the  present  time  by  far  the  largest  part  of  the  sugar 
made  from  sugar  cane  in  the  world  is  produced  in  Cuba  and  the  Hawaiian 
Islands, — the  Cuban  crop  amounting,  in  round  numbers,  to  1,200,000  tons 
and  the  Hawaiian  to  about  400,000  tons. 

Beet  Sugar. — The  fact  that  beet  sugar  is  contained  in  the  common  garden 
beet  was  first  discovered  by  a  German  chemist,  Margraff,  in  1747.  This 
important  discovery  remained  dormant  for  nearly  half  a  century  when  one 
of  Margraff 's  pupils,  the  son  of  a  French  refugee  from  Prussia,  named  Achard, 
resumed  the  researches  which  had  been  started  by  Margraff  and  obtained 
results  which  were  then  regarded  as  of  an  astonishing  character.  Achard's 
statements  were  the  subject  of  doubt  and  of  ridicule  and  even  his  French 
co-laborers,  members  of  the  academy,  doubted  the  accuracy  of  his  work, 
while  thinking  it  of  sufficient  interest  to  look  into  further.  A  commission 
consisting  of  some  of  the  most  important  members  of  the  Academy  of  Science, 
among  them  Chaptal  and  Vauquelin,  investigated  the  matter  and  announced 
that  the  attempt  to  make  sugar  was  unsuccessful  but  thought  perhaps  the 
maple  tree  might  be  grown  in  France.  Nevertheless  the  commission  modified 
the  methods  of  Achard  and  obtained  better  results.  This  was  the  beginning 
of  that  long  series  of  investigations  which  has  resulted  in  the  establishment 
of  a  beet  sugar  industry,  making  in  round  numbers  six  milHon  tons  of  sugar 
per  year,  a  quantity  considerable  greater  than  that  produced  from  the  sugar 
cane.  The  name  of  Chaptal  has  been  mentioned  as  belonging  to  the  com- 
mission which  was  appointed  to  study  Achard's  process  because  it  was  through 
the  influence  of  Chaptal,  who  had  then  become  a  Count,  that  the  Emperor 
Napoleon  on  January  15,  181 1,  issued  his  decree  establishing  the  beet  sugar 
industry  as  a  national  industry  of  France  and  granting  a  subvention  thereto. 
This  decree  ordered  that  one  hundred  thousand  hectares  should  be  planted 
in  beets  in  France.  Both  the  taxes  and  the  octroi  were  withdrawn  upon  all 
sugar  produced  from  beets  for  a  period  of  four  years.     There  were  also  to 


BEET   SUGAR. 


457 


be  established,  according  to  the  decree,  four  central  beet  sugar  factories, 
and  it  was  ordered  that  the  crop  of  sugar  beets  in  1812  and  18 13  should  reach 
two  million  kilograms  of  raw  sugar.  The  disastrous  Russian  campaign 
and  the  subsequent  fall  of  the  Napoleonic  dynasty  interrupted  but  did  not 
destroy  the  industry. 

The  establishment  of  an  industry  by  imperial  decree  is  perhaps  a  novel 
method  of  procedure  and  gave  rise  at  that  time  to  a  caricature  in  which  the 
Emperor  Napoleon  and  the  young  King  of  Rome  figured  as  the  most  important 
characters.  The  Emperor  was  represented  as  seated  fn  the  nursery  with  a 
cup  of  coffee  before  him  into  which  he  was  squeezing  the  juice  of  a  beet. 
Near  him  was  seated  the  young  King  of  Rome  voraciously  sucking  a  beet 
root  while  the  nurse  standing  near  and  steadfastly  observing  the  process  is 
saying  to  the  youthful  monarch — "Suck,  dear,  suck,  your  father  says  it's 
sugar." 

By  reason  of  the  embargo  laid  on  commerce  by  England  the  cane  sugar 
coming  from  tropical  islands  had  been  kept  out  of  the  continent,  so  in  order 
to  supply  the  deficiency  the  Emperor  Napoleon  issued  the  decree  mentioned. 
Due  to  this  impetus  the  industry  grew  rapidly  in  France  even  after  the  fall 
of  the  empire  and  in  the  course  of  20  years  had  assumed  proportions  of  com- 
mercial importance.  About  this  period  German  scientists  became  interested 
in  the  matter  and  by  studies  directed  to  the  improvement  of  the  sugar  in  the 
beet  and  methods  of  manufacture  laid  the  foundation  of  a  great  industry  in 
Germany  which  has  outclassed  the  similar  industries  of  all  other  countries. 

The  production  of  beet  sugar  in  the  United  States  was  only  a  few  thousand 
pounds  in  1879  and  during  that  and  succeeding  years  a  number  of  factories 
were  built.  All  of  these,  however,  were  unsuccessful  except  one  which  was 
located  in  Alvarado,  California,  and  which  has  been  continuously  operated 
ever  since.  In  1884  the  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture  undertook  anew 
the  investigation  of  the  conditions  which  were  favorable  to  the  sugar  beet 
industry  and  as  a  result  of  these  investigations  a  new  start  was  made  on  a 
more  substantial  basis.  The  industry  has  since  then  grown  extensively  in 
importance  until  at  the  present  time  more  sugar  is  made  from  the  sugar  beet 
in  this  country  than  from  the  sugar  cane.  In  order  that  an  adequate  idea  of 
the  magnitude  of  the  sugar  industry  of  the  world  may  be  gained  a  statistical 
table  is  submitted  on  page  471,  showing  the  production  of  sugar  in  the  world 
during  the  year  1909. 

The  first  important  report  on  the  beet  sugar  industry  in  the  United  States 
was  made  by  McMurtrie  as  a  special  report  No.  28  on  the  culture  of  the 
sugar  beet,  issued  in  1880  by  the  Department  of  Agriculture.  It  is  there 
recounted  that  two  Philadelphians,  as  early  as  1880,  became  interested  in  the 
beet  sugar  industry  which  was  then  in  its  infancy  in  Europe.  Eight  years 
later  David  L.  Child  undertook  in  a  small  way  the  production  of  beet  sugar 


458 


SUGAR,   SIRUP,   CONFECTIONERY,    AND   HONEY. 


in  Northampton,  Mass.,  and  issued  a  small  work  on  the  subject,  entitled 
*'The  Culture  of  the  Beet  and  the  Manufacture  of  Beet  Sugar."  He  reports 
that  he  had  grown  beets  that  would  yield  6  percent  of  sugar  which  cost  not 
more  than  ii  cents  a  pound.  He  made  in  all  about  one  thousand,  three 
hundred  pounds  of  sugar. 

The  first  factory  of  any  considerable  size  in  the  United  States  was  erected 
in  1863  at  Chatsworth,  III,  but  this  proved  to  be  a  financial  failure.  A  beet 
sugar  factory  was  erected  in  the  Sacramento  Valley,  California,  in  1869,  and 
after  various  vicissitudes  a  permanent  factory  was  established  at  Alvarado, 


Fig.  68,— Correct  Position  of  a  Mature  Beet  in  the  Soii^.— (Farmers'  Bulletin  52.) 

as  has  already  been  mentioned.  In  1874  as  much  as  1,500,000  pounds  of 
beet  sugar  were  made  in  California.  In  1870  and  187 1  New  Jersey  and 
Massachusetts  enacted  legislation  exempting  from  taxation  for  a  period  of 
10  years  all  property  devoted  to  the  production  of  beet  sugar.  Factories  were 
established  in  Massachusetts  and  in  Delaware  later  on,  but  these  all  suffered 
financial  reverses.  It  was  not  until  the  latter  part  of  the  8o's  that  the  beet 
sugar  industry  in  the  United  States  was  placed  upon  a  paying  basis,  and 
even  since  that  date  many  ventures  in  the  manufacture  of  beet  sugar  have 
resulted  in  financial  loss  and  in  the  abandonment  of  the  factories. 

Conditions  oj  Cultivation. — The  sugar  beet  in  the  United  States  does  not 


BEET   SUGAR. 


459 


460 


SUGAR,   SIRUP,   CONFECTIONERY,   AND   HONEY. 


produce  its  maximum  content  of  sugar  in  areas  where  the  mean  temperature 
for  the  three  months  of  June,  July,  and  August  rises  above  70  degrees  F. 
The  southern  Hmit  of  this  area  is  an  irregular,  waving  line,  as  indicated  in  the 
accompanying  map  (Fig.  69).  There  are,  of  course,  localities  where  high- 
grade  beets  can  be  produced  south  of  this  line,  but  in  point  of  fact  nearly 
every  successful  beet  sugar  enterprise  has  been  located  within  the  field  indi- 
cated. There  is  really  no  limit  to  the  northern  edge  of  this  belt  except  that 
of  short  seasons,  incident  to  late  frosts  of  spring  and  early  frosts  of  autumn. 
To  successfully  compete  in  the  sugar  markets  of  the  world  the  sugar  beet 
should  enter  the  factory  with  an  average  percentage  of  sugar  of  not  less  than 


Fig.  70.— a  Field  of  Beets  Ready  for  Harvesting.  —{Bureau  of  Plant  Industry.) 


12.  Very  much  richer  beets  are,  of  ten  produced  and  in  some  of  the  irrigated 
areas  of  the  west,  where  the  climate  is  remarkably  dry,  an  average  percentage 
of  16  and  18  even  has  been  obtained.  In  the  whole  beet  sugar  crop  of  the 
United  States  the  average  percentage  of  sugar  in  the  beet  is  probably  not  far 
from  13  or  14.  In  this  respect  it  is  seen  that  the  beet  is  richer  in  sugar  than 
the  average  sugar  cane  of  Louisiana,  which  does  not  contain  over  11  or  12 
percent  of  sugar. 

Yield  per  Acre. — The  average  yield  per  acre  of  sugar  beets  in  the  United 
States  is  unfortunately  very  low,  due  chiefly  to  ignorance  of  the  proper  method 
of  culture.  The  sugar  beet  is  more  of  a  garden  than  a  field  crop  and  requires 
special  cultivation  and  fertilization.     The  average  yield  in  the  United  States 


BEET   SUGAR. 


461 


has  probably  not  exceeded  eight  tons  per  acre,  while  the  average  yield  in 
Europe  is  twelve  or  thirteen  tons  per  acre.  In  this  respect  the  Louisiana  sugar 
cane  has  a  marked  advantage,  the  average  crop  being  over  twenty  tons,  while 
thirty  and  even  forty  tons  are  often  obtained.  As  soon  as  our  farmers  learn 
the  principles  of  culture  it  is  certain  that  the  average  yield  in  the  United 
States  will  be  as  great  as  that  in  Europe.  A  typical  field  of  beets  ready  for 
the  harvest  is  shown  in  Fig.  70, 

Manufacture. — The  manufacture  of  beet  sugar  is  both  a  simple  and  a 
complicated  operation.  The  simplicity  of  it  consists  in  the  fact  that  it  is 
only  necessary  to  extract  the  saccharine  juices  of  the  beet,  properly  clarify 


Fig.  71.— Beets  Ready  for  Transportation  to  Factory.— (Bureau  of  Plant  Industry.) 


them,  and  reduce  them  by  evaporation  to  a  point  where  the  sugar  will  crys- 
tallize. In  reality  the  operation  of  successful  manufacture  requires  elaborate 
and  costly  machinery  and  a  high  degree  of  technical  skill.  A  brief  outline 
of  the  method  will  be  sufficient  for  the  purpose  of  this  manual. 

The  beets,  after  harvesting,  have  the  tops  cut  off  with  a  small  quantity  of 
the  adhering  material  of  the  neck  of  the  beet,  which  contains  large  quantities 
of  salts  and  is  not  suitable  to  enter  the  factory.  In  Fig.  71  is  shown  a  view 
of  a  beet  field  after  the  harvest.  The  beets  are  then  thoroughly  washed 
and  passed  through  a  slicing  machine  in  which  they  are  cut  up  into  thin 
slices  or  ribbons.  They  then  enter  a  series  of  tanks,  known  as  a  diffusion 
battery,  in  which  they  are  thoroughly  treated  with  hot  water,  by  means  of 


462 


SUGAR,   SIRUP,    CONFECTIONERY,   AND   HONEY. 


which  practically  all  of  the  sugar  which  they  contain  is  extracted.     The 
saccharine  product  obtained,  known  as  the  diffusion  juice,  is  treated  with  a 


Fig.  72.— Diffusion  Battery. — { Farmer'' s  Bulletin  32.) 

large  excess  of  lime,  heated,  and  carbonic  acid  derived  from  a  lime  kiln  blown 
through  it  until  the  lime  is  all  converted  into  a  carbonate  carrying  down  with 


BEET  SUGAR. 


463 


it  the  impurities  of  the  juices.  The  diffusion  juice  as  it  comes  from  the  diffu- 
sion battery  is  usually  almost  as  black  as  ink.  After  carbonatation,  as  the 
process  above  is  called,  it  is  of  a  clear,  light  amber  tint.  To  separate  the 
liquid  from  the  solid  matter  the  whole  is  passed  through  a  filter  press  from 
which  the  juice  emerges  bright  and  clear  and  the  carbonate  of  lime  with  its 
adhering  impurities  remains  in  the  filter  press  as  hard  cakes.  This  process 
is  repeated  in  order  to  secure  as  great  a  purity  as  possible  in  the  juice. 

Evaporation. — The  purified  juice  is  conducted  into  multiple-effect  vacuum 
pans,  Fig.  73,  from  which  the  air  is  partially  exhausted  by  a  pump,  the  vacuum 
thus  rising  in  the  series.    There  are  usually  three  or  four  of  these  pans  joined  to- 


pic. 73. — Multiple-effect  Evaporating  Apparatus. — {Farmers''  Bulletin  S2.) 

gether, — the  first  one  having  the  least  air  exhausted  from  it  and  the  last  one  the 
most,  that  is,  having  the  highest  vacuum.  The  vapor  which  arises  from  the 
first  pan  is  conducted  through  the  copper  coils  to  the  second  and  serves  as 
the  heating  agent  while  the  vapor  from  the  second  pan  passes  through  the  copper 
coils  to  the  third  and  so  on  to  the  fourth.  Thus  the  steam  used  for  evaporating 
is  turned  only  on  the  first  pan  and  by  this  means  a  great  economy  in  the  use 
of  fuel  is  secured.  In  this  way  the  juice  is  evaporated  to  a  sirup.  This 
is  usually  somewhat  colored  and  if  white  sugar  is  made  it  is  bleached  by 
passing  through  bone-black  or  by  the  application  of  sulfur  fumes.  WTien 
sulfur  is  used  it  is  often  applied  first  to  the  unevaporated  juice  as  well  as  to  the 
sirup. 


464 


SUGAR,   SIRUP,   CONFECTIONERY,   AND   HONEY. 


Final  Crystallization. — The  sirup  is  now  ready  for  the  final  process,  which 
takes  place  in  what  is  known  as  the  vacuum  strike  pan,  Fig.  74.  A  con- 
siderable quantity  of  sirup  is  introduced  so  as  to  cover  the  lower  coils  of  this 
pan  and,  after  the  vacuum  is  established  by  a  pump,  evaporated  to  the  crys- 
tallizing point.  An  additional  quantity  of  cold  sirup  is  then  drawn  into  the  pan, 
chilling  the  mass  and  thus  producing  incipient  crystallization  in  the  form  of  ex- 
tremely minute  crystals.  The  evaporation  is  now  continued  with  the  addition 
of  sirup  from  time  to  time,  by  which  process  the  sugar  crystals  begin  to  grow. 
In  the  course  of  a  few  hours  the  pan  is  full  of  crystals  of  the  size  desired. 

Purification  oj  the  Sugar. — The  vacuum  is  broken  and  the  crystallized 


Fig.  74.— Vacuum  Strike  V\t<(.— {Farmers'  Bulletin  s2.) 


mass  of  sugar  drawn  into  a  mixing  apparatus  whereby  all  lumps  are  broken  up 
and  a  uniform  magma  secured.  Thigis  done  while  the  mass  is  still  warm. 
Were  it  allowed  to  cool  it  would  be  extremely  difficult  to  break  it  up.  The 
warm  mixture  is  then  passed  into  the  centrifugal  machine,  by  means  of  which 
the  molasses  is  separated  from  the  crystals  and  these  remain  as  white  pure 
crystals  in  the  pan.  The  whole  process  of  separating  the  juice  from  the 
massecuite,  as  the  mass  is  called,  occupies  only  a  few  minutes.  Thus  the 
sugar  is  often  centrifugalled  and  in  the  barrels  before  it  is  cold  from  the 
vacuum  pan. 


MANUFACTURE   OF   CANE   SUGAR. 


465 


The  above  is  merely  the  outline  of  a  method  which  requires  complicated 
apparatus,  often  of  extensive  proportions,  and  which  could  not  be  described  in 
■detail  except  in  a  technical  work.  It  gives  the  reader,  however,  an  idea  of 
how  the  beet  sugar  which  .he  eats  is  made.  Often  white  sugar  is  not  made 
at  the  sugar  factory-,  in  which  case  the  bleaching  with  bone-black,  etc.,  is  omitted 
and  a  brown  sugar  is  produced  which  afterward  goes  to  the  refinery. 


Fig.  75.— Sugar  Cane  Field  Ready  for  Harvest.— (Phoiog^raphed  dv  //.  U\  Wiley.) 


Growth  of  Sugar  Cane. — The  growth  of  sugar  cane  is  confined  to  tropical 
and  subtropical  regions.  In  the  United  States  this  crop  is  grown  chiefly  in 
Louisiana  and  Texas.  Its  cultivation  does  not  extend  northward  beyond 
the  center  of  Georgia.  Typical  scenes  in  sugar  cane  fields  are  shown  in 
Figs.  75  and  76. 

Manufacture  of  Cane  Sugar. — In  the  manufacture  of  sugar  from  the 
sugar  cane  the  first  process,  naturally,  after  the  harvest,  is  the  expression  of  the 
31 


466  SUGAR,   SIRUP,   CONFECTIONERY,    AND   HONEY. 

juice  from  the  cane.  At  the  time  of  harvesting  the  canes  are  topped  in  such 
a  way  as  to  cut  off  the  green  portion  of  the  upper  part  of  the  stalk  and  the 
leaves  also  are  removed. 

There  are  two  methods  of  extracting  the  juice  from  the  cane,  one  similar 
to  that  described  for  the  sugar  beet  but  used  very  little.  Only  one  or  two 
factories  in  the  United  States  use  this  method  of  extraction.  The  most 
common  method  of  extraction  is  by  passing  the  canes  through  heavy  mills. 


Fig.  76.— Cane  Field  Partly  ¥i.\-R\KST^T>.— {Photographed  by  H.  W.  Wiley.) 

These  mills  are  made  of  great  strength  so  as  to  bear  an  immense  pressure 
without  breaking.  The  largest  mills  have  a  capacity  of  grinding  from  500 
to  1000  tons  of  cane  a  day.  Many  of  them  grind  only  from  200  to 
500  tons  per  day.  The  mills  are  nearly  always  placed  in  series,  that  is,  the 
cane  is  subjected  to  a  double  pressure.  The  first  mill  is  uniformly  composed 
of  three  rollers  of  the  same  size  and  set  so  that  the  first  and  second  are  not 
quite  so  close  together  as  the  second  and  third.     The  second  mill  also  often 


MANUFACTURE  OF  MAPLE  SUGAR,  467 

consists  of  three  rollers  the  same  as  the  first  mill,  but  sometimes  only  two. 
Occasionally  a  third  mill  is  used.  It  is  customary  to  sprinkle  the  crushed 
cane  as  it  comes  from  the  first  mill  with  water  before  it  enters  the  second  mill, 
thus  securing  a  greater  degree  of  extraction.  The  residue  from  the  mill  is 
called  bagasse  and  is  commonly  carried  directly  to  the  furnace  and  used  as 
fuel,  furnishing  steam,  to  evaporate  the  juice  and  drive  the  mill.  The  mills 
extract  from  75  to  80  percent  of  the  weight  of  cane  in  juice.  The  sugar 
cane  contains  about  88  percent  of  its  weigkt  of  sugar  juice.  It  is  seen, 
therefore,  that  a  considerable  portion  of  the  sugar  remains  in  the  bagasse. 
By  the  process  of  diffusion  a  larger  proportion  of  the  sugar  is  extracted  than 
by  milling,  but  the  resulting  juices  are  very  much  diluted  and  require  a  greater 
combustion  of  fuel  for  evaporation. 

Clarifying  the  Juice. — The  juice  as  expressed  from  the  cane  is  a  dirty- 
looking  mass  and  requires  to  be  clarified  before  it  is  concentrated.  It  is  a 
very  common  practice  to  subject  the  fresh  juice  to  the  fumes  of  burning 
sulfur.  In  all  cases  the  first  step  in  the  clarifying  is  the  addition  of  lime 
to  neutraHze  the  natural  acidity  of  the  juice  and  faciUtate  the  coagulation 
of  the  dissolved  matter.  The  limed  juice  is  next  subjected  to  heating  and 
as  the  boiling  point  approaches  a  separation  of  the  suspended  and  coagulated 
matter  takes  place,  the  light  coming  to  the  top  and  the  heavy  falling  to  the 
bottom.  The  common  method  of  separating  these  bodies  is  by  skimming 
the  top  coagulum  and  settling  the  bottom  portion  and  drawing  off  the  clear 
juice  therefrom.  In  addition  to  this  to  get  a  more  complete  separation  the 
heated  juice  may  be  run  through  a  filter  press. 

The  clarification  of  sugar  cane  juice,  as  is  seen,  is  much  more  simple  than 
that  of  beet  juice.  The  method  employed  for  the  clarification  of  beet  juice 
is  sometimes  used  for  cane  juice  but  not  very  frequently. 

Evaporation  oj  Clarified  Juice. — After  the  clarification  is  completed  the 
further  treatment  of  the  juice  is  exactly  the  same  as  that  for  the  sugar  beet. 

Manufacture  of  Maple  Sugar. — The  maple  trees  in  the  United  States 
grow  in  the  New  England  states,  especially  in  Vermont,  and  in  New  York, 
Ohio,  and  Indiana.  Very  little  sugar  is  made  in  other  states.  The  season 
of  manufacture  is  at  the  beginning  of  spring,  when  the  sap  first  begins  to 
run  and  before  the  buds  of  the  new  leaves  have  developed  very  extensively. 
The  season  lasts  from  four  to  six  weeks.  In  New  England  it  begins  the 
latter  part  of  March  and  in  Ohio  and  Indiana  in  February.  The  trees  are 
bored  and  a  tubular  spile  driven  into  the  wood  through  which  the  sap  escapes 
into  the  bucket  or  other  receptacle.  Figs.  77,  78,  and  79  are  typical  scenes 
in  a  small  maple  orchard  during  the  season,  showing  tapping  of  the  trees 
and  collection  and  boiling  of  the  sap.  The  sap  of  the  maple  tree  is  extremely 
clear  and  requires  but  little  clarifying.  It  is  usually  evaporated  in  open 
kettles  or  pans,  the  vacuum  process  not  being  employed.    The  crystallization 


468 


SUGAR,   SIRUP,    CONFECTIONERY,   AND   HONEY. 


Fig.  77. — Tapping  thk  Mapi.k  T rkkh.— {Co/tjirsv  Forest  Service,  Department  of  Agrictdture.) 


Fig.  78.— Transporting  the  Sap  to  the  Sugar  \{ov%v..— {Courtesy  Forest  Service,  Department 

0/  Agriculture.) 


REFINING    OF   SUGAR. 


469 


takes  place  at  the  final  moment  of  evaporation  and  usually  the  whole  mass 
is  sold  as  sugar,  forming  what  is  known  in  the  cane  sugar  industry  as  concrete. 
Maple  sugar  is  never  refined,  since  in  the  process  of  refining  the  peculiar 
flavor  and  odor  which  give  it  its  chief  value  would  disappear.  The  quantity 
of  maple  sugar  made  in  the  United  States  is  almost  negligible  from  a  com- 
mercial point  of  view,  amounting  annually  to  only  about  10,000  tons.  Perhaps 
a  greater  quantity  of  maple  sap  is  used  in  the  form  of  sirup  than  of  sugar. 

Refining  of  Sugar. — All  kinds  of  raw  sugar  but  maple  are  refined 
before  entering  commerce.  The  public  taste  has  demanded  a  pure  white 
sugar  and  in  so  far  as  beet  sugar  is  concerned  the  refining  process  is  a  necessity, 
inasmuch  as  raw  beet  sugar  has  a  very  disagreeable  soapy  taste  and  odor 


Fig.  79.— Boiling  the  Maple  Sap. — [Courtesy  Forest  Service,  Department  of  Agriculture.) 


which  render  it  unfit  for  consumption.  On  the  other  hand  raw  cane  sugar 
is  aromatic,  fragrant,  and  delicious  to  a  far  greater  degree  in  the  raw  state 
than  when  it  is  refined,  since  after  the  refining  process  it  is  difficult  to  distin- 
guish the  product  of  the  beet  juice  from  that  of  the  sugar  cane. 

Process  of  Refining. — The  manipulation  attending  the  refining  of  sugar 
is  a  somewhat  simple  one,  but  experience  has  shown  that  it  can  only  be  done 
economically  in  very  large  establishments,  many  of  which  cost  millions 
of  dollars.  The  attempt  to  refine  sugar  on  a  small  scale  makes  the  product 
too  expensive  to  compete  commercially  with  the  product  of  the  large  refinery. 
The  raw  sugar  is  first  mixed  with  water  and  melted  and  reduced  to  the  con- 
dition of  a  sirup.     In  .this  state  it  is  treated  with  lime  and  clarified  as  has 


470  SUGAR,   SIRUP,   CONFECTIONERY,   AND   HONEY. 

been  described  for  sugar  cane  juice.  Sometimes  at  this  stage  it  is  also  treated 
with  sulfur  fumes,  but  not  usually.  After  clarifying  the  juice  is  filtered  through 
bags  or  filter  presses  so  as  to  free  it  from  all  suspended  matter.  In  order 
to  decolorize  it  it  is  then  passed  through  large  cylinders  filled  with  bone-black 
from  which  it  emerges  quite  or  almost  water-white.  When  the  bone-black 
loses  its  decolorizing  properties  it  is  removed  from  the  cylinder  and  reburned 
in  closed  retorts,  by  which  process  it  regains  its  power  to  decolorize  the 
sugar  solution.  The  decolorized  juices  are  next  taken  into  vacuum  strike 
pans,  as  has  already  been  described  in  the  manufacture  of  sugar,  only  of  a 
much  larger  size.  In  these  pans  they  are  evaporated  and  crystallized  and  the 
sugar  separated  in  centrifugals  as  described  above.  After  the  sugar  comes 
from  the  centrifugal  it  is  placed  in  a  granulating  apparatus,  a  large  revolving 
drum  supplied  with  a  steam  jacket  from  which  it  emerges  dry.  Granulated 
sugar  is  almost  chemically  pure,  often  containing  99.9  percent  of  pure  sugar. 
The  molasses  from  the  centrifugal  is  diluted,  passed  through  bone-black,  and 
reboiled  and  a  new  lot  of  sugar  obtained.  Finally  when  the  product  becomes 
so  low  in  sugar  as  not  to  yield  a  white  product  lower  grades  of  brown  sugar  are 
made,  which  are  usually  sold  without  drying  and  contain  considerable  quan- 
tities of  moisture  and  some  molasses.  The  final  molasses  which  no  longer 
crystallizes  is  sold  usually  for  mixing  with  glucose  to  make  table  sirup.  It 
contains  so  much  mineral  matter  in  solution  as  to  be  hardly  suitable  for 
food  purposes. 

Loaf  sugar,  cut  loaf,  etc.,  are  forms  of  pure  sugar  which  are  pressed  or  cut 
in  the  forms  in  which  they  appear  on  the  market  and  then  dried  instead 
of  being  dried  in  a  granulated  state  as  described.  Powdered  sugar  is  dry 
refined  sugar  reduced  to  a  fine  powder. 

In  the  refining  of  sugar  it  is  quite  customary  to  wash  the  crystals  in  the 
centrifugal  with  ultramarine  blue  suspended  in  water.  This  is  done  in 
order  to  form  with  the  blue  water  and  the  yellow  tint,  which  sometimes  accom- 
panies the  crystals,  a  perfectly  white  appearance,  on  the  optical  principle 
which  shows  that  when  a  blue  and  a  yellow  tint  are  mixed  a  white  color 
results.  This  process  is  not  required  for  the  first-class  product  coming  from 
the  first  crystallization  and  very  often  dealers  require  sugar  for  special  purposes 
which  has  not  been  so  treated.  It  would  be  advisable  if  all  consumers  should 
demand  a  sugar  of  the  same  character. 

While  the  refining  of  sugar  can  probably  never  be  abolished  it  should  not 
be  forgotten  that  the  very  finest  sugar,  from  a  palatable  point  of  view,  is  that 
made  from  the  maple  or  sugar  cane  without  refining  in  which  the  crystals 
retain  their  natural  yellow  color.  If  consumers  understood  thoroughly  the 
value  of  a  sugar  of  this  kind  they  would  demand  it  instead  of  the  dead  white 
product  which  is  now  in  vogue. 

As  has  been  stated  a  raw  sugar  of  this  kind  could  not  be  used  if  made 
from  beets. 


ADULTERATION   OF   SUGAR. 


471 


Sugar  Crops  of  the  World. — These  figures  include  local  consumption 
of  home  production  wherever  known  and  are  taken  from  Willett  and  Gray's 
estimates  of  the  world's  sugar  crops,  being  stated  in  tons  of  2,240  pounds: 


Country. 

1905-6. 

1906-7. 

1907-8. 

1908-^. 

1909-10. 

Cane  Sugar, 
north  america. 

United  States : 

Contiguous- 
Louisiana  

Texas 

Noncont  iguous — 

Hawaii 

Porto  Rico 

Tons. 
336,752 
12,000 

383,225 
213,000 

Tons. 
230,000 
13,000 

392,871 
210,000 

Tons. 
340,000 
12, 000 

465,288 
200,000 

Tons. 
355,000 
15,000 

477,817 
245,000 

Tons. 
325000 
10,000 

490,000 
280,009 

Total  United  States 

944,977 

845,871 

1,017,288 

1,092,817 

1,105,000 

Cuba 

Mexico,  Central  America,  West  Indies 

1,178,749 
428,208 

1,427,673 
414,500 

961,958 
398,182 

1,513-582 
402,061 

1,700,000 
467,600 

Total 

2,551,934 

2,688,044 

2,377,428 

3,008,460 

3,272,000 

South  America    . 

700,001 

628,777 

.540.518 

694,655 

684,000 

Europe : 

Spain 

15,722 

16,400 

11,000 

20,000 

16,000 

Asia 

'2,926,209 

3,443,794 

3.421,827 

3,353,685 

3,260,000 

Africa 

317,967 

326,825 

284,870 

318.992 

395.000 

Oceanica 

230,000 

249,000 

280.725. 

231.098 

217,328 

Grand  total,  cane  sugar 

6,741,833 

7.352,840 

6,916,368 

7.626.890 

7,844,328 

Beet  Sugar. 

north  america. 

United  States 

279,393 
11,419 

431,796 
11,367 

413.954 
7,943 

^^ 

457,562 
8802 

Canada  

Total 

290,812 

443,163 

421.897 

.^87.218 

466,364 

EUROPE. 

1,509,789 
328,770 
1,089,684 
2,418,156 
207,189 
968,500 
410,255 

1,343,940 
282,804 
756,094 

2,239,179 
181,417 

1,440,130 
467,244 

1424.657 
232,352 
727.712 

2,129,597 
175,184 

1,410,000 
462,772 

1,398,000 
258,000 
802,000 

2.080,000 
214,000 

1,265,000 
500,000 

Belgium 

250,000 

825,000 
2,040,000 

200,000 
1,150,000 

460,000 

Germany 

Russia 

Other  countries 

Total  . 

6.932.343 

6.710.808 

6,562,274 

6,517,000 

6,185.000 

Grand  total,  beet  sugar 

7,223,155 

7.153,971 

6,984.171 

6,904,218 

6,651.364 

Grand  total,  cane  and  beet  sugar 

13,964,988 

14,506,811 

13.900.539 

14,531,108 

14.495,692 

Adulteration  of  Sugar. — In  the  United  States  there  are  few  adultera- 
tions of  sugar  practiced.  The  product  has  grown  so  cheap  not  only  in  the 
United.  States  but  all  over  the  world  that  such  practices  are  no  longer  reniu- 
nerative,  and  whenever  adulteration  ceases  to  pay  it  requires  no  law  to  prevent 
it.  White  sugars  have  been  adulterated  from  time  to  time  by  the  admixture 
of  white  earth  or  terra  alba  (either  ground  silicate,  ground  g\^psum,  or  ground 
chalk).     I  have  never  found  any  sophistication  of  this  kind  in  an  American 


472  SUGAR,    SIRUP,   CONFECTIONERY,   AND   HONEY. 

white  sugar.  White  flour  has  also  been  added  to  sugar  as  an  adulterant,, 
but  that  form  of  adulteration  is  not  known  in  this  country.  The  only  adul- 
teration which  is  found  in  American  sugar,  in  so  far  as  I  know,  is  that  incident 
to  the  process  of  manufacture  which  I  have  described.  When  sulfur  is  used 
in  sulfuring  the  juice  before  clarifying  a  trace  of  sulfurous  acid  may  still 
adhere  to  the  finished  product.  When  bluing  is  used  the  particles  of  ultra- 
marine blue  attach  themselves  to  the  sugar  crystals  and  become  an  adulteration. 
I  have  seen  sugar  so  blued  that  on  solution  the  water  would  turn  blue.  Sugar 
granules  are  also  sometimes  washed  with  salts  of  tin,  a  very  poisonous  com- 
pound, and  a  trace  of  these  salts  may  still  adhere  to  the  crystals.  Sugar 
has  also  been  mixed  with  dextrose  made  from  starch,  in  other  words,  from 
starch  sugar,  or  as  it  is  ordinarily  called,  anhydrous  grape  sugar.  This  is  a 
form  of  adulteration  which  has  been  little  practiced  on  account  of  the  diffi- 
culty of  getting  a  dry  starch  sugar  in  commercial  quantities.  Recent  im- 
provements in  the  manufacture  of  dextrose  have  made  it  very  probable  that 
this  form  of  adulteration  may  be  more  frequent  in  the  future.  As  a  food 
product  pure  dextrose  is  probably  as  valuable  as  sugar,  but  if  it  can  be  made 
cheaper  it  would  become  a  fraudulent  adulteration  or  if  added  in  any  way 
without  notice  its  addition  is  fraudulent  and  constitutes  an  adulteration.  There 
is  little,  however,  to  fear  from  this  form  of  adulteration  as  long  as  the  price 
of  sugar  does  not  go  much  above  5  cents  per  pound. 

Sugar  as  a  Food. — The  food  value  of  sugar  is  well  defined.  It  furnishes- 
next  to  oil  and  fat  the  most  complete  food  for  heat  and  energy  that  can  be 
consumed,  ranking,  of  course,  as  starch  in  this  particular.  Sugar  is  a  quick- 
acting  food  and  therefore  is  especially  valuable  to  relieve  exhaustion.  It  is 
particularly  useful  for  soldiers  on  a  forced  march  or  for  people  engaged  in 
any  extraordinary  effort.  A  lump  of  sugar  eaten  occasionally  keeps  up  the 
strength  and  prevents  exhaustion.  The  value  of  sugar  as  a  food  is  not  appre- 
ciated as  it  should  be,  since  it  is  valued  mostly  for  its  condimental  and  preser- 
vative properties. 

SIRUP. 

A  very  common  form  in  which  sugar  is  used  in  this  country  is  in  the  form 
of  sirup.  The  United  States  more  than  any  other  nation  consumes  viscous 
liquid  solutions  of  sugar  as  a  condimental  food  product,  especially  at  breakfast 
on  hot  cakes  and  other  articles  of  diet.  Table  sirup  is  an  almost  uniform 
article  of  diet  upon  the  American  breakfast  table  whether  in  the  household,, 
the  hotel,  or  restaurant. 

Maple  Sirup. — Among  the  sirups,  first  of  all  must  be  mentioned  the  most 
valuable  and  highly  appreciated,  namely,  maple  sirup.  Maple  sirup  is  the 
product  of  the  evaporation  of  the  juice  of  the  sap  of  the  maple  tree  to  a  con- 
sistency in  which  only  about  30  or  35  percent  of  its  weight  is  water.  This 
is  sufficient  to  prevent  the  crystallization  of  the  sugar  for  at  least  a  reasonable 


MAPLE   SIRUP. 


473 


length  of  time.  Maple  sirup  is  best  when  freshly  made,  and  if  kept  through 
the  summer  should  be  put  in  tins  and  tightly  sealed  while  hot.  In  this  condi- 
tion it  will  keep  its  original  flavor  almost  entirely,  whereas  if  left  in  barrels 
or  other  ordinary  receptacles  its  flavor  is  impaired.  Maple  sirup  is  also 
made  by  dissolving  maple  sugar  as  occasion  may  require,  but  this  kind  is  not 
so  highly  prized  as  that  made  directly  from  the  maple  sap. 


Fig.  So.— Small  Prlmitive  Mill  for  Extracting  Juice  from  Sugar  Cane  for  Sirup  Making. 
—{^Photograph  by  H.  W.  Uiley.) 


Analysis  of  Maple  Sirup. — The  average   composition  of  ten  samples  of 

maple  sirup  of  known  purity  is  as  follows: 

Total  solids, 70-50  percent 

Water, 31-40        " 

Ash, 53        " 

Sucrose, 64.10        " 

Reducing  sugar, 1.30        " 

The  study  of  the  ash  of  maple  sirup  is  an  important  point  in  connection 
with  its  purity.     It  is  distinctly  difi^erent  from  the  ash  of  the  sugar  cane  and 


474 


CANE   SIRUP. 


475 


sorghum,  and  its  study  should  not  be  neglected  in  all  cases  where  there  is 
any  doubt  respecting  the  genuineness  of  the  samples. 

Cane  Sirup. — Sugar  cane  sirup  is  made  by  expressing  the  juice  of  the  sugar 
cane  as  described,  clarifying,  and  evaporating  the  juice  to  a  consistency  where 
only  about  25  or  30  percent  of  the  water  remains,  which  is  sufficient  to  prevent 
the  sugar  from  crystallizing  for  a  reasonable  length  of  time.  Sugar  cane 
sirup  is  made  in  hundreds  of  small  factories  in  the  states  of  Texas,  Louisiana, 


Fig.  82. — Relative  Length  of  Canes  Used  for  Sirup  MAKiViG.—iPhoiog-raph  by  H.  IV.  Wiley.) 


Alabama,  Mississippi,  Georgia,  South  Carolina,  and  Florida.  It  is  usually 
made  in  a  small  way  with  mills  driven  by  a  horse  or  mule  and  with  primitive 
methods  of  evaporation  in  an  ordinary  kettle.  Hard  pine  wood  is  burned  for 
the  evaporation  and  the  empyreumatic  flavor  of  the  pine  is  often  absorbed  by 
the  sirup.  In  Figs.  80  and  81  are  shown  typical  apparatus  used  for  the  manu- 
facture of  sirup  from  sugar  cane  in  Georgia  and  in  Fig.  82  the  relative  length 
of  canes  ready  for  manufacture.    In  factories  where  modern  apparatus  is  used, 


476  SUGAR,    SIRUP,   CONFECTIONERY,   AND   HONEY. 

in  SO  far  as  I  know,  the  vacuum  process  is  not  employed.  In  fact,  except  for 
economy  of  fuel,  the  vacuum  process  would  be  objectionable,  since  by  boiling 
in  an  ordinary  open  kettle  a  larger  quantity  of  sugar  is  inverted  and  thus  the 
tendency  to  crystallization  is  diminished.  It  is  a  common  but  reprehensible 
practice  in  making  sugar  cane  sirup  to  subject  the  freshly  expressed  juice  to 
the  fumes  of  burning  sulfur.  This  makes  a  light-colored  sirup  but  introduces 
a  substance  highly  objectionable  and  one  which  destroys  to  a  certain  degree  the 
flavor  of  the  product.  Experiments  made  by  the  Department  of  Agriculture 
show  that  delicious,  wholesome,  and  palatable  sugar  cane  sirup  is  best  made  by 
clarifying  the  expressed  juice  solely  by  means  of  heat  and  mechanical  separa- 
tion of  the  coagulum.  The  addition  of  lime  or  any  other  clarifying  reagent 
is  unnecessary  and  only  makes  a  sirup  of  less  desirable  and  less  palatable 
quality.  Since  cane  sirup  is  made  uniformly  in  open  kettles  or  pans  there 
is  a  slight  caramelization  of  the  sirup  during  evaporation  that  gives  a  red- 
dish tint  to  the  product,  which  should  be  a  mark  of  superiority  instead  of 
being  so  often  regarded  as  a  mark  of  inferiority.  The  consumer  should 
always  be  suspicious  of  a  sugar  cane  sirup  which  is  light  in  color.  It  is  prob- 
ably a  case  of  "Greeks  bearing  gifts"  in  the  form  of  sulfurous  acid  or  other 
injurious  bleaching  materials.  Sugar  cane  sirup  is  not  appreciated  by  the 
people  of  the  North.  In  fact  it  is  rarely  seen  or  consumed  by  them.  In 
its  own  country,  however,  it  is  a  staple  article  of  diet,  highly  esteemed,  whole- 
some, palatable,  and  nutritious. 

Analysis  of  Sugar  Cane  Sirup. — The  average  composition  of  thirteen 
samples  of  cane  sirup  of  known  purity  is  as  follows: 

Total  solids, 75.0  percent 

Water, , 25.8 

Ash, 1.2        " 

Sucrose, 52.0        " 

Reducing  sugar, 17.6        " 

Sorghum  Sirup. — The  sorghum  plant  (Sorghum  saccharatum)  is  grown 
practically  in  every  state  in  the  Union,  but  principally  in  Kansas.  Some 
of  the  very  best  sorghum  sirup  made  in  the  United  States,  however,  is  made 
in  Minnesota,  and  this  plant  can  be  used  for  sirup  making  purposes  over 
the  whole  area  of  the  United  States. 

The  method  of  manufacture  is  exactly  that  of  sugar  cane  sirup.  It  is 
made  in  small  mills  mostly  driven  by  horse  power,  though  some  large  factories 
have  steam  apparatus  for  its  manufacture.  It  should  also  be  made  without 
the  use  of  any  other  clarifying  reagent  than  heat.  Sorghum  sirup  has  a 
peculiar  flavor  which  is  not  disagreeable  to  those  accustomed  to  its  use.  It 
is  extremely  wholesome,  highly  nutritious,  and  palatable.  It  is  a  staple 
article  of  diet  with  thousands  of  families  in  the  United  States,  principally 
in  the  northern  and  central  portion.  It  rarely  is  made  in  the  New  England 
states  and  not  very  often  in  those  southern  states  where  sugar  cane  can  be 


MOLASSES.  477 

used  in  its  place,  since  the  sugar  cane  makes  a  sirup  which  is  preferred  by 

most  people. 

Analysis  of  Sorghum  Sirup. — The  average  composition  of  ten  samples  of 

sorghum  sirup  of  known  purity  is  as  follows: 

Total  solids, 76.0  percent 

Water, 28.6 

Ash, 4-0        " 

Sucrose, 36.7        " 

Reducing  sugar, 26.6        " 

Molasses. — The  term  "molasses"  is  properly  applied  to  the  saccharine 
product  which  is  separated  from  sugar  in  the  process  of  manufacture.  It  is 
well  to  clearly  discriminate  in  the  use  of  the  term  in  order  that  no  confusion 
or  misunderstanding  may  arise.  To  this  end  the  terms  "sirup"  and  "molas- 
ses" may  be  contrasted.  A  sirup  is  the  direct  product  of  the  evaporation  of 
the  juice  of  a  sugar-yielding  plant  or  tree  without  the  removal  of  any  of  the 
sugar.  The  term  molasses  applies  to  the  same  process  with  the  exception 
of  the  fact  that  sugar  has  been  removed  at  least  partially  by  crystallization 
and  some  kind  of  mechanical  separation  of  the  crystals  from  the  remaining 
liquid.  Molasses,  therefore,  to  use  a  term  employed  in  chemistry,  may  be 
considered  the  "mother  liquid",  which  has  produced  the  crystallization  of 
the  sugar.  The  production  of  molasses  has  already  been  sufficiently  de- 
scribed in  the  article  on  sugar  making.  The  molasses  is  either  separated  by 
gravitation  as  in  the  old  style  of  drying  sugar  or,  as  at  the  present  time,  almost 
exclusively  by  centrifugal  action.  The  molasses  naturally  contains  all  the 
substances  in  solution  or  suspension  which  are  not  retained  upon  the  gauze 
of  the  centrifugal.  It  differs  from  the  total  mass  of  evaporated  sugar  liquid 
only  in  the  fact  that  a  large  portion  of  the  sucrose  or  crystallizable  sugar  has 
been  separated.  The  sugar  juices  of  the  cane  and  sorghum  contain  con- 
siderable quantities  of  sugar  of  a  kind  different  from  sucrose  or  common  sugar, 
namely,  an  invert  sugar,  a  "reducing  sugar,  "as  it  is  called,  which  consists 
usually  of  about  equal  parts  of  dextrose  and  levulose.  During  the  process 
of  manufacture  small  portions  of  the  sucrose  are  converted  into  sugar  of 
this  kind  thus  increasing  its  quantity.  In  the  final  crystaUization  there  is 
always  a  portion  of  sugar  uncrystallized  remaining  as  a  viscous  liquid  in  con- 
tact with  the  crystallized  particles.  This  natural  invert  sugar  which  is  in 
the  juice,  the  small  portion  formed  from  the  sucrose  during  the  process  of 
manufacture,  and  the  part  of  sucrose  remaining  uncrystallized  in  the  mother 
liquid  constitutes  the  molasses.  In  the  washing  of  sugar  the  water  which 
is  used  also  passes  into  the  molasses  thus  diluting  it  somewhat  from  its  natural 
consistence.  In  the  sugar  refinery  the  molasses  is  made  up  of  practically 
such  materials  as  just  mentioned,  but  inasmuch  as  the  separation  of  the  sugar 
is  more  complete  the  other  portions  of  the  molasses,  namely,  the  mineral 
salts,  particularly  appear  in  a  very  much  larger  proportion  than  in  the  ordinary 
molasses  as  will  be  seen  by  the  analysis  of  these  bodies. 


478  SUGAR,    SIRUP,   CONFECTIONERY,   AND   HONEY. 

Varieties  of  Molasses. — New  Orleans  Molasses. — The  real  New  Orleans 
molasses  is  the  product  of  the  manufacture  of  sugar  in  the  old-fashioned  way 
in  the  open  kettle  and  without  the  aid  of  vacuum  pans.  In  this  process  the 
crystallization  of  the  sugar  does  not  take  place  during  the  boiling  but  the 
concentrated  liquid  is  placed  in  tanks  where  the  crystallization  takes  place. 
When  this  is  complete  it  is  broken  up  into  small  fragments  and  placed  in  a 
hogshead  standing  in  an  upright  position,  the  bottom  of  which  is  perforated 
and  covered  with  straw  or  fragments  of  sugar  cane.  When  the  hogshead  is 
filled  with  the  crystallized  mixture,  through  the  action  of  gravity  the  liquid 
portion  gradually  sinks  and  passes  out  at  the  bottom  of  the  hogshead.  This 
natural  separation  of  the  molasses  makes  a  product  of  exquisite  palatability 
and  one  of  a  character  which  it  is  difficult  to  equal  even  by  the  production  of 
high-grade  sirup.  Before  the  Civil  War  this  kind  of  molasses  was  used 
throughout  the  United  States.  At  the  present  time  only  extremely  small 
quantities  of  it  are  made  inasmuch  as  the  open  kettle  process  is  practically 
a  lost  industry  in  the  South.  The  term  "New  Orleans  molasses"  as  used 
at  the  present  day,  therefore,  applies  to  a  product  of  quite  a  different  char- 
acter. 

Sugar  Cane  Molasses. — Since  the  introduction  of  modern  processes  of  mak- 
ing sugar,  namely  the  vacuum  pan  and  centrifugal  process,  the  character  of 
molasses  from  the  sugar  cane  factory  has  constantly  deteriorated.  This 
is  a  natural  deterioration  due  to  the  improvement  in  the  method  of  sugar 
making.  Much  larger  quantities  of  sugar  are  now  obtained  in  a  crystallized 
state  than  formerly.  The  molasses  is  to  this  extent  impoverished  and  the 
impurities  contained  therein  increased  proportionately.  It  is  quite  common 
now  in  the  process  of  manufacture  of  sugar  from  sugar  cane  to  secure  at 
least  three  crystallizations. 

First  Molasses. — When  the  sugar  is  crystallized  in  the  vacuum  pans  and 
separated  from  the  molasses  in  the  centrifugal  the  product  which  is  obtained 
is  called  "first  molasses."  Usually  this  molasses  is  diluted  to  a  sirup  and 
reboiled  in  connection  with  the  clarified  juices  direct  from  the  sugar  cane 
and  thus  a  second  portion  of  sugar  is  obtained  or  the  molasses  may  be  boiled 
separately  and  a  second  crystallization  of  the  sugar  separated  by  the  centrifugal. 
The  molasses  from  this  product  is  called  ^^ second  molasses'^  and  is  inferior  in 
quality  to  the  first  molasses. 

Third  Molasses. — The  second  molasses  is  reboiled  to  a  thick  consistency, 
placed  in  wagons,  and  transferred  to  a  warm  room  where  it  is  allowed  to 
remain,  sometimes  for  two  or  three  months,  when  a  third  crystallization  takes 
place.  The  sugar  from  this  crystallization  is  separated  as  usual  by  the 
centrifugal,  and  a  third  molasses  produced  of  still  greater  inferiority.  Thus, 
in  the  best  sugar  factories  high-grade  molasses  is  not  made  in  the  United 
States  but  only  that  of  inferior  quality.     This  molasses  is  largely  used  for 


MIXED   SIRUPS. 


479 


fermentation,  or  is  fed  to  the  mules  on  the  plantations.     It  is  also  employed  to 
a  certain  extent  for  mixing  purposes  as  indicated  above. 
Analysis  of  First,  Second,  and  Third  Molasses. — 


Grades. 


First, . . 
Second 
Third, 


Total 
Solids. 


Percent. 
80.00 
80.00 
80.00 


Sucrose.  'Dextrose.  Levulose. 


Percent. 
53-6o 
41.70 
3I^7o 


Percent. 

8.76 

12.20 

15.00 


Percent 
8.00 


Ash. 


Albumi- 

I    NOIDS. 


!  Acids 

AmIDS.  :      AND 

Gusts. 


Percent.'  Percent.]  Percent:  Percent. 


4.00 

12.50   I    5-35 
16.50       6.30 


0.20      0.94      4.50 

0.25     1.50  I  6.50 
0.30      2.00  j    8;;2o 


The  increasing  content  of  dextrose  and  levulose,  of  ash,  acids,  and  gums, 
and  the  decreasing  content  of  sucrose  or  pure  sugar  are  characteristic  of  the 
second  and  third  molasses. 

The  above  analyses  show  the  progressive  change  in  molasses  due  to  the 
separation  of  the  successive  portions  of  sugar  and  indicate  the  lowering  of  the 
quality  of  the  molasses,  at  least  for  food  purposes,  as  the  separation  of  the 
sugar  becomes  more  complete.  It  is  evident  that  in  the  manufacture  of 
sugar  in  this  way,  in  which  very  probably  an  effort  is  made  to  get  the  highest 
possible  yield,  the  resulting  final  molasses  is  a  substance  quite  unfit  for  human 
consumption. 

Sugar-house  Molasses. — Attention  has  already  been  called  to  the  production 
of  sugar-house  molasses  or  sugar  refinery  molasses.  This  is  a  product  which 
in  its  physical  appearance  is  far  superior  to  the  third  molasses  of  the  sugar 
factory  and  this  superiority  is  due  to  the  fact  that  all  suspended  matter  in 
the  refined  molasses  has  been  removed  by  filtration.  In  so  far  as  soluble 
materials  w^hich  are  not  food  is  concerned,  however,  the  refinery  molasses 
contains  even  larger  proportions  than  the  sugar  factory  molasses.  The 
refinery  molasses  is  not  usually  considered  suitable  for  food  except  when 
diluted  as  has  been  before  indicated  in  the  way  of  mixing  sirup. 

Mixed  Sirups. — By  far  the  greater  part  of  the  sirups  used  in  the  United 
States  are  mixtures  of  two  or  more  saccharine  substances.  The  glucose  of 
commerce  is  the  base  and  perhaps  chief  constituent  of  the  most  of  these 
mixtures.  The  glucose,  being  colorless  and  of  a  thick  body,  forms  an  ideal 
base  as  far  as  physical  properties  are  concerned,  for  a  table  sirup.  The 
quantity  used  varies  very  largely,  but  in  general  the  glucose  constitutes  by 
far  the  larger  percentage  of  the  mixed  product.  Since  glucose  has  only  a 
very  slightly  sweet  taste  and  is  devoid  of  the  general  palatable  properties 
which  make  a  sirup  attractive,  it  is  colored  and  flavored  with  the  product 
of  the  sugar  cane  or  the  maple  tree.  Sorghum  sirup  is  also  used  very  exten- 
sively in  mixing.  The  process  of  mixing  is  an  extremely  simple  one.  The 
glucose  is  warmed  until  it  is  easily  workable  and  the  added  sirups  or  molasses 


480  SUGAR,   SIRUP,   CONFECTIONERY,   AND   HONEY. 

which  are  used  for  coloring  and  flavoring  mixed  intimately  with  it.  In  large 
factories  this  is  done  by  mechanical  mixers  while  in  a  small  way  it  may  be 
done  by  hand.  Instead  of  glucose,  one  sirup  itself  may  be  used  as  the  base 
and  mixed  with  another  for  flavor,  as,  for  instance,  in  the  case  of  mixed  maple 
sirup.  Very  commonly  the  brown  sugar  is  melted  with  water  and  this  is  used 
as  a  base  for  the  formation  of  sirups.  Whichever  may  be  the  case  the  principle 
of  the  process  remains  the  same,  namely,  using  as  the  base  a  cheaper  and 
less  palatable  material  and  flavoring  and  coloring  with  the  more  expensive 
and  more  palatable  material.  From  a  dietetic  and  commercial  point  of  view 
there  can  be  no  valid  objection  raised  to  this  method  of  mixing  sirups.  The 
product  is,  as  a  rule,  attractive,  palatable,  and  wholesome. 

Attention  has  already  been  called  to  the  fact  that  the  final  molasses  in  the 
sugar  refinery,  after  all  the  sugar  has  been  extracted  that  can  possibly  be 
gotten  out  by  the  most  approved  modern  process,  is  used  very  extensively  for 
mixing  purposes.  This  molasses  has  a  very  high  content  of  soluble  salts, 
reaching  often  8  percent  or  more,  which  give  a  distinct  flavor  and  character. 
It  also  has  acquired  a  certain  flavor  quite  distinct  from  cane  sirup,  which 
gives  it  a  peculiar  value  as  a  flavoring  agent.  It  is  commonly  known  as  "re- 
finer's sirup  "  and  is  a  clear  product,  free  from  suspended  matter  by  reason  of 
its  repeated  filtration.  It  can  thus  be  mixed  with  glucose  and  forms  a  bright 
mixture,  devoid  of  suspended  matter  and  turbidity,  and  is  attractive  to  the  eye. 
Ten  percent  of  molasses  of  this  kind  added  to  a  glucose  will  make  a  mixture 
which  is  attractive  and  salable,  the  objectionable  qualities  of  each  ingredient 
being  obscured.  The  other  products  which  are  used  for  mixing  with  the 
glucose  in  the  manufacture  of  table  sirup  consist  of  the  molasses  obtained  from 
cane  sugar  factories  or  the  sirups  made  directly  from  the  sugar  cane  and 
sorghum.  All  these  bodies  have  valuable  mixing  properties  and  small  quanti- 
ties of  them  give  sufficient  color  and  flavor  to  the  mixed  product. 

Adulteration  of  Mixed  Sirups. — The  adulteration  of  mixed  sirups  consists 
chiefly  of  adulterations  that  are  in  the  materials  from  which  they  are  made. 
Glucose  itself  often  contains  sulfurous  acid  used  for  bleaching  in  the  process 
of  manufacture.  It  also  contains  considerable  quantities  of  sulfate  or  chlorid 
of  lime  incident  to  its  manufacture  and  coming  from  the  sulfuric  or  hydro- 
chloric acid  used  in  the  hydrolysis  of  the  starch  from  which  it  is  made.  The 
molasses  which  is  used  for  coloring  and  flavoring  may  also  contain  injurious 
substances.  For  instance,  sulfurous  acid  is  very  extensively  used  in  the 
manufacture  of  cane  sugar  and  this  acid  becomes  concentrated  in  the 
molasses.  Lime  is  used  very  extensively  in  the  clarification  of  the  juices 
and  this  lime  is  not  wholly  separated  but  some  of  it  is  concentrated  in  the 
molasses.  A  moderate  amount  of  lime,  however,  is  not  objectionable.  Salts 
of  tin  are  frequently  employed  in  washing  the  sugar  in  a  centrifugal  and 
these  salts  are  found  concentrated  in  the  molasses.     The  excess  of  bluing 


GENERAL  OBSERVATIONS.  48 1 

which  is  used  in  the  centrifugal  is  also  found  in  the  molasses.  Various  forms 
of  acid  phosphates  are  frequently  employed  in  the  clarifying  of  the  cane 
juices  and  a  part  of  these  is  also  found  concentrated  in  the  molasses.  In  fact 
the  molasses  from  sugar  cane  factories  very  frequently  contains  such  quan- 
tities of  these  added  substances  as  to  render  it  unfit  for  human  consumption. 
It  is  true  that  these  substances  are  diluted  when  mixed  with  glucose,  but  this 
is  not  a  sufficient  excuse  to  warrant  their  employment.  It  is  possible  to  obtain 
unobjectionable  sirups  and  molasses  for  mixing  purposes  and  manufacturers 
should  be  held  strictly  to  account  if  this  is  not  done.  Iif  so  far  as  has  come 
to  my  knowledge  there  are  no  adulterants  directly  added  to  the  mixed 
sirups  except  for  bleaching  purposes. 

Attention  should  be  called,  however,  to  still  another  form  of  adulteration 
due  to  the  fact  that  the  molasses  from  the  sugar  cane  factories  is  often  so 
dark-colored  as  to  be  even  unfit  for  mixing. 

In  such  cases  it  is  not  uncommon  to  bleach  the  molasses  by  adding  zinc  and 
acid  producing  nascent  hydrogen  and  leaving  the  salts  of  zinc,  either  the 
sulfite  or  chlorid  as  the  case  may  be,  in  the  product.  Molasses  containing 
salts  of  any  of  these  heavy  metals,  namely,  zinc,  tin,  or  lead,  should  be 
rigidly  excluded  from  consumption. 

General  Observations. — If  a  sirup  is  to  be  considered  in  the  light  of  the 
definitions  already  given,  as  the  result  of  evaporation,  after  proper  clarification 
of  the  saccharine  juices  of  sugar-producing  plants  it  is  doubtful  if  the  term 
should  be  used  in  connection  with  the  mixed  products  which  have  been 
described.  I  have  used  it  because  these  are  the  commercial  designations. 
Since  molasses  is  also  used  very  extensively  in  the  manufacture  of  these  mixed 
sirups  it  might  be  asked  if  they  could  not  also  be  as  properly  called  molasses 
as  sirup.  In  England  the  material  which  is  called  molasses  in  this  country 
is  usually  known  as  treacle  and  the  very  dark  molasses  coming  from  the 
refinery  or  the  sugar  factory  is  known  in  both  countries  as  "black  strap." 
If  molasses  be  concentrated  to  a  high  degree  and  pulled  while  cooling  the 
product  is  known  as  taffy  in  this  country  or  toffy  in  England, — it  is  also 
known  as  molasses  candy. 

The  general  conclusion  in  regard  to  this  matter  is  that  since  the  processes 
of  sugar  making  have  been  so  improved  as  to  extract  the  greater  part  of  the 
crystallizable  sugar,  thus  concentrating  the  residue  of  an  inedible  character 
in  the  molasses  and  since,  further,  the  use  of  various  chemicals  in  the  clarifying 
of  sugar  juices  has  become  general,  all  of  which  are  practically  concentrated 
in  the  molasses,  this  latter  product  has  practically  ceased  to  be  edible. 

The  laws  relating  to  the  distillation  of  alcohol  have  been  so  amended  as 
to  permit  the  production  of  industrial  alcohol,  under  conditions  prescribed 
by  the  Commissioner  of  Internal  Revenue,  free  of  tax.     Molasses  is  an  excel- 
lent material  for  this  purpose  and,  in  addition  to  this,  is  the  cheapest  material 
32 


482  SUGAR,   SIRUP,   CONFECTIONERY,   AND   HONEY. 

which  can  be  used.  The  obvious  inference  is  that  this  material  should  be 
used  exclusively  for  the  production  of  industrial  alcohol  or  for  some  other 
technical  uses  and  no  longer  be  prepared  for  human  food.  The  production 
of  straight,  pure  sirups  from  maple  sap  and  the  sap  of  the  sugar  cane  and 
of  sorghum  and,  in  certain  conditions,  from  sugar,  can  be  easily  secured  in 
quantities  sufficient  to  supply  the  demand  not  only  for  the  consumption  of 
pure  sirups  but  also  for  supplying  the  materials  which  v^hen  mixed  with 
pure  glucose  produce  the  mixed  sirups  of  commerce.  Thus  inedible  molasses 
would  be  eliminated  from  human  food  and  mixed  sirups  be  rendered  unob- 
jectionable articles  of  diet. 

CONFECTIONERY. 

The  term  confectionery  is  applied  to  a  wide  range  of  products  which  may 
in  general  be  described  as  preparations  of  saccharine  substances  with  various 
colors  and  flavors.  A  common  appellation  used  in  connection  with  con- 
fectionery and  one  which  describes  perhaps  the  major  part  of  the  product 
is  the  term  "candy." 

Material  Used  in  the  Preparation  of  Confectionery. — The  saccharine 
materials  which  are  employed  in  the  preparation  of  confectionery  are  sugars 
of  various  kinds,  namely,  maple,  cane,  and  beet  sugar  together  with  glucose, 
dextrose,  and  invert  sugar.  Starch,  which  is  not  a  saccharine  substance,  is 
sometimes  used  as  a  filler  in  some  forms  of  confectionery.  The  colors  used 
are  either  those  of  a  vegetable  character,  such  as  safTron  and  annatto,  or  those 
derived  from  animal  substances,  such  as  cochineal,  or  in  many  cases  that  large 
class  of  bodies  derived  from  coal  tar  and  generally  known  under  the  name  of 
anilin  dyes.  The  flavors  employed  are  either  natural  flavors,  such  as  those 
derived  from  nuts  and  fruits,  or  their  preparations,  extracts,  such  as  the  extract 
of  vanilla,  and  synthetic  preparations,  including  a  very  large  number  of  artificial 
flavoring  materials  resembling  to  a  greater  or  less  degree  the  natural  flavor 
of  fruits,  nuts,  or  flowers.  Chocolate  is  one  of  the  most  common  and  one  of 
the  most  highly  appreciated  flavoring  reagents  employed,  being  largely  mixed 
with  sugar  before  using.  Not  to  be  included  in  the  permissible  materials  in 
the  manufacture  of  confectionery  are  any  powdered  mineral  substances  or 
mineral  substances  of  any  kind  (except  such  as  are  incident  to  the  manufac- 
ture of  the  product  as  the  natural  constituents  of  the  raw  material),  poison- 
ous or  harmful  colors  or  flavors,  and  fermented,  vinous,  and  distilled  liquors 
and  drugs  of  all  kinds. 

Under  adulterations  the  question  of  what  is  harmful  or  hurtful  in  such 
material  will  be  more  fully  discussed. 

Method  of  Manufacture. — Each  manufacturer  has  his  own  method  of 
mixing,  flavoring,  and  coloring  his  products  and  these  are  mostly  trade  secrets. 
A  general  statement,  however,  may  be  made  regarding  the  method  of  pro- 


ADULTERATION   OF   CONFECTIONS.  483 

cedure.  The  saccharine  substances  are  usually  dissolved  in  water  and 
brought  to  the  proper  consistency  by  heating.  The  colors  and  flavors  are 
added  during  such  part  of  the  process  as  is  most  favorable  to  their  incorpora- 
tion and  retention.  The  mass,  when  of  the  prop^^r  consistence,  is  molded  into 
the  various  forms  in  which  candies  are  found  in  commerce  and  in  many 
cases  polished  in  revolving  drums  of  copper  or  other  polishing  device.  It 
would  be  useless  to  undertake,  even  if  they  were  known,  to  describe  the 
manifold  methods  employed  to  secure  the  fancy  and  hi^h-class  confections 
which  are  found  upon  the  market. 

Crystallized  Fruits  and  Flowers. — When  fruits  and  flowers  are  treated 
with  sugar  sirup  which  is  subsequently  allowed  to  crystallize  there  are  pro- 
duced what  is  known  as  candied  or  crystallized  flowers  or  fruit.  These 
substances  in  this  case  become  confections  and  should  be  judged  by  the  same 
standards  as  the  straight  candy. 

Food  Value  of  Candy. — The  food  value  of  confectionery  or  candy  is  not 
as  a  rule  considered,  since  it  is  eaten  more  for  its  flavor  and  general  palatabil- 
ity  and  attractiveness  than  for  its  nutritive  properties.  Nevertheless,  the  food 
value  of  candy  is  often  very  high  and  is  measured  chiefly  by  the  sugars  it 
contains. 

Adulteration  of  Confections. — The  question  of  adulteration  of  confec- 
tionery is  one  which  is  somewhat  difficult  to  discuss,  since  in  the  definition  of 
confectionery  and  candies  the  incorporation  of  added  harmless  colors  and  fla- 
vors is  regarded  as  a  legitimate  process.  It  is  evident  that  because  a  confection 
is  colored  or  flavored  there  is  no  reason  for  the  statement  that  it  is  adulterated. 
Confections  not  being  a  natural  product  their  coloring  and  flavoring  cannot 
be  regarded  as  deceptive  since  neither  process  can  be  used  in  any  sense  to 
deceive  the  purchaser.  It  follows,  therefore,  that  any  kind  of  a  harmless 
coloring  or  flavoring  material  will  be  a  legitimate  addition  to  confectionery. 
The  question,  however,  of  what  is  harmful  or  harmless  is  one  difficult  to 
decide.  The  manufacturer  of  coloring  and  flavoring  materials  and  the 
manufacturer  of  confectionery  are  always  quite  ready  to  certify  that  the 
colors  and  flavors  used  are  harmless  to  health.  On  the  other  hand  the  phys- 
iological chemist,  who  stands  apart  from  the  commercial  point  of  view,  may 
be  led  with  difficulty  to  adopt  the  same  conclusions.  It  is  evident  there  are 
some  colors,  especially  those  of  a  vegetable  character,  which  must  be  regarded 
as  harmless.  Nearly  all  vegetables  contain  natural  coloring  materials,  either 
chlorophyll  or  derivatives  therefrom,  which  are,  without  doubt,  quite  harmless. 
The  addition  of  coloring  matter  of  a  vegetable  character  to  confectionery 
is  not  regarded  as  in  any  way  a  harmful  or  deleterious  ingredient  to  the  product. 
The  same  may  be  said  of  animal  coloring  matter,  since  there  are  also  natural 
constituents  of  animal  substances  used  such  as  cochineal,  w^hich,  as  is  well 
known,  is  derived  from  an  insect,  and  hence  the  addition  of  such  a  substance 


484  SUGAR,    SIRUP,   CONFECTIONERY,    AND   HONEY. 

to  a  food  product  may  be  regarded  in  the  present  light  of  our  knowledge  as 
harmless.  There  are  also  synthetical  preparations  which  from  a  chemical 
point  of  view,  and  in  so  far  as  known  from  the  physical  point  of  view,  are 
closely  identified  with  vegetable  substances.  These  preparations  may,  a 
priori,  be  regarded  as  substances  not  injurious  to  health.  On  the  other  hand 
almost  the  whole  range  of  mineral  colors  which  formerly  were  so  much  used 
in  tinctorial  art,  namely,  the  oxids  and  salts  of  metals  such  as  copper,  chromium, 
lead,  arsenic,  etc.,  are  regarded  by  practically  all  authorities  as  injurious 
substances  and  not  suitable  for  introduction  into  food  products.  There  is 
left  then  for  consideration  in  this  respect  that  vast  body  of  coloring  matters 
derived  from  coal  tar  and  known  in  general  as  anilin  dyes,  whether  directly 
made  from  anilin  or  not.  On  the  question  of  wholesomeness  of  these  bodies 
there  is  much  division  of  opinion.  Of  the  many  which  are  known,  however, 
only  a  few  are  regarded  as  harmless.  Perhaps  thirty  different  dyes  would  cover 
the  whole  number  which  have  been  pronounced  harmless  by  expert  observers. 
The  experts,  however,  who  have  rendered  decisions  in  this  matter  do  not 
agree  as  to  the  harmlessness  of  the  list  just  mentioned.  Some  of  them  include 
some  portions  of  the  list  and  exclude  others  from  their  commendation.  It 
so  happens,  therefore,  that  only  a  few  so-called  anilin  dyes  have  really 
escaped  condemnation  at  the  hands  of  some  of  the  experts.  The  general 
character  of  anilin  dyes  and  the  well  known  poisonous  property  of  the  radical 
from  which  they  are  derived  leads  to  the  supposition  that  it  would  be  very 
unsafe  in  any  case  to  make  an  absolute  statement  in  favor  of  any  of  them. 
These  bodies,  as  a  rule,  undergo  no  change  in  the  metabolic  processes.  They 
pass  in  and  through  the  cellular  tissues  of  the  body  and  are  excreted  mostly 
in  the  urine  and  hence  place  a  burden  upon  the  excretory  cells  which,  although 
light,  is  unnecessary.  The  possibility,  too,  might  be  taken  into  consideration 
of  a  direct  toxic  effect  which  they  may  exert  although  in  a  minute  degree 
upon  the  cell  structures  through  which  they  pass.  It  is  certain  that  these 
bodies  can  exert  no  beneficial  effect  upon  the  structure  of  the  cells  and  it  is 
hardly  likely,  in  the  doctrine  of  probabilities,  that  they  should  be  neutral. 
It  is  advisable,  therefore,  to  suggest  to  the  manufacturer  of  confectionery 
as  well  as  of  the  other  food  products,  but  of  confections  in  particular,  the 
wisdom  of  seeking  some  method  of  producing  attractive  colors  in  their  products 
among  sources  which  are  open  to  no  suspicion.  It  might  be  that  this  would 
be  attended  with  some  expense  and  that  the  dyes  which  are  unobjectionable 
may  be  more  costly.  This,  however,  should  be  a  matter  of  very  small  con- 
sideration to  the  manufacturer  who  has  the  welfare  of  the  public  at  heart. 
The  price  of  confectionery,  as  is  well  known,  is  out  of  proportion  to  the  prices 
of  the  raw  materials  of  which  it  is  made.  The  quantity  of  coloring  matter 
which  confections  contain  is  acknowledged  to  be  minute  so  that  whether  the 
colors  cost  a  dollar  or  five  dollars  a  pound  makes  little  difference  in  the  actual 


ADULTERATION   OF   CONFECTIONS.  485 

cost  of  the  product  and  the  highest  priced  colors  would  not  diminish  the 
percentage  of  profit  to  any  noticeable  degree. 

Aside  from  the  use  of  harmful  colors  and  flavors,  which  are  always  to  be 
regarded  as  adulterants,  there  are  many  other  practices  in  connection  with 
the  manufacture  of  confections  that  may  be  classed  as  objectionable.  Most 
of  these  have,  however,  been  forbidden  by  law  in  the  states  and  in  other  coun- 
tries and  are  now  forbidden  by  our  national  law.  The  addition  of  ground 
mineral  matter  was  long  known  as  one  of  the  principal  adulterations  of  con- 
fectionery. This,  in  my  opinion,  is  no  longer  practiced  in  the  United  States. 
The  substances  used  were  commonly  known  as  terra  alba,  that  is,  ground 
talc,  powdered  silicates,  powdered  chalk,  or  ground  marble — in  fact  any 
white  powdered  mineral  substance.  The  object  of  this  adulteration  is  mani- 
festly to  increase  the  weight. 

Poisonous  Mineral  Colors. — In  the  early  days  of  the  manufacturing  of 
confectionery  salts  of  lead  and  compounds  of  chromium,  as  well  as  compounds 
of  other  metals  such  as  copper,  etc.,  were  employed  for  coloring  purposes. 
The  use  of  these  bodies  is  now  extremely  rare,  however,  if  it  is  ever 
practiced,  and  hence  may  be  regarded  as  a  practice  of  the  past. 

Glucose  Containing  Harmful  Substances. — The  bleaching  of  glucose  by 
sulfurous  acid  naturally  leads  to  the  introduction  into  candies  of  this  sub- 
stance. It  is  present  in  minute  quantities,  however,  and  if  the  glucose  is 
carefully  made,  I  may  add,  in  negligible  quantities.  The  danger  of  over- 
sulfuring  must,  not  be  forgotten  and  it  is  difficult  to  draw  a  line  of  demarka- 
tion  between  what  may  be  regarded  as  negligible  and  injurious  quantities. 
The  abandonment,  therefore,  of  the  use  of  sulfur  must  be  regarded  as  the 
only  safe  way  of  protecting  the  consumer  against  an  adulteration  of  this  kind. 
The  use  of  poisonous  flavoring  is  perhaps  more  extensive  than  is  generally 
recognized,  especially  of  that  flavor  which  is  supposed  to  be  characteristic 
of  the  kernel  of  the  peach,  namely,  benzaldehyde  or  its  derivatives.  There 
is  also  a  small  amount  of  hydrocyanic  acid  in  the  kernels  of  the  peach, 
almond,  etc.  This  is  a  very  deadly  substance  and  no  artificial  preparation 
of  it  should  ever  be  used.  If  there  be  any  flavor  of  this  kind  in  a  confection 
it  should  be  derived  solely  from  the  almond  or  similar  nuts  which  contain 
only  minute  traces.  While  nature,  as  is  well  known,  places  poisonous  sub- 
stances in  many  food  products,  they  have  been  so  skilfully  combined  as  to 
render  their  effect  the  least  harmful.  When  man  produces  a  similar  poison- 
ous article  artificially  and  adds  it  to  a  food,  the  poisonous  effect  thereof  is 
undoubtedly  increased.  Hence  the  use  of  artificial  harmful  flavors  of  any 
kind  in  a  food  product,  especially  confectionery,  is  utterly  reprehensible  and 
unpardonable. 

Alcohol. — Alcohol  has  been  placed  in  different  forms  in  confectionery,  some- 
times enclosed  as  drops  within  the  saccharine  substance.     This  must  be  re- 


486  SUGAR,  SIRUP,  CONFECTIONERY,   AND   HONEY. 

garded  as  an  adulteration  of  a  very  reprehensible  character,  since  these  products 
are  eaten  so  much  by  children  and  the  danger  of  injury  from  the  alcohol  and  the 
danger  of  forming  a  habit  from  eating  it  in  this  way  is  extremely  great.  This 
form  of  adulteration  is  specifically  forbidden  by  the  national  law.  In  view  of  the 
fact  that  children  and  young  persons  of  both  sexes,  and  especially  girls,  eatcon^ 
fectionery  so  largely  it  is  incumbent  upon  every  manufacturer  to  see  that  no 
raw  material  is  employed  in  his  processes  and  no  flavoring  or  coloring  or  other 
added  ingredient  used  which  is  in  any  way  under  suspicion  as  being  a  harm- 
ful or  deleterious  substance.  Manufacturers  should  remember  that  a  mere 
certificate  of  purity  from  the  person  making  these  substances  is  generally  of  little 
value.  Even  if  the  statements  made  in  such  certificates  are  true  they  will 
always  be  under  suspicion,  because  it  would  be  supposed  that  they  were 
made  for  the  purpose  of  furthering  trade  rather  than  for  the  protection  of 
the  consumer.  In  the  case  of  two  experts  of  like  honesty  and  like  industry, 
one  employed  for  the  purpose  of  giving  a  certificate  to  the  article  of  food  and 
one  whose  researches  are  entirely  independent  of  any  commercial  relations, 
the  public  will  generally  give  the  decision  of  the  latter  a  greater  weight.  In- 
spection officers  under  state  and  national  food  and  drug  acts  should  give 
especial  attention  to  the  subject  of  confectionery  as  an  article  of  diet  almost 
universally  employed  and  consumed  by  a  class  of  the  community  most  sus- 
ceptible to  injury. 

HONEY. 

Honey  is  defined  as  the  nectar  of  flowers,  gathered  and  stored  by  the  honey 
bee  (Apis  melifica).  While  this  is  a  very  good  definition  there  is  often  found 
in  honey  saccharine  exudations  of  the  plant  other  than  the  nectar  of 
flowers.  Many  plants  contain  sugar  in  their  saps  and  when  an  exudation 
of  sap  takes  place  and  the  water  in  the  sap  is  evaporated  a  saccharine  residue 
remains  which  is  also  gathered  by  the  bee.  Many  trees,  especially  of  the  pine 
family,  exude  a  sweet  sap  when  stung  by  a  kind  of  louse  (aphis)  and  this  is 
also  gathered  by  the  bees.  Thus  while  there  may  be  other  exudations  of  the 
plant  found  in  honey  the  fact  remains  that  the  true  honey  is  gathered  exclu- 
sively from  the  nectar  of  the  flowering  plant.  A  honey  which  is  made  by 
feeding  bees  sugar  sirup  or  other  artificial  sugar  food  cannot  be  regarded 
as  a  genuine  article.  The  feeding  of  bees,  while  a  strictly  legitimate  practice, 
should  be  confined  to  keeping  them  over  periods  of  famine  or  the  keeping 
of  them  alive  during  the  winter  or  at  other  times  when  they  do  not  have  access 
to  the  flowering  plant. 

Historical. — Honey  has  been  used  by  man  for  food  from  the  remotest 
antiquity.  In  fact,  in  earlier  times  honey  was  the  only  sugar  substance  at 
the  disposition  of  man.  He  had  not  yet  learned  the  sources  of  great  supply 
which  now  are  at  his  command  or  if  he  had  he  was  not  familiar  with  the 


PREPARATION   OF   HONEY. 


487 


technical  processes  of  preparing  the  commercial  article.  Honey  is  approxi- 
mately a  pure  saccharine  substance  and  this,  in  addition  to  its  peculiar  and, 
to  most  people,  pleasant  flavor,  not  only  gave  it  a  vogue  in  the  earlier  times 
of  necessity  but  has  maintained  it  in  public  favor  when  other  and  cheaper 
sources  of  saccharine  substances  have  been  developed.  In  fact,  at  the  present 
time  it  might  be  said  that  honey  owes  its  value  upon  the  market  not  to  the 
fact  that  it  is  a  saccharine  body  but  that  it  contains  flavors  and  aromas  im- 


Fig.  83.— Swarm  of  Bees  on  Bough  of  Trkk.—{  Couriesy  A.  I.  Root  Co.) 


parted  to  it  by  the  flower  and  by  the  bee  which  render  it  a  luxury  rather  than 
a  necessity  of  life. 

Preparation  of  Honey. — While  bees  stored  their  honey  in  hollow  trees 
or  other  suitable  places  in  earlier  times  this  was  a  doubtful  source  of  supply. 
The  bee  tree  is  still  an  object  of  interest  in  every  neighborhood.  Many  wild 
animals,  especially  bears,  are  very  fond  of  honey  and  these  animals  were 
the  robbers  of  the  honey  bee  in  the  days  when  wild  beasts  roamed  the  for- 


488 


SUGAR,   SIRUP,   CONFECTIONERY,   AND   HONEY. 


ests.  Since  the  removal  of  the  forests  to  such  a  large  extent  in  the  interest 
of  agriculture  the  bee  tree  is  becoming  a  curiosity  rather  than  a  matter  of 
common  occurrence.  Wild  swarms  of  bees,  therefore,  at  the  present  time, 
find  other  places  for  building  their  hives  than  the  hollows  of  trees.  They 
are  likely  to  light  upon  almost  any  point  that  affords  them  a  temporary  sup- 
port and  attempt,  at  least,  to  form  a  colony.  Unless,  however,  they  have 
some  natural  protection  such  as  that  of  a  hollow  tree,  these  attempts  are 
usually  unsuccessful.  In  Fig.  83  is  shown  a  swarm  of  bees,  which,  gathering 
on  the  bough  of  a  tree,  have  bent  it  to  the  ground. 


Fig.  84.— Artificial  Bee  Hives  under  Shade  of  Grape  V\sk.— {Courtesy  of  A.  I.  Root  Co.) 


Artificial  Hives. — The  artificial  hive  has  now  become  an  inseparable 
incident  in  bee  culture.  The  various  forms  of  hives  and  their  relative  merits 
cannot  be  discussed  in  this  manual.  There  are  many  special  works  on  bee 
culture  in  which  all  these  mechanical  appliances,  which  are  so  favorable 
to  the  storing  of  large  quantities  of  honey,  are  described.  The  most  approved 
form  is  that  which  permits  the  depositing  of  the  combs  in  small  boxes  which 
when  filled  usually  weigh  about  one  pound  and  which  can  be  easily  removed 
from  the  comb  and  are  in  a  condition  to  send  to  market.  The  proper  method 
of  locating  bee  hives  is  indicated  in  Fig.  84. 

The  art  of  bee  keeping  is  not  easily  acquired  and  it  requires  a  natural 


COMB   HONEY.  489 

aptitude  as  well  as  long  study  and  research  to  become  an  expert  bee  keeper. 
Experts  differ  in  their  opinion  respecting  the  relative  value  of  hives,  and  rival 
manufacturers  also  do  much  in  the  way  of  advertising  one  or  another  of 
these  contrivances.  All  of  them  that  have  merits  are  such  as  protect  the  bee, 
during  the  months  when  it  is  idle,  from  starvation  and  disease  and  afford  it 
every  possible  facility  for  storing  its  treasures  during  the  season  of  activity. 

Distribution  of  the  Honey-producing  Industry. — Every  part  of  the 
United  States  is  suitable  in  some  respects  for  the  production  of  honey.  Natur- 
ally the  extreme  northern  portion,  where  the  winters  are  very  severe,  are  less 
favorable  than  the  southern  portion  for  two  reasons,  first,  the  difficulty  of 


Fig,  85. — A  Frame  Containing  24  Boxes  of  Honey. — {Courtesy  A.  I.  Root  Co.) 

keeping  the  bees  over  the  winter  is  greater  in  the  North,  and,  second,  the 
season  of  activity  is  much  shorter.  On  the  other  hand  the  honey  which  is 
gathered  from  the  northern  flowers  is,  as  a  rule,  more  highly  prized  than  that 
gathered  from  the  more  southern  regions.  California,  perhaps,  is  the  greatest 
honey-producing  state  in  the  Union,  though  portions  of  New  Hampshire, 
Pennsylvania,  Ohio,  and  many  other  states  have  developed  great  industries. 
It  is  very  common  also  for  the  farmer  to  have  a  number  of  bee  hives,  particu- 
larly for  storing  honey  for  domestic  consumption,  so  that  the  making  of  honey 
is  almost  as  common  on  the  farm  as  the  making  of  butter. 

Comb  Honey. — The  honey  which  is  produced  in  the  hives  and  removed 
without  extracting  it  from  the  comb  is  known  as  "  comb  honey. "     As  indicated 


490  SUGAR,   SIRUP,    CONFECTIONERY,    AND   HONEY. 

above,  at  the  present  time  large  amounts  of  this  product  are  made  by  the 
filling  of  small  boxes  of  a  size  intended  for  the  market.  This  is,  by  far,  the 
most  convenient  method  of  handling  the  product.  A  frame  showing  24  boxes 
of  comb  honey  as  withdrawn  from  the  hive  is  illustrated  in  Fig.  85.  It  has 
also  the  additional  merit  of  a  practical  guarantee  of  the  product.  In  Fig.  86 
is  seen  a  box  of  honey  in  which  the  capping  is  incomplete.  Many  mechanical 
attempts  have  been  made  to  imitate  the  genuine  comb  and  in  many  respects  a 
certain  degree  of  success  has  been  attained.  In  fact  nearly  all  of  the  com- 
mercial comb  honey  of  the  present  day  is  made  in  combs  built  upon  an  arti- 
ficial base  in  which  the  cells  of  the  comb  are  started  and  sometimes  built  to  a 
considerable  depth.  The  bee  is  then  only  required  to  fill  out  the  remaining 
portion  of  the  cell  and,  after  filling  it  with  honey,  to  cover  it  over.     Thus 


Fig.  86.— Showing  Box  of  Honey  Partially  Cavv^h.— {Courtesy  A.  I.  Root  Co.) 

the  labor  of  the  bee  is  greatly  diminished  in  respect  of  comb  building  and  its 
energies  preserved  for  a  greater  production  of  honey.  It  must  be  admitted 
that  honey  preserved  in  the  comb  has  a  delicacy  and  daintiness  which  does 
not  attach  to  that  which  has  been  separated  and  sold  in  a  liquid  form.  The 
comb  honey,  therefore,  commands  a  fancy  price. 

Extracted  Honey. — Where  honey  is  to  be  shipped  to  any  great  distance 
it  is  found  difficult,  if  not  impossible,  to  transport  it  in  the  comb,  since  the 
jarring  and  exposure  incident  to  transit  break  the  delicate  cells  and  allow 
the  honey  to  escape.  For  commercial  purposes,  therefore,  especially  when 
honey  is  to  be  shipped  to  distant  points,  it  is  separated  from  the  comb  at 


WATER.  491 

the  place  of  manufacture.  The  usual  method  of  separation  is  by  centrifugal 
force.  The  caps  of  the  cells  being  removed,  the  boxes  which  contain  them 
are  placed  in  a  centrifugal  machine  and  the  honey  forced  out  by  centrifugal 
action.  The  boxes  are  then  returned  to  the  hives  where  they  are  refilled  by 
the  bees.  By  this  process  extracted  honey  can  be  made  in  great  quantities 
and  for  a  much  lower  price  than  the  same  quantity  of  honey  still  held  in  the 
combs.  The  principal  objection  to  extracted  honey  is  due  to  the  fact  that 
it  has  been  subjected  to  such  extensive  adulterations  as  will  be  mentioned 
further  on.  There  can  be  no  valid  objection  made  to  the  character  of  ex- 
tracted honey  when  it  has  been  prepared  under  competent  direction  and 
with  the  skill  and  care  which  are  required  by  the  professional  honey  makers. 

Strained  Honey. — Strained  honey  is  a  variety  of  extracted  honey  which 
is  allowed  to  flow  by  gravity  or  by  gentle  pressure  from  the  broken  or  frag- 
mentary combs.  In  such  cases,  naturally,  the  cell  or  honey  comb  is  destroyed. 
The  residual  comb  is  sent  to  market  as  beeswax. 

Properties  of  Honey. — Honey  at  ordinary  temperature  is  a  viscous  liquid 
of  a  tint  varying  from  almost  colorless  to  almost  black,  according  to  the  char- 
acter of  the  flowers  and  the  season  in  which  it  is  gathered  and  the  length 
of  time  of  storage.  It  contains  from  15  to  25  percent  of  water  and  usually 
has  a  small  quantity  of  foreign  substances,  incident  to  its  manufacture,  such 
as  particles  of  dust,  pollen,  fragments  of  bees,  fragments  of  comb,  etc.  Honey, 
therefore,  is  a  somewhat  concentrated  solution  of  sugars  and  these  sugars  are 
the  natural  products  of  the  flowers  of  plants,  modified  to  some  extent,  by 
passing  through  the  organism  of  the  bee.  In  passage  through  the  bee  the 
honey  is  impregnated  with  a  small  quantity  of  an  acid,  named  from  the  ant, 
formic  acid.  It  also  suffers  other  changes  which  are  very  strongly  marked 
in  flavor  and  aroma  but  which  cannot  be  very  readily  traced  chemically. 

Polarization. — Pure  honey,  that  is,  honey  gathered  solely  from  the  sac- 
charine exudations  of  flowers,  at  the  ordinary  temperature  of  the  laboratory, 
namely,  from  65  to  85  degrees  F.,  has  the  faculty  of  turning  a  plane  of  polar- 
ized light  to  the  left,  which  is  just  the  opposite  of  the  optical  properties  of 
cane  sugar.  Whenever  a  honey  shows  a  right-handed  polarization  it  is  a 
•cause  for  suspicion  respecting  its  purity.  A  honey  of  this  kind  has  either 
been  made  by  feeding  the  bees  a  sugar  sirup  or  by  the  gathering,  on  the  part 
of  the  bees,  of  the  saccharine  exudation,  before  alluded  to,  known  as  honey 
<lew.  It  is  perfectly  true  that  bees  may  have  gathered  in  exceptional  cases 
exudations  of  plants  which  will  show  a  right-handed  polarization,  but  this 
occurs  so  infrequently  as  to  render  it  advisable  to  regard  such  a  honey  as  ab- 
normal in  quality.  The  polariscope,  therefore,  becomes  an  almost  indis- 
pensable implement  in  a  study  of  the  purity  of  honey. 

Water. — As  has  already  been  stated,  the  usual  content  of  water  in  honey 


492  SUGAR,   SIRUP,   CONFECTIONERY,    AND   HONEY. 

is  from  15  to  25  percent.  It  very  rarely  falls  below  15  percent  and  also 
very  rarely  goes  above  20  percent.  In  extremely  dry  periods  it  is  evident 
that  the  content  of  water  becomes  less,  while  in  times  of  rain  or  at  the  first 
advent  of  the  flowers  the  content  of  water  will  be  greater.  The  bee  naturally 
modifies  to  some  extent  the  content  of  water  in  order  that  the  organism  may 
dispose  of  the  product.  If  the  content  of  water  is  too  small  the  bee  handles 
the  product  with  difficulty  and  if  the  content  of  water  is  too  large  difficulty 
in  gathering  and  storing  the  honey  on  account  of  the  excessive  fluidity  is 
experienced.  As  before  intimated,  the  color  of  the  honey  depends  largely 
upon  the  flower  from  which  it  is  made.  White  clover  gives  a  honey  almost 
water-white  and  among  all  the  honey -producing  flowers  is  perhaps  regarded 
the  most  highly.  On  the  other  hand  a  plant  like  the  golden  rod,  which  flowers 
later  in  the  summer,  produces  honey  of  a  deep  yellow  and  sometimes  almost 
a  black  tint.  The  color  of  honey,  therefore,  indicates  not  only  the  season  of 
the  year  at  which  it  is  stored,  becoming  darker  as  the  autumn  advances,  but 
also  the  nature  of  the  flower  from  which  it  is  produced. 

Ash. — The  content  of  mineral  matter  in  honey  is  extremely  small  and 
perhaps  is  largely  due  to  the  mechanical  entanglement  of  dust  in  the  nectar 
rather  than  the  exudation  of  actual  mineral  matter  itself  from  the  flower. 
In  some  cases  the  amount  of  mineral  matter  is  so  small  as  to  become  a  mere 
trace  while  in  other  cases  it  has  been  found  as  high  as  .3  of  one  percent. 
A  high  content  of  ash  denotes  the  exposure  of  the  nectar  previous  to  gathering 
to  an  infection  of  dust  or  to  some  other  abnormal  condition.  A  high  ash 
content,  therefore,  always  indicates  that  further  study  should  be  made  respect- 
ing the  purity  of  the  product. 

Sucrose. — The  amount  of  sugar  (cane  sugar)  which  is  found  in  honey  is 
in  normal  conditions  not  very  large,  but  in  exceptional  cases  the  sugar  content, 
that  is,  the  sucrose  content,  may  reach  as  high  as  8  or  10  percent.  At  such 
times  the  honey  has  only  a  slightly  left-handed  polarization  or  may  become 
right-handed.  Whenever  the  content  of  sucrose  in  honey  reaches  as  high 
as  8  percent  there  is  ground  for  suspicion  that  the  bees  have  been  fed  on 
sugar  sirup,  or  that  some  other  form  of  adulteration  has  been  practiced. 

Dextrose  and  Levulose. — The  two  principal  saccharine  components 
of  honey  are  the  sugars  known  as  dextrose  and  levulose,  in  other  words, 
taken  together,  inverted  sugar,  that  is,  sugar  made  by  the  inversion  of  cane 
sugar  or  sucrose.  In  the  nectar  of  flowers  these  two  sugars  exist  almost  in 
the  proportion  which  would  be  expected  if  they  had  been  formed  from  su- 
crose or  ordinary  sugar  by  a  simple  chemical  process.  Sometimes  one  of 
these  sugars  and  sometimes  the  other  may  be  in  slight  excess.  The  names 
of  these  two  sugars  indicate  their  active  properties.  Dextrose  is  a  right- 
handed  sugar,  that  is,  it  turns  the  plane  of  polarization  to  the  right.  In  this 
respect  it  resembles  sucrose  or  ordinary  cane  sugar,  although  it  is  not  so  strongly 


ADULTERATION   OF   HONEY.  493 

right-handed.  Leviilose,  as  the  name  implies,  is  a  sugar  which  turns  the 
plane  of  polarization  to  the  left.  The  temperature  of  the  solution"  has  a 
very  marked  influence  upon  this  active  property, — the  lower  the  temperature 
the  greater  the  left-handed  rotation.  A  honey  which  has  a  strong  left-handed 
polarization,  therefore,  at  ordinary  temperature  is  one  in  which  the  levulose 
is  present  in  full  proportion  or  very  slight  excess.  The  other  constituents 
of  honey,  namely,  the  pollen  which  is  mechanically  entangled  therein,  the 
dust  or  dirt  which  is  mechanically  attached  thereto,  the  formic  acid  imparted 
thereto  by  the  bee,  and  the  other  ingredients,  are  extremely  minute  in  quantity 
and  are  not,  as  a  rule,  expressed  as  percentage  constituents.  In  fact  the 
most  of  them  are  merely  accidental  constituents. 

Adulteration  of  Honey. — Perhaps  there  is  no  common  food  product, 
with  the  possible  exception  of  condimental  substances  such  as  pepper  and 
spices,  that  has  been  subjected  to  such  extensive  and  general  adulterations 
as  honey. 

The  high  price  of  honey,  its  position  as  a  luxury  as  well  as  a  food  product, 
and  its  attractive  flavor  and  aroma  have  all  combined  to  make  it  a  favorite 
product  for  adulteration.  In  addition  to  this  the  invention  in  the  last  third 
of  a  century  of  an  artificial  product  resembling  honey  very  closely  in  its  physical 
properties  and  being  itself  a  saccharine  body,  namely  glucose,  has  put  into 
the  hands  of  the  adulterator  an  ideal  substitute  for  the  natural  product.  There 
is  only  one  reason  why  the  adulteration  of  honey  with  glucose  has  not  been 
more  extensive  than  it  is,  namely,  the  ease  with  which  the  chemist  can  detect 
it.  The  chemical  properties  of  glucose  are  very  distinct  from  those  of  honey 
itself.  In  spite  of  this  fact,  however,  the  adulteration  of  honey  has  been  most 
extensively  exploited  and  until  the  methods  of  detecting  it  were  developed  it 
was  almost  universally  practiced.  Glucose  is  a  water-white  saccharine  semi- 
viscous  mass  made  by  the  hydrolysis  of  starch  with  an  acid  and  therefore 
forms  the  body  upon  which  the  adulterated  article  can  be  built.  It  has  a 
low  saccharine  value  and  cannot  be  used  alone  but  must  necessarily  be  mingled 
with  the  honey.  The  amount  of  real  honey  used  is,  as  a  rule,  a  minimum 
to  give  the  flavor  and  taste  of  the  genuine  article  to  the  admixture.  It  is 
believed  at  the  present  time  that  this  method  of  adulterating  honey  is  very 
much  less  practiced  than  in  former  years  and  this  is  due,  as  has  been  said, 
to  the  ease  with  which  it  can  be  detected  and  also,  it  may  be  added,  to  the 
increased  rigidity  of  national,  state,  and  municipal  inspection,  rendering  it 
difficult  to  place  an  adulterated  article  such  as  this  upon  the  market  without 
detection.  Incalculable  harm  has  been  done  to  the  honey  trade  of  the  country 
by  the  practice  of  this  style  of  adulteration.  Only  liquid  honey,  that  is  sepa- 
rated or  strained,  can  be  easily  adulterated  with  glucose.  Often,  however, 
an  attempt  has  been  made  to  still  further  deceive  the  customer  by  placing 
a  portion  of  the  genuine  comb  honey  in  a  jar  and  then  filling  it  with  the  adul- 


494  SUGAR,   SIRUP,   CONFECTIONERY,   AND   HONEY. 

terated  mixture,  giving  the  appearance  of  the  genuine  article  to  a  certain  extent 
to  the  whole. 

Adulteration  with  Inverted  Sugar. — A  much  more  subtle  form  of  adul- 
teration, and  therefore  one  much  more  difficult  to  detect,  is  the  adulteration 
of  honey  with  a  sirup  made  from  inverted  sugar,  that  is,  the  product  obtained 
from  cane  sugar  by  the  action  of  a  dilute  acid.  This  chemical  process,  as 
has  already  been  indicated,  converts  the  cane  sugar  into  a  mixture  of  dextrose 
and  levulose.  These  sugars  are  identical,  for  chemical  purposes,  with  the 
natural  dextrose  and  levulose  of  honey.  The  chemist,  therefore,  has  a  much 
more  difficult  task  to  perform  when  he  attempts  to  diagnose  the  presence 
of  artificial  dextrose  and  levulose  in  a  mixture  of  the  natural  product.  There 
are,  however,  certain  qualities  of  ash,  as  well  as  other  chemical  constituents, 
which  guide  him  in  his  work.  While  his  conclusions  do  not  have  that  definite- 
ness  which  attaches  to  the  examination  of  a  honey  adulterated  with  glucose 
they  are  sufficiently  distinctive  in  most  cases  to  determine  whether  or  not  a 
sophistication  has  been  practiced. 

Adulteration  with  Cane  Sugar.— A  very  simple  form  of  adulteration  and 
one  which  cannot  be  practiced  to  any  extent  without  being  easily  detected 
is  the  admixture  of  a  sirup  of  pure  cane  sugar  to  honey.  As  long  as  the 
quantity  added  is  not  sufficient  to  change  the  optical  properties,  so  that  the 
mixture  becomes  right-handed  in  its  rotation,  the  admixture  of  a  small  quantity 
of  cane  sugar  sirup  might  escape  the  detection  of  the  chemist.  Inasmuch^ 
however,  as  cane  sugar  exists  only  in  small  quantities  in  honey  the  regular  and 
persistent  occurrence  of  much  cane  sugar  in  a  honey  would  be  a  just  cause  for 
suspicion,  although  its  occasional  occurrence  might  be  due  to  purely  natural 
causes. 

MISCELLANEOUS. 

Mince  Meat. — Under  the  term  "mince  meat"  is  included  a  large  variety 
of  mixtures  used  chiefly  for  pie  making  and  composed  of  meats,  fruits,  evapo- 
rated fruits,  spices,  and  sometimes  alcohol  in  some  of  its  forms.  It  is  not 
possible  to  describe  any  particular  combination  which  would  be  entitled 
to  bear  the  name  alone,  since  each  housewife  and  each  manufacturer  follows 
a  method  of  her  and  his  own.  A  general  description,  however,  may  be  given 
of  the  manufactured  article  which,  unfortunately,  has  largely  displaced  the 
mince  meat  of  domestic  manufacture. 

Judged  by  the  name  alone,  meat  of  some  kind  would  be  an  important 
constituent  of  this  substance.  This,  however,  is  not  the  case.  Very  few 
of  the  mince  meats  contain  more  than  lo  percent  of  meat,  a  large  number 
contain  less  and  quite  a  large  number  contain  none  at  all.  Suet  and  tallow 
are  sometimes  employed  as  a  substitute  for  meat,  which  apparently  satisfies 
the  conscience  of  the  manufacturer  even  if  it  does  not  suit  the  palate  of  the 


MINCE   MEAT. 


495 


consumer.  Evaporated  fruits,  such  as  raisins,  etc.,  form  important  constitu- 
ents of  the  mixture  and  also  fresh  fruits,  in  domestic  manufacture,  are  very 
often  used.  Spices  of  various  kinds  are  also  employed  and  the  mixture 
is  sometimes  flavored  with  brandy  or  some  alcoholic  "beverage. 

Pressed  Mince  Meat. — The  mixture  which  is  above  described  may  be  dried 
and  pressed,  or  pressed  without  drying,  into  a  hard  firm  cake  which  renders 
it  more  suitable  for  transportation  and  improves  its  keeping  qualities.  There 
is  perhaps  little  difference  between  the  unpressed  and  the  pressed  mince 
meat  except  in  the  matter  of  a  binder.  The  binder  consists  usually  of  starch 
or  flour,  which  serves  not  only  to  give  additional  weight  to  the  mixture  but 
also  to  hold  the  particles  together.  Starch  or  flour  is  sometimes  used  in  un- 
pressed mince  meat  also.  There  is  another  advantage  in  using  starch  or  flour, 
namely,  that  these  bodies  absorb  large  quantities  of  moisture  and  thus  increase 
the  weight  of  the  mixture.  Mince  meat  cannot  be  recommended  on  sanitary 
grounds,  since  the  method  of  manufacture  is  not  always  known  and  the  materials 
from  which  it  is  made  are  not  always  selected  with  the  sole  view  to  the  excel- 
lence of  the  raw  materials  and  the  health  of  the  consumer.  The  meat  when 
used  often  represents  waste  material  from  the  table  or  factory  and  the  fruits 
are  not  necessarily  those  which  look  best  but  probably  are  those  usually  of 
the  worst  appearance  and  the  combinations  are  made  with  a  view  of  meeting 
the  ordinary  demands  of  the  market  rather  than  of  catering  to  the  tenets  of 
sanitation. 

It  is  not  the  intention  of  this  manual  to  discourage  any  kind  of  legitimate 
manufacturing  industry,  but,  in  view  of  the  general  character  of  substances 
of  this  kind,  if  they  are  to  be  used  at  all,  it  seems  advisable  that  they  should 
be  made  in  the  home,  of  material  selected  by  the  housewife  and  in  a  manner 
which  requires  no  special  treatment  for  its  preservation,  rather  than  to  be 
purchased  at  random  in  the  open  market,  made  of  materials  of  unknown 
origin  put  together  by  an  unknown  process. 

Adulteration  of  Mince  Meat. — Assuming  that  the  materials  which  have 
been  selected  are  wholesome,  sanitary,  and  of  fine  quality,  the  principal  adul- 
terations to  which  mince  meat  is  subjected  are  the  addition  of  chemical  pre- 
servatives and  artificial  colors.  Inasmuch  as  mince  meat  is  not  expected 
to  be  of  any  very  definite  color  the  use  of  artificial  colors  is  not  common.  On 
the  other  hand  when  mince  meat  is  made  in  large  quantities,  transported 
long  distances,  and  sometimes  kept  for  a  long  while  on  the  shelves  of  the  gro- 
cery, the  subject  of  preservation  becomes  a  matter  of  serious  importance.  It 
is  naturally  inconvenient  to  preserve  a  mixture  of  this  kind  by  sterilization 
though  this  has  been  accomplished.  The  method  of  drying  and  pressing 
has  already  been  described.  This,  of  course,  detracts  somewhat  from  the  physi- 
cal appearance  of  the  product.  The  common  method  is  the  addition  of  a 
chemical  preservative.     At  the  present  time  I  beheve  that  benzoate  of  soda 


496  SUGAR,   SIRUP,    CONFECTIONERY,,  AND   HONEY. 

is  the  one  very  commonly  used,  and  it  will  probably  continue  to  be  so  used, 
by  most  manufacturers  until  national  and  state  laws  or  an  enlightened  public 
opinion  eliminate  it  from  food  products. 

Pie  Fillers. — Nearly  allied  to  mince  meat  in  its  character  is  a  large  class 
of  substances  known  as  pie  fillers.  Mince  meat  itself,  as  may  be  seen  from 
the  description  which  has  been  given  of  it,  is  nothing  but  a  pie  filler  of  a 
particular  kind.  Unfortunately  the  demand  of  the  domestic  cuisine  is  for 
substances  prepared,  or  partially  prepared,  for  immediate  consumption.  In 
this  way  the  demand  for  predigested  and  precooked  food  has  become  a  very 
general  one  and  the  pie  filler  is  a  legitimate  effort  on  the  part  of  the  manu- 
facturers to  meet  this  growing  demand.  It  is  far  easier  for  domestic  purposes 
to  make  a  pie  of  an  already  prepared  material  than  to  go  to  the  trouble  of 
constructing  the  material  in  the  kitchen.  A  housewife  loses  sight  of  the 
fact  that  the  fresh  domestic  pie  is  probably  the  only  one  which,  for  sanitary 
and  other  reasons,  should  be  admitted  to  the  table.  As  the  pie  fillers  are  as 
varied  in  character  as  the  different  kinds  of  pies  from  which  they  are  made, 
no  definite  standard  can  be  prescribed  for  them.  Fruits  are,  naturally,  the 
predominating  constituent  in  these  fillers  and  the  condiments  and  spices 
used  are  certainly  unobjectionable.  If  it  be  possible  to  prepare  spiced  fruits 
and  keep  them  until  used  for  pies  there  would  seem  to  be  no  objection  to  the 
manufacture,  long  before  using,  of  these  substance  in  large  quantities.  The 
difficulty,  however,  of  preserving  the  freshness  and  aroma  of  a  fruit  or  other 
substance  used  for  pie  making  is  so  evident  as  to  need  no  particular  emphasis. 

Adulteration  of  Pie  Fillers. — The  common  adulterations  in  pie  fillers  are 
artificial  colors,  when  they  are  designed  to  represent  fruit  of  a  special  char- 
acter, and  preservatives.  The  same  remarks  which  were  made  respecting 
these  bodies  in  mince  meat  apply  with  equal  force  to  all  kinds  of  pie  fillers. 
Foods  of  this  kind  are  evidently  only  properly  made  on  the  premises  where 
they  are  consumed  immediately  after  manufacture.  The  addition  of  artificial 
colors  and  preservatives  to  such  substances,  while  apparently  necessary  in  the 
present  condition  of  trade,  is  wholly  objectionable  from  every  other  point 
of  view,  and  in  such  cases  trade  conditions  should  properly  give  way  to  the 
demands  of  public  and  private  sanitation  and  hygiene. 

In  the  interest  of  both  hygiene  and  palatability  "  pie  filling  "  should  be  made 
by  the  pie  baker.  It  is  not  possible  in  an  article  like  this  to  secure  that 
perfection  of  cleanliness  and  delicacy  of  flavor  which  should  be  characteristic, 
when  making  large  quantities  of  "filling"  and  transporting  it  over  long 
distances  in  barrels  or  tubs.     Make  the  pie  filling  and  the  pies  at  home. 


PART  X. 
INFANTS'  AND  INVALIDS'  FOODS. 


Introduction. — One  of  the  most  important  subjects  in  connection  mth 
the  food  supply  is  that  of  foods  ofifered  for  the  use  of  infants  and  invalids. 
In  so  far  as  the  chemical  composition,  nutritive  properties,  and  palatability 
are  concerned,  there  is  nothing  which  may  be  said  in  general  concerning 
infants '  and  invalids '  foods  which  may  not  be  said  with  equal  appropriateness 
of  foods  of  all  kinds.  It  is  often  necessary,  however,  in  the  case  of  infants  and 
invalids,  to  modify  certain  natural  foods  in  such  a  manner  as  to  adapt  them  to 
the  peculiar  conditions  present.  It  is  impossible  in  many  cases  to  draw  the 
line  between  what  may  be  considered  an  infant's  food  and  what  an  invalid's 
food.  Milk,  for  instance,  which  is  the  universal  food  of  infants,  is  also  often 
prescribed  exclusively  for  invalids  of  adult  age  or  for  well-grown  children. 
In  the  disturbances  of  digestion  the  powers  of  the  digestive  organs  are  so 
changed  or  depleted  as  to  reduce  the  growTi  person  practically  to  the  condition 
of  an  infant  in  so  far  as  nutrition  is  concerned.  On  the  other,  hand,  every  one 
of  the  foods  which  is  specifically  prescribed  for  infants  may  also  be  used  by 
grown  persons,  under  certain  conditions. 

It  is  easy,  however,  to  distinguish,  as  a  class,  infants'  foods  from  the  foods  of 
invalids,  although  the  two  may  overlap  at  some  points.  It  may  be  broadly 
stated  that  nothing  is  an  infant 's  food  which  is  not  milk,  or  does  not  have  the 
chemical  composition,  the  nutritive  value,  and  general  properties  of  milk.  In 
other  words,  milk  is  the  natural  food  of  the  infant,  and  ever\^  prepared  infants' 
food  must  have  its  value  determined  principally  by  its  approximation  to  the 
composition  of  the  natural  article.  On  the  other  hand,  an  invalid's  food  may 
cover  the  whole  range  of  nutritive  materials.  It  would  be  useless,  therefore, 
to  attempt,  in  a  preliminary  paragraph,  to  distinguish  sharply  between  these 
two  classes  of  foods.  It  will  be  sufficient,  in  the  consideration  of  these  foods, 
and  in  the  study  of  their  composition  and  nutritive  properties,  to  confine  the 
discussion  of  infants'  food  principally  to  milk  and  its  substitutes,  and  to 
include  other  foods  recommended  for  invalids  in  the  section  on  Invalids'  Foods 
(p.  549).  This  is  a  broad  line  of  demarkation  which  will  avoid  confusion. 
To  a  certain  extent  it  will  be  necessary  in  the  present  discussion  to  consider 
33  497 


498  INFANTS'   AND   INVALIDS'    FOODS. 

further  some  of  the  foods  which  have  been  generally  discussed  in  the  pre- 
ceding parts  of  this  manual.  This  is  particularly  true  of  milk,  and  of  certain 
meat  preparations. 

INFANTS'  FOODS. 

GENERAL  NUTRITION  CONSIDERATIONS. 

Good  Nutrition. — A  child  is  well  nourished  when  it  continues  to  grow 
normally;  is  free  or  nearly  free  from  colic  and  other  disorders  of  the  intestinal 
tract;  sleeps  well,  and  is  not  fretful,  but  appears  to  be  contented  and  to  enjoy 
life.  The  ideal  food  for  an  infant  is  the  milk  of  a  healthy  mother.  In  cases 
where  this  is  not  available  artificial  feeding  must  be  practiced.  These  sub- 
stitutes for  mother's  milk  are  considered  in  the  following  paragraphs. 
Great  care  should  be  taken  not  to  feed  infants  in  such  a  manner  as  to  make 
them  too  fat.     The  infant  does  not  need  much  surplus  tissue. 

A  word  of  caution  should  be  given  in  this  respect,  as  many  mothers  think  if 
the  baby  is  fat  and  chubby  that  is  all  that  is  necessary.  While,  of  course, 
plumpness  indicates  to  a  certain  extent  the  vigor  of  digestive  operations, 
excessive  plumpness  should  be  avoided.  The  child  that  makes  a  healthy 
but  not  too  rapid  growth,  without  becoming  overfat  at  any  period,  is  in  a 
better  condition  than  the  one  that  is  too  fat.  The  pictures  of  chubby  cherubs 
that  often  accompany  advertisements  of  proprietary  or  artificial  infants' 
foods  may  be  very  attractive,  but  this  is  not  the  kind  of  feeding  that  best  fits 
the  real  baby  for  a  vigorous  and  useful  life.  A  healthy  child  should  increase 
in  weight  during  normal  growth  about  one-fourth  of  a  pound  a  week  for  the 
first  six  months  of  its  life.  A  child,  therefore,  which  gains  a  pound  in  weight 
in  a  month  may  be  regarded  as  being  in  a  very  satisfactory  condition  in  so  far 
as  nutrition  and  growth  are  concerned. 

Feeding  of  Immature  Infants. — The  selection  of  proper  food  for  an  infant 
depends  largely  upon  its  health,  age,  and  general  vigor.  There  are  certain 
conditions  in  which  foods  which  ordinarily  nourish  and  support  the  health 
of  the  child  are  to  be  avoided.  Many  infants  at  birth  have  a  remarkably  low 
weight,  and  it  is  considered  by  physicians  that  a  baby  weighing  less  that  4 J 
pounds  is  immature.  The  smallness  of  the  child  renders  its  nutrition  extremely 
difficult,  and  even  mother's  milk  in  such  cases  may  prove  unsuitable  for  its 
nourishment.  An  infant  of  this  kind  must  have  fat,  proteid,  carbohydrate, 
salts,  and  water  in  such  quantity  and  relative  proportions  as  will  meet  the 
possibilities  of  its  digestion.  In  each  case  the  competent  physician  alone  can 
determine  the  quantity  and  composition  of  food  which  is  best  suited  for  the 
purpose. 

The  subject  of  the  feeding  of  such  immature  infants  is  well  set  forth  by  Dr. 
Spalding  in  the  ''  Journal  of  the  American  Medical  Association"  for  September 


QUALITY    AND    FREQUENCY    OF    FEEDING.  499 

25,  1909,  page  998.  In  order  to  avoid  a  deficiency  or  excess  of  food,  attempts 
have  been  made  to  base  the  quantity  upon  the  weight  of  the  infant  or  its  heat 
requirements;  that  is,  the  actual  heat  value  of  the  food,  or  caloric  value,  as  it 
is  sometimes  called,  is  made  to  have  a  certain  relation  to  the  weight  of  the  child. 
In  these  cases  it  is  necessary  to  modify  the  milk  in  a  very  marked  manner  in 
order  to  secure  the  proper  results.  The  original  milk  must  be  perfectly  pure 
and  from  tuberculin-free  cattle,  and  should  have  a  bacterial  count  of  less  than 
10,000  per  cubic  centimeter.  If  additional  carbohydrates  are  used,  milk 
sugar  or  maltose  is  recommended.  Often  certain  bodies, especially  the  chlorid 
of  sodium  and  limewater,  are  added  to  improve  the  digestion. 

If  sweet  milk  does  not  meet  the  requirements,  sour  milk  or  buttermilk 
properly  modified  may  be  used.  In  such  instances  a  modified  milk  in 
which  the  ratio  of  fat  to  protein  is  not  more  than  2  :  i  is  found  to  be 
most  effective.  The  number  of  calories  in  the  food  for  these  very  weak  in- 
fants may  not  be  more  than  100  a  kilo  of  body- weight,  and  even  this 
proportion  can  be  reduced  after  the  child  grows  older.  In  some  instances, 
however,  it  is  necessary  to  have  a  food  with  a  much  higher  food  value,  i.  e., 
as  much  as  250  calories  per  kilo.  The  great  point  is  to  watch  each  case  to 
see  how  the  modified  milk  is  digested.  If  the  fat  can  be  digested,  more  fat 
is  added;  or  if  the  infant  digests  protein  easily,  a  larger  percentage  of  protein 
is  added,  while  the  milk  sugar  is  usually  kept  constant. 

Quality  and  Frequency  of  Feeding. — There  can  be  no  fixed  rule  for  the 
quantity  of  milk  which  should  be  given  to  an  infant.  The  state  of  health, 
the  size  of  the  infant,  and  the  general  environment  are  all  important  factors  in 
this  problem.  It  is  almost  impossible  to  establish  any  definite  rule  in  regard 
to  an  infant  during  the  first  month  of  its  life.  From  the  fourth  to  the  sixth 
week  an  ordinary  child  will  consume  from  600  to  1000  grams  of  milk  daily. 
After  the  fourth  month  the  consumption  will  run  from  1000  to  1200  grams. 
These  amounts  are  based  upon  experiments  conducted  on  a  large  number  of 
infants  and  should  seldom  be  exceeded. 

The  young  infant  especially  must  be  protected  against  too  large  an  in- 
gestion of  food.  A  young  baby  is  very  apt  to  reject  by  vomiting  any  excess 
of  milk  which  he  has  swallowed,  and  this  vomiting  is  a  very  natural  process 
and  is  not  a  symptom  of  disease.  The  slower  the  infant  takes  its  food,  the 
more  Hkely  he  is  to  escape  the  disadvantages  of  any  excess. 

The  number  of  times  the  child  should  be  fed  is  also  a  variable  one.  During 
the  first  month  of  life  if  an  infant  is  fed  every  two  hours  it  is  quite  sufficient; 
after  that  the  feedings  may  vary  from  six  to  eight  times  daily,  up  to  the  fourth 
month.  After  the  fourth  month  six  feedings  are  usually  sufficient,  and  some- 
times a  smaller  number.  The  quantity  of  milk  taken  at  each  feeding  varies,  of 
course,  with  the  number  of  feedings,  and  is  usually  from  50  to  200  grams. 

It  is  important  that  the  child  be  frequently  weighed,  as  the  quantity  of 


500  infants'  and  invalids'  foods. 

food  that  it  needs  bears  a  certain  relation  to  its  weight  and  may  thus  be 
approximately  determined.  Gaged  upon  the  calorific  value  of  the  food,  a 
child  weighing  5  kilograms  requires  a  quantity  of  milk  representing  500 
calories,  or  five-sevenths  of  a  liter,  or  in  round  numbers,  700  c.c.  If  arti- 
ficial food  is  used,  assuming  that  it  is  as  good  as  mother's  milk,  a  sufficient 
quantity  of  it  should  be  employed  to  supply  that  amount  of  heat. 

Percentage  Feeding  of  Infants. — A  great  deal  of  attention  has  been 
given  in  the  last  few  years  to  what  is  known  as  the  percentage  feeding  of 
infants.  It  may  be  said  in  regard  to  this  matter  that  there  are  two  distinct  and 
somewhat  different  theories  in  vogue.  In  the  United  States  the  so-called 
percentage  method  of  feeding  is  generally  upheld  by  the  more  advanced  phy- 
sicians, while  in  Germany  the  system  which  is  known  as  the  caloric  is  more 
generally  held.  Naturally,  both  systems  have  their  good  points,  and  neither 
by  itself  may  be  said  to  be  complete. 

It  is  not  difficult,  as  a  rule,  if  the  percentage  composition  of  the  food,  including 
the  quantity  of  fat,  is  known,  to  calculate  its  caloric  value.  The  trouble,  how- 
ever, lies  in  determining  exactly  the  percentage  relations  of  different  components 
of  the  same  kind  of  food.  The  absolute  heat  value  of  the  food  may  be  said  to 
best  subserve  the  wants  of  the  infant  when  it  amounts  to  from  100  to  120  calo- 
ries per  kilogram  of  body- weight.  As  the  infant  grows  larger,  this  amount  may 
be  well  reduced,  as,  for  instance,  it  might  fall  to  80  calories  per  kilogram  at 
the  end  of  the  first  year.  It  is  advisable,  therefore,  not  only  to  have  the  calo- 
rific value  of  the  food  determined  per  kilogram  of  weight,  but  also  to  know 
the  percentages  of  fat,  sugar,  and  protein  in  the  food.  Some  experts  claim 
that  fat  is  not  assimilated  well  by  the  young  infant,  and  that  its  presence  is 
often  the  cause  of  acute  and  chronic  indigestion.  If  this  be  true,  it  is  impor- 
tant that  the  physician  who  wishes  to  protect  his  patient  from  an  undue  amount 
of  fat  should  know  the  quantity  present. 

One  of  the  chief  difficulties,  of  course,  in  properly  modifying  the  percentage 
composition  of  milk  is  the  fact  that  the  milk  itself  varies  so  greatly,  especially 
in  its  content  of  fat.  For  instance,  the  milk  from  a  Jersey  cow  may  contain 
two  or  even  three  times  as  much  fat  as  that  from  a  cow  of  the  Holstein  breed. 
Hence,  any  hard  and  fast  rules  for  modifying  milk  so  as  to  secure  a  definite 
percentage  composition  are  of  little  value.  Fortunately,  the  milk  varies  much 
more  as  to  its  content  of  fat  than  in  regard  to  any  other  constituent.  Hence, 
it  may  be  practicable  to  apply  stereotyped  rules  for  modifying  the  content  of 
sugar  and  protein,  but  not  the  fat.  Fortunately,  the  determination  of  the  fat 
Is  one  of  the  easiest  of  all  the  operations  in  milk  analysis  and  can  be  very 
successfully  made  by  one  who  is  not  a  chemist  by  means  of  the  simple  Babcock 
centrifugal  apparatus,  to  be  had  of  all  dealers  in  dairy  supplies.  The  best  re- 
suhs  will  certainly  be  obtained  in  the  feeding  of  infants  when  both  the  calorific 
value  of  the  food  and  its  percentage  composition  are  taken  into  consideration. 


DANGERS    IN    BOTTLE    FEEDING.  tjOI 

Calorific  Value  of  Milk.— In  the  feeding  of  infants  the  development 
of  heat  and  energy  is,  of  course,  quite  as  important  as  the  growth  of  tissue. 
For  this  purpose  milks  rich  in  fat  are  much  more  important  than  those  rich 
in  carbohydrates.  For  instance,  the  amount  of  heat  and  energy  furnished 
by  a  unit  weight  of  fat  is  more  than  double  that  supplied  by  the  same  weight 
of  milk  sugar.  The  calorific  power  of  milk,  therefore,  depends  more  on  its 
content  of  fat  than  on  any  other  constituent.  A  liter  of  milk,  approximately 
one  quart,  represents  on  an  average  a  little  over  700  calories.  As  a  man  at 
moderate  work  requires  about  3000  calories  per  day,  it  is  seen  that  he  would 
need  more  than  four  liters  of  milk.  In  other  words,  the  average  man  might 
well  live  and  perform  his  ordinary  activities  on  a  gallon  and  a  half  of  milk 
a  day,  considering  heat  and  energy  requirements  only. 

Method  of  Computing  Calorific  Value. — In  order  to  obtain  the 
calorific  value  of  food  when  its  percentage  composition  is  known,  the  percent- 
age of  each  element  is  multiplied  by  its  respective  heat  value  for  one  gram,  these 
calorific  values  being  well  known.  If,  then,  the  total  amount  of  food  used  in 
twenty-four  hours  is  determined,  its  total  calorific  value  is  obtained  by  simple 
multiplication  and  addition.  An  illustration  may  serve  best  to  show  how  this 
is  accomplished.  Let  us  assume  that  milk  prepared,  or  modified,  for  the  use 
of  an  infant  has  i  percent  of  protein,  3  percent  of  fat,  and  6  percent  of  sugar, 
and  the  total  quantity  of  milk  used  in  a  day  is  300  cubic  centimeters.  The 
calorific  power  of  fat  is  expressed  in  round  numbers  for  one  gram  by  9.3  cal- 
ories; that  of  sugar  is  4.1  calories  per  gram;  and  the  calorific  power  of  protein, 
inasmuch  as  it  is  not  fully  oxidized,  may  be  taken  at  the  same  value,  namely, 
4. 1  small  calories  per  gram.  The  total  calorific  value  of  the  food  is,  therefore, 
given  in  the  following  calculation: 

300  X  0.03  X  9.3=   83.7  calories  due  to  fat. 
300  X  o.oi  X  4.1=    12.3  calories  due  to  protein. 
300  X  0.06  X  4.1  =    73.8  calories  due  to  sugar. 


169.8  total  calories  in  the  milk  ingested. 

Where  constant  recourse  is  had  to  such  calculations,  it  may  be  convenient 
to  make  a  table  which  will  give  the  calories  at  once  by  inspection,  but  this  is 
only  necessary  in  exceptional  cases. 

Dangers  in  Bottle  Feeding. — If  infants  are  fed  by  bottle  or  in  any 
artificial  way,  great  precaution  must  be  observed  to  keep  the  bottle  and  all 
parts  of  the  apparatus  free  from  bacterial  and  other  infection.  This  is  not 
by  any  means  as  easily  accomplished  as  one  might  suppose.  The  mere  wash- 
ing of  the  apparatus  with  hot  water  after  feeding  a  child  is  not  sufficient. 
Two  or  three  times  a  day  all  parts  of  the  bottle  should  be  put  into  water 
gradually  heated,  and  boiled  for  some  time,  in  order  to  be  certain  that  no 
contamination  is  possible.     Even  where  the  milk  is  good  and  pure  the  con- 


502  infants'  and  invalids'  foods. 

tamination  of  the  container  may  be  so  great  as  to  work  an  injury  upon  the 
child.  All  complicated  methods  of  administering  the  milk  should  be  rejected 
and  the  simplest  one  possible  adopted. 

Beginning  of  Mixed  Foods. — When  the  first  food  is  given,  the  greatest 
care  should  be  exercised  in  regard  to  its  quality,  and  especially  that  it  shall  be 
a  food  most  easily  digested.  Reference  has  already  been  made  to  milk  sugar 
and  malt  as  probably  the  best  of  the  milk  modifiers  that  can  be  used.  At 
first  the  solid  particles  of  the  malt  should  not  be  employed,  but  only  those 
portions  soluble  in  water.  Malted  cereals  in  small  quantities  may  be  given 
later  on  as  the  stomach  of  the  child  becomes  able  to  digest  them.  Fruits 
should  never  be  given  to  infants  at  this  stage,  though  small  quantities  of 
properly  prepared  fruit  juices  may  not  be  inadmissible  after  the  child  ap- 
proaches the  age  of  a  year.  The  juice  of  wholesome  meat  in  small  quantities 
is  also  relished  by  growing  children.  Any  foods  which  contain  an  alkaloid, 
such  as  coffee,  tea,  or  chocolate,  should  be  rigidly  excluded  from  the  diet. 
For  the  same  reason  alcohol  should  never  be  given  to  children  even  after  they 
pass  the  age  of  infancy.  Solid  food  which  requires  mastication  should  not  be 
used  until  the  child's  first  set  of  teeth  are  well  developed,  and  then  these 
articles  should  be  administered  in  small  quantities  and  the  child  taught  to 
chew  them  as  well  as  possible  before  swallowing.  It  is  rather  difficult  to  teach 
a  child  to  chew,  as  the  natural  tendency  after  twelve  or  fifteen  months  of 
milk  feeding  is  to  swallow  any  soHd  bodies  placed  in  its  mouth  as  soon  as 
possible. 

If  the  food  disagrees  with  the  child,  after  it  begins  to  take  other  food  in 
addition  to  milk,  an  effort  should  be  made  to  find  what  particular  element  is 
at  fault.  There  are  many  theories  advanced  in  regard  to  this  matter,  but  a 
safe  way  is  to  withhold  one  of  the  elements  which  is  most  open  to  suspicion 
and  see  if  the  disorder  which  had  been  noticed  is  removed.  By  a  little  ex- 
perimenting of  this  kind,  in  a  gentle  way,  a  more  rational  feeding  of  the  infant 
may  be  secured. 

Diet  at  Weaning. — An  important  part  of  infant  feeding  relates  to  what 
diet  should  be  used  immediately  after  weaning.  The  time  of  weaning,  of 
course,  is  variable.  Some  authors  recomnlend  that  it  be  done  at  eight  or 
nine  months.  This,  I  think,  is  entirely  too  early.  If  the  child  is  weaned  at 
fifteen  months,  it  is  none  too  old,  and  even  a  longer  period  may  be  desirable 
at  times.  There  are,  however,  many  cases  where  earlier  weaning  becomes 
advisable  and  even  necessary.  Hence,  it  is  well  to  consider  just  what 
foods  are  best  for  the  wxaned  infant  at  that  early  period,  say  before  the  ex- 
piration of  the  first  year.  Some  mothers  seem  to  think  that  the  first  tooth 
of  the  infant  shows  that  the  time  for  weaning  is  at  hand.  This,  undoubtedly, 
is  a  false  indication,  as  a  child  cannot  eat  with  a  single  tooth.  The  most 
natural  period,  it  seems  to  me,  would  be  when  the  first  temporary  teeth  are 


DIET    DURING    THE    SECOND    YEAR    OF    LIFE.  503 

fully  formed;  in  other  words,  when  the  child  has  completed  its  "  second  simi- 
mer."  The  infant  then  has  both  incisors  and  molars  for  use  in  mastication. 
When  the  weaning  is  decided  upon,  it  should  be  done  gradually,  giving  at 
first  a  small  quantity  of  foreign  food,  and  gradually  increasing  it  as  the 
quantity  of  mother's  milk  is  decreased. 

Use  of  Starchy  Foods. — Some  trouble  may  be  experienced  in  teaching 
the  infant  to  take  the  new  foods,  and  this  should  be  undertaken,  with  patience 
and  perseverance.  Great  care  should  be  exercised  in  not  passing  too  rapidly 
to  a  carbohydrate  diet  which  is  rich  in  starch.  For  this  reason  malted  cereals 
perhaps  are  to  be  preferred  at  first  to  the  unmalted;  but  at  this  time  of  life 
it  is  necessary  that  the  power  of  the  child 's  organism  for  converting  starch  be 
exercised^  at  least  slightly,  and  hence  the  administration  of  a  small  amount  of 
starch,  a  very  small  amount  at  the  beginning,  is  desirable.  The  malted  cereals 
could  then  be  gradually  decreased  in  quantity  and  the  unmalted  increased. 
There  is  no  objection  to  thoroughly  cooking  the  cereal  in  order  that  the  starch 
may  be  as  much  emulsified  as  possible,  and  thus  rendered  more  susceptible 
to  the  action  of  the  ferments  of  the  mouth  and  of  the  intestinal  tract  beyond 
the  stomach.  There  is  perhaps  no  more  valuable  food  at  this  time  than  oat- 
meal cooked  many  hours  and  given  in  very  small  quantities.  Most  healthy 
children  soon  acquire  a  fondness  for  this  diet,  to  which  a  little  milk  should  be 
added.  Later  cream  may  be  substituted  wholly  or  in  part  for  milk,  but  ft 
must  not  be  too  rich.  In  this  way,  in  a  few  weeks,  or  at  most  months,  a  child 
will  gradually  be  weaned  from  the  breast  without  haWng  had  any  disagreeable 
experiences  and  without  creating  any  unnecessary  disturbance  in  the  home. 

While  oatmeal  is  especially  reconmiended  it  is  by  no  means  to  be  inferred 
that  other  cereals,  when  properly  prepared,  are  not  good.  Bread  and  other 
cooked  foods  can  be  given  gradually  as  the  child's  ability  to  masticate  its 
food  properly  is  increased.  At  first  the  bread  should  be  very  soft,  so  that  even 
if  it  fails  of  mastication  it  may  not  irritate  the  stomach.  As  a  rule,  the  child 's 
appetite  can  be  consulted,  at  least  partially,  but  not  always.  Firmness  on 
the  part  of  the  mother  at  this  period  is  most  desirable,  since  when  a  child  has 
eaten  what  is  known  to  be  a  sufficient  quantity  for  its  proper  nutrition,  no 
more  should  be  given,  even  though  the  child  cry  for  it,  as  it  often  does.  There 
is  perhaps  no  more  dangerous  habit  than  that  of  giving  food  to  children 
because  they  cry  for  it.  WTien  we  consider  what  is  fed  to  infants  in  this  pro- 
miscuous way,  it  is  remarkable  that  the  death-rate  among  them  is  not  even 
greater  than  it  is. 

Diet  During  the  Second  Year  of  Life. — The  infant  begins  to  speak 
during  its  second  year  and  is  entering  childhood.  The  quantity  of  food  which 
it  consimies  should,  of  coiu-se,  be  gradually  increased  as  the  child  grows.  At 
this  period,  however,  ^eat  care  should  be  exercised  to  prevent  the  fat-form- 
ing habit,  which  is  ver}'  apt  to  be  acquired  by  some  children.    The  moment 


504  infants'  and  invalids'  foods. 

any  excessive  amount  of  fat  is  developed,  the  food  should  be  diminished  in 
quantity,  even  at  the  penalty  of  having  a  crying  child.  Firmness  on  the  part 
of  the  parents  at  this  period  of  life  v^ill  save  many  a  pang  in  the  future,  for 
parent  and  child. 

Later  Feeding. — After  the  second  year  the  child's  tastes  may  be  con- 
sidered more,  but  in  all  cases  the  quantity  as  well  as  the  quality  of  its  food 
should  be  watched.  Children,  as  a  rule,  are  very  fond  of  meats  (including 
fowl,  fish,  etc.),  and  there  is  a  tendency  on  their  part  to  eat  them  too  exclusively. 
While  meat,  in  my  opinion,  is  a  legitimate  article  of  food  for  a  child,  it 
should  be  used  in  moderation,  and  not  to  the  exclusion  of  cereals  and  a  proper 
amount  of  fruits.  All  fruits,  however,  should  be  given  in  the  form  of  fruit 
juices  or  as  cooked  fruits,  until  the  child  is  at  least  three  or  even  four  years  of 
age.  The  ingestion  of  fruits,  without  proper  mastication,  is  a  frequent  cause 
of  irritation,  colic,  vomiting,  and  other  digestive  disturbances  in  children. 

Difficulty  of  Digesting  Protein. — One  of  the  chief  difficulties  in  the 
artificial  nutrition  of  the  human  infant  is  found  in  the  difficulty  it  experiences 
in  digesting  foreign  protein.  As  is  well  known,  protein  is  digested  in  an  acid 
medium,  and  the  gastric  juice  of  the  human  infant  has  a  low  content  of  hy- 
drochloric acid  during  the  first  few  months  of  existence.  It  is  evident,  there- 
fore, that  in  a  stomach  of  this  kind  the  digesting  of  any  considerable  quantity 
of  protein,  especially  a  foreign  protein,  is  extremely  difficult.  In  fact,  when 
feeding  an  infant  with  any  foreign  milk,  particularly  that  of  the  cow,  clots 
of  undigested  protein  are  often  found  in  the  feces.  On  the  other  hand,  the 
fats  and  the  sugar  of  milk  are  much  more  easily  digested,  and  the  high  content 
of  milk-sugar  in  mother's  milk  shows  that  this  substance  may  be  easily  di- 
gested even  if  present  in  proportionately  large  quantities.  It  would  seem, 
therefore,  only  rational  in  the  preparation  of  an  artificial  infant 's  food  (that 
is,  milk  provided  from  other  sources)  to  secure  a  milk  rich  in  sugar  and  low 
in  protein.  For  this  reason  the  suggestion  is  well  worth  considering  that  the 
milk  of  the  mare  and  the  ass  should  be  used  as  extensively  as  possible  for 
infant  feeding  when  mother's  milk  is  not  available. 

There  is  special  danger  in  feeding  an  infant  which  is  not  entirely  robust  a 
milk  containing  too  large  a  content  of  protein.  The  first  effect  is  to  make 
curd  of  the  milk,  and  these  lumps  of  curd  resist  the  feeble  efforts  of  the  infant 's 
stomach  at  digestion,  and  remain  to  cause  indigestion,  nausea,  and  finally 
colic  and  diarrhea.  Even  if  all  digested,  it  would  provide  a  plethora  of  protein, 
which  might  prove  seriously  inconvenient.  The  difficulty  cannot  be  corrected 
by  merely  diluting  the  cow 's  milk  with  water,  for  while  the  percentage  of 
protein  might  be  reduced  to  the  normal  amount  required,  at  the  same  time  . 
there  is  a  proportional  reduction  of  the  percentage  of  milk  sugar,  which  is 
already  too  low  in  cow 's  milk  for  the  purposes  of  infant  nutrition. 

The    Soy    Bean   as   a  Food    for  Infants  and  Children. — Of  interest 


OF  THE 

UNIVCRSITV 

OF 
THE   SQY^SgAJT^S^  A    FOOD    FOR   INFANTS   AND    CHILDREN.  505 

in  connection  with  the  difficulties  of  protein  digestion  are  the  investiga- 
tions of  Dr.  Ruhrah,*  of  the  value  of  the  soy  bean  under  certain  disordered 
conditions  of  nutrition  in  which  the  protein  of  cow's  milk  is  not  assimilated. , 
The  soy  bean  is  extensively  used  for  food  purposes  in  China  and  Japan,  and 
has  come  into  some  prominence  in  this  country.  There  is  often  difficulty  in 
feeding  infants,  and  even  young  children,  a  sufficient  supply  of  protein  in  the 
form  of  milk,  and  the  soy  bean  seems  to  offer  the  protein  in  a  more  di- 
gestible form.  The  soy  bean  flour,  in  which  form  it  is  used  as  a  source  of 
food,  was  analyzed,  with  the  following  results: 

Percent. 

Protein, 4464 

Fat, 19.43 

Mineral  matter, 4.20 

Moisture, 5.26 

Crude  fiber, 2.35 

Cane  sugar, 9.34 

Non-nitrogenous  extract, 14-78 

Starch, None 

Reducing  sugars, None 

Polarization  normal  weight  due  to  optically  active  substance  other 
than  cane  sugar  (included  in  proteids  and  non-nitrogenous  ex- 
tract),   7.86° 

The  protein  in  the  flour  of  the  soy  bean  is  one-third  greater  than  that  in 
the  whole  bean.  This  is  caused  by  the  removal  of  the  coarse  fibrous  hulls, 
which  contain  little  protein,  during  the  process  of  grinding.  It  is  interesting 
to  compare  the  analysis  given  with  that  of  a  round  of  beef,  which  has  the 
following  composition  in  its  edible  part: 

Percent. 

Protein, 20.3 

Fat, 13.6 

Moisture, 65.5 

One  ounce  of  the  soy  bean  flour,  representing  60  calories,  contains  about 
13  grams  of  protein,  and  the  flour  can  be  used  in  the  form  of  gruel  or 
broth  or  in  making  biscuits  or  muffins.  It  can  also  be  mixed  with  cereals, 
barley  jelly,  cream  of  wheat,  and  other  substances.  It  is  recommended  not 
only  for  healthy  children,  but  in  cases  of  summer  diarrheas  and  other  forms  of 
intestinal  disturbances  to  which  infants  during  their  first  summer  are  subject. 
Gruel  is  recommended  in  which  one  or  two  tablespoonfuls  to  the  quart  is 
used.  As  a  rule.  Dr.  Ruhrah  found  that  this  gruel  agreed  well  with  infants, 
rarely  causing  any  vomiting  or  increase  in  the  diarrhea.  Barley  or  some 
other  cereal  should  be  added  from  time  to  time  as  required.  In  later  stages 
of  the  feeding  milk  may  be  added  to  the  soy  bean  gruel  with  advantage. 
This  gruel  is  also  recommended  by  Dr.  Ruhrah  as  a  diluent  of  cows'  milk. 
When  the  food  is  prepared  from  condensed  milk,  the  soy  bean  is  valuable, 
because  it  not  only  increases  the  protein  content  of  the  food,  but  apparently 
♦Journal  of  the  American  Medical  Association,  No.  21,  May  21,  1910. 


5o6 


infants'  and  invalids'  foods. 


furnishes  the  protein  in  a  more  digestible  form.  If  feeding  is  practiced  accord- 
ing to  the  caloric  theory,  the  values  secured  by  different  quantities  of  the  soy 
bean  meal,  used  in  the  form  of  gruel,  are  calci^lated  as  follows: 


Quantities  of  Meal  Used. 


J  oz.  (i  level  tablespoonful  to  the  quart),. 
^  oz.  (2  level  tablespoonfuls  to  the  quart), 
I  oz.  (3  level  tablespoonfuls  to  the  quart), 

1  oz.  (4  level  tablespoonfuls  to  the  quart), 

2  ozs.  to  the  quart 

3  ozs.  to  the  quart, 

4  ozs.  to  the  quart, 

5  ozs.  to  the  quart, 

6  ozs.  to  the  quart, 

7  ozs.  to  the  quart, 

8  ozs.  to  the  quart, 


Percentage  Composition. 

Protein. 

Fat. 

Sugar. 

0-35 

0.15 

0.08 

0.70 

0.30 

0.15 

I.O 

0-45 

0.23 

1.4 

0.60 

0.30 

2.8 

1.2 

0.60 

4.2 

1.8 

0.90 

5-6 

2.4 

1.2 

7.0 

3-0 

1-5 

8.4 

3-6 

1.8 

9.8 

4.2 

2.1 

1 1.0 

4.8 

2.4 

Calo- 
ries. 


30 
60 
90 
120 
240 
360 
480 
600 
720 
840 
960 


A  quart  of  gruel  is  made  by  boihng  from  i  level  tablespoonful  to  8  ounces 
of  the  soy  bean  flour  in  one  quart  of  water  for  fifteen  minutes,  adding  water 
to  make  up  for  loss  by  evaporation.  Salt  should  be  added  to  taste.  These 
gruels  do  not  thicken  during  cooking,  as  they  contain  no  starch,  and  readily 
settle  on  standing.  This  may  be  overcome  by  adding  i  to  2  heaping  teaspoon- 
fuls  of  barley,  oat,  rye  or  wheat  flour  before  cooking,  which  will  add  from 
0.6  to  1.2  percent  starch  to  the  gruels,  and  also  slightly  increase  the  percent- 
age of  protein. 

MOTHER'S   MILK. 

The  Natural  Food  of  Infants.— It  has  already  been  stated  that  the 
natural  food  of  the  infant  is  mother's  milk.  The  demands  of  modern  society, 
unfortunately,  have  deprived  the  American  infant,  in  many  cases,  of  the  food 
which  nature  intended  it  to  have.  Illness,  or  the  idiosyncrasy  or  neglect  of 
the  mother,  in  many  more  cases,  has  taken  from  the  infant  its  natural  nourish- 
ment. But  it  is  a  condition  rather  than  a  theory  that  confronts  the  American 
infant,  and  often  it  is  a  choice  between  starvation  and  a  modified  or  artificially 
prepared  food. 

Dr.  Findlay,  in  "The  Lancet"  for  January  8,  1910,  calls  attention  to  the 
fact  that  there  are  essential  differences  between  human  and  cow's  milk  which 
should  not  be  overlooked.  These  differences  extend  to  all  the  constituents 
of  the  milk — the  proteid,  the  whey,  the  sugar,  and  the  mineral  constituents. 
The  presence  of  the  extra  amount  of  mineral  matter  in  cow's  milk  is  of  special 
significance.  Some  human  milks  have  exceptionally  large  quantities  of  mineral 
matter,  and  these  have  been  found  to  be  irritating  to  the  stomach  of  the  child, 


VARIATION    IN    FAT    CONTENT    OF    MOTHER'S    MILK.  507 

while  those  that  contained  the  normal  amount  were  easily  assimilated.  The 
good  results  obtained,  therefore,  from  diluting  cow's  milk  with  water  before 
using  it  as  food  do  not  come  from  diminishing  the  amount  of  proteid,  as  has 
been  supposed  generally,  but  from  the  reduction  in  the  proportion  of  the  inor- 
ganic salts.  The  salts  of  sodium,  especially,  when  given  to  children,  are  very 
disturbing,  inducing  usually  a  rise  in  temperature  and  an  increase  in  the  elec- 
trical excitability  of  the  muscles.  On  the  other  hand,  calcium  salts  have  the 
opposite  effects.  The  difference  in  salt  content  alone  does  not  explain  altogether 
the  superiority  of  human  milk,  since  the  mineral  matters  of  human  milk,  if 
separated  and  given  independently  to  the  infants,  produce  irritating  re- 
salts.  Apparently  human  milk  contains  some  beneficial  organic  substances 
not  well  understood  in  which  the  mineral  matters  form  an  active  constituent, 
and  which  are  destroyed  in  their  separation  from  the  milk.  The  general  con- 
clusion of  the  investigations  is  that  we  do  not  yet  fully  understand  the  secret 
of  the  beneficial  effects  of  human  milk,  but  that  it  probably  is  due  to  some 
essential  and  probably  organic  substance  of  the  nature  of  which  we  are  at 
present  entirely  ignorant. 

Variation  in  Character  and  Quantity  of  Mother's  Milk. — During  its 
prenatal  life  the  child  has  been  supported  solely  by  the  blood  of  the  mother. 
In  its  first  days  of  infant,  life  it  takes  but  httle  nourishment,  and  that  is 
of  a  rather  extraordinary  character.  The  mother's  milk,  at  the  time  of 
the  birth  of  the  offspring,  as  is  the  case  with  the  milk  of  all  mammals,  is  not 
normal.  In  fact,  it  is  not  milk  at  all,  but  is  a  thick  fluid  called  colostrum, 
which  has  quite  a  different  chemical  composition  from  normal  milk;  there 
is  no  doubt,  however,  that  it  is  the  normal  food  of  the  child  during  the  first 
hours  of  its  existence.  It  is  generally  supposed  that  the  mother  secretes  the 
greatest  amount  of  milk  at  the  time  of  birth.  This,  however,  is  not  the  case. 
The  amount  of  milk  secreted  by  a  healthy  mother  increases  very  rapidly 
during  the  first  period  of  the  child 's  growth,  and  reaches  a  maximum  about  the 
time  the  child  requires  the  largest  amount.  It  then  begins  to  decHne  as  the 
child  may  be  fed  with  other  things  until  the  weaning  period  arrives.  The 
mother's  milk  usually  reaches  a  quite  constant  composition  after  about  the 
third  week,  and  after  this  period  contains  the  following  ingredients  in  about 
the  percentages  named : 

Percent. 

Protein, i  .0-1 .5 

Fat, 3-5-4.0 

Sugar, 6.5-7.0 

Mineral  substances, 0.2 

Organic  substances, 0.6 

Variation  in  Fat  Content  of  Mother's  Milk. — It  is  evident  from 
the  analytical  data  which  have  been  collected  that  the  composition  of  mother 's 
milk  varies  quite  as  much  as  that  of  other  mammals,  and  that  even  in  the 


5o8  infants'  and  invalids'  foods. 

natural  feeding  of  an  infant  from  the  mother's  breast  conditions  often  arise 
which  are  inimical  to  the  child 's  health.  These  conditions  are  due  both  to  the 
variations  which  take  place  in  the  milk  of  the  mother,  changing  the  relative 
constituents  or  character  of  the  various  ingredients,  and  to  the  varying  vitality 
of  the  child.  Dr.  Tayler- Jones,  in  an  article  in  the  ''Archives  of  Pediatrics," 
treats  particularly  of  the  variation  of  the  fat  percentage  as  a  factor  in  feeding. 
Dr.  Jones  draws  the  following  conclusions  from  the  results  of  her  studies : 

1.  The  importance  of  mother's  milk  cannot  be  overestimated.  A  physi- 
cian should  feel  that  he  is  taking  the  baby 's  life  in  his  hands  in  lightly  changing 
from  breast  milk  and  should  so  impress  the  mother.  Besides  the  immediate 
danger,  which  at  times  is  not  so  great,  it  lessens  the  stamina  for  later  years.  A 
right  start  in  anything  is  essential,  but  nothing  is  more  important  than  a  right 
start  in  life. 

2.  If  there  is  some  disturbance  to  the  nursing  infant,  the  breast  milk  should 
be  examined,  unless  some  cause,  like  tuberculosis,  is  at  once  recognized.  It 
is  not  long  since  patients  were  pronounced  anemic  upon  looking  at  them,  but 
to-day  the  hemoglobin  must  be  estimated.    So  must  it  be  with  the  breast  milk. 

3.  Fat  is  an  important  factor  if  only  for  its  variabihty. 

4.  The  importance  of  the  fats  has  increased  lately  since  the  Breslau  in- 
vestigators gave  them  such  an  important  role  in  infantile  atrophy  (marasmus). 

5.  For  the  most  part  fat  gradually  increases  in  amount  from  the  begin- 
ning to  the  end  of  a  feeding,  with  occasionally  a  dip  down  at  the  end.  As  yet 
there  is  no  proof  that  the  increase  is  arithmetical.  A  baby  that  needs  more  fat 
than  it  is  getting  can  easily  be  put  to  the  breast  after  some  milk  has  been 
pumped  out. 

6.  A  fat  percentage,  within  a  few  tenths  of  a  percent  of  the  average,  may 
be  obtained  by  taking  equal  specimens  from  the  beginning  and  end  of  the 
•feeding  and  examining  the  mixture.  This  is  entirely  practicable  clinically 
and  should  be  done. 

Addition  of  Alcohol  in  Beverages  to  the  Diet  of  Mothers. — It  is  pop- 
ularly believed  in  many  countries  where  fermented  beverages  are  commonly 
consumed  that  the  addition  of  wine  or  beer  to  the  diet  of  the  mother  is  bene- 
ficial, improving  the  quality  of  the  milk  and  also  sustaining  the  strength  of 
the  mother  for  her  extra  duties.  The  use  of  alcohol  in  moderate  quantities 
does  not  give  rise  to  the  presence  of  any  alcohol  whatever  in  the  milk.  Pre- 
sumably, the  whole  of  the  alcohol  is  burned  in  the  mother's  body,  or  at  least 
it  does  not  enter  the  secretion  of  the  mammary  glands;  hence  there  is  no  danger 
usually  of  administering  alcohol  to  the  child  by  giving  it  to  the  mother.  It 
is  doubtless  true  that  the  character  of  the  mother's  milk  may  be  somewhat 
modified  by  the  use  of  alcoholic  beverages  or  alcoholic  malt  extracts.  Ex- 
periments have  shown  that  an  alcoholic  beverage  tends  perhaps  to  increase 
the  fat,  and  to  a  less  extent  the  protein.  While  it  is  true  that  physicians,  as 
a  rule,  are  very  loath  to  recommend  that  the  mother  drink  a  fermented  bever- 
age, there  are  some  cases  of  ill  health  in  which  such  advice  has  been  given  and 


VARIATIONS    IN    THE    COMPOSITION    OF    DIFFERENT    MILKS.  509 

followed  with  benefit,  especially  if  the  mother,  before  the  bu-th  of  the  child, 
has  been  in  the  habit  of  using  a  moderate  amount  of  alcohohc  beverages. 
In  such  cases  perhaps  it  is  not  advisable  to  prohibit  entirely  the  use  of  these 
articles  during  the  period  of  lactation.  On  the  other  hand,  those  who  have 
not  been  accustomed  to  the  use  of  alcohol  may  find  that  there  is  danger  of 
its  administration  proving  deleterious  both  to  the  mother  and  to  the  child. 
The  safest  way  is  to  get  along  without  such  beverages. 

The  Effect  of  Worry  or  Excitement  on  the  Mother's  Milk. — Any  sud- 
den trouble  or  shock  which  produces  excitement  or  suffering  in  the  mother  is 
apt  to  induce  very  radical  changes  in  both  the  character  and  quantity  of  milk. 
These  changes  are  of  such  a  nature  often  as  to  interfere  with  the  nutrition 
of  the  child.  For  this  reason  a  nursing  mother  should  be  kept  as  free  as  pos- 
sible from  excitement  or  from  participation  in  any  functions  which  produce 
unusual  excitement,  worry,  or  anxiety.  Especially  should  social  functions 
of  all  kinds  be  abandoned  during  the  nursing  period,  and  if  possible  all  cause 
for  worry  should  be  kept  from  her. 


COMPOSITION    OF    HUMAN  MILK    COMPARED    WITH    THAT 
OF   OTHER  MAMMALS. 

In  the  nutrition  of  the  young  of  man  the  milks  of  only  a  few  other  mammals 
are  employed,  cow's  milk  being  generally  used  in  this  country.  In  other 
countries,  and  sometimes  in  this,  the  milk  of  other  mammals  is  used,  namely, 
the  goat,  sheep,  mare,  and  ass,  but  these  are  not  common  substitutes  for 
mother's  milk  in  the  United  States,  and  it  may  be  said  that  the  milk  almost 
universally  used  in  lieu  of  mother's  milk  is  that  of  the  cow. 

Variations  in  the  Composition  of  Different  Milks. — Cow's  milk  is 
by  no  means  of  uniform  composition.  It  varies  in  a  very  large  degree,  not 
only  among  different  breeds,  but  among  the  individual  animals  of  the  same 
breed.  The  same  statement  may  be  made  of  mother's  milk  and  the  milk 
of  other  animals.  The  natural  adaptabihty  of  the  young  child  to  slight  vari- 
ations in  its  nourishment  is  thus  the  necessity  of  its  existence.  This  renders 
it  advisable  for  a  child  deprived  of  its  mother's  milk  to  be  nourished  in  a 
rational  and  systematic  way  in  order  to  insure  a  growth  which  even  approx- 
imates that  provided  by  its  natural  milk-supply;  in  fact,  if  the  mother  be  suf- 
fering in  any  way  from  a  disease  or  from  malnutrition,  a  better  food  for 
the  child  may  be  usually  suppHed  from  the  cow  than  it  would  otherwise  re- 
ceive. Upon  the  whole,  therefore,  it  may  be  said  that  the  nutrition  of  the 
young  infant  deprived  of  its  mother's  milk  is  not  so  hopeless  nor  so  difficult 
a  task  as  is  commonly  supposed.  It  requires,  however,  a  degree  of  skill, 
patience,  and  efficiency  which  is  usually  not  found  among  those  who  are 
called  upon  to  supply  the  needed  nourishment. 


5IO  infants'  and  invalids'  foods. 

Comparative  Analyses. — If  the  student  begins  to  look  through  authori- 
ties for  the  composition  of  mother 's  milk,  he  becomes  at  once  confused.  The 
best  that  can  be  done,  therefore,  is  to  say  that  the  variations  in  mother's  milk 
are  quite  wide,  but  not  of  a  character  to  threaten  the  health  of  the  infant.  The 
principal  ingredients  of  mother's  milk  are  the  nitrogenous  constituents  or 
protein,  sugar,  fat,  and  mineral  substances.  I  have  compared  the  analyses 
given  by  many  authors,  and  it  appears  that  the  following  may  be  considered 
a  fair  average  of  the  data  which  have  been  reported,  both  for  woman's  milk 
and  principal  substitutes  therefor: 

Woman's  Cow's  Goat's  Mare's  Ass's 

Milk.  Milk.  Milk.  Milk.  Milk. 

Percent.  Percent.  Percent.  Percent.  Percent. 

Protein, 1.5  3.0  2.80  1.90  1.60 

Fat, 3.5  3.9  3.40  i.oo  0.93 

Sugar, 6.^  5.0  3.80  6.33  5.60 

Mineral  matter  (ash),     0.2  0.7  0.95  0.45  0.36 

Water, 88.3  87.4  89.05  90.32  91 -51 

From  this  comparison  it  appears  that  human  milk  does  not  correspond 
to  any  of  the  principal  milks  which  are  used  as  substitutes.  The  amount 
of  protein  in  the  milk  of  the  mare  and  the  ass  approximates  more  nearly 
the  composition  of  human  milk  than  does  that  of  the  cow's  or  goat's- 
milk. 

Value  of  Goat*s  Milk,  Especially  as  to  Fat  Constituents. — Atten- 
tion has  already  been  directed  to  the  composition  of  goat 's  milk  and  its  possi- 
ble utilization  as  an  infant  food.  Some  interesting  investigations  were  reported 
by  Dr.  Bell  in  a  paper  read  before  the  Section  on  Pediatrics,  New  York  Academy 
of  Medicine,  in  January,  1906.  Goat's  milk  was  fed  to  a  number  of 
infants  under  the  care  of  Dr.  Bell,  and  in  many  cases  with  good  results.  The 
average  percentage  of  fat  in  the  goat 's  milk  used  was  4.8  percent,  and  of  pro^ 
teids,  3.8  percent.    In  closing  his  paper  Dr.  Bell  states: 

In  view  of  these  physical  and  clinical  differences  in  the  various  milk  fats^ 
not  only  as  regards  different  animals  but  individual  breeds,  or  possibly  mem- 
bers of  the  same  breed,  and  the  experiments  on  animals  with  fat-laden  foods 
relative  to  the  digestive  secretions,  it  seems  reasonable  and  promising  to  make 
extensive  clinical  observations,  so  that  we  may  be  governed  by  practical  as 
well  as  theoretical  knowledge  in  this  most  important  branch  of  our  daily  work. 
It  seems  probable  that  a  great  deal  of  mystery  heretofore  existing  in  the  ad- 
aptation of  milk  to  infant  feeding,  not  only  as  regards  fat,  but  proteid  indiges- 
tion, will  be  largely  cleared  up  by  a  more  intimate  knowledge  of  the  chemistry 
of  the  fat  constituents  employed.  In  this  connection  we  might  pertinently 
ask  if  we  are  using  the  best  and  most  economical  source  of  milk  supply.  While 
not  possible  of  confirmation,  I  believe  good  milch  goats  (the  Nubian ,  for  instance) 
will  give  a  larger  milk  ratio  per  expense  of  food  and  keeping  than  the  cow. 
She  is  more  docile,  less  excitable,  not  subject  to  tuberculosis  or  other  disease 


COMPOSITION    OF   THE    MINERAL   MATTER   OF  MILK.  51I 

in  this  climate.  Being  a  browser  rather  than  a  grazer,  she  will  thrive  when  cows 
would  not;  and,  above  all,  she  is  cleanly.  Her  excrement  is  solid  and  her  tail 
short,  consequently  she  is  not  covered  with  manure  as  is  the  cow.  It  is  safe 
to  assert  that  the  production  of  cow's  milk  free  from  manure  bacteria  is 
commercially  impossible.  Not  so  with  the  goat;  she  can  be  easily  washed 
(tubbed  if  necessary)  and  aproned  for  milking.  I  believe  an  assured  non- 
contaminated  goat 's  milk  supply  not  only  commercially  possible  but  prof- 
itable. 

Conclusions. — First,  the  digestion  of  fat  retards  the  flow  and  diminishes  the 
amount  of  gastric  juice,  at  the  same  time  lowering  its  digestive  power.  Second, 
the  ingestion  of  fluid  oil  increases  the  flow  of  pancreatic  juice  and  probably 
the  activity  of  its  fat-splitting  enzyme  steapsin.  Third,  in  case  the  fat  is  not 
fluid  at  body  temperature,  it  may  still  further  retard  and  pre  vent,  the  flow  of 
gastric  juice  according  to  the  first  hypothesis  mentioned  by  Dr.  Labassoff, 
viz.,  coating  over  the  gastric  mucous  membrane,  thereby  mechanically  inter- 
fering with  secretion,  or  in  the  case  of  coagulable  food,  such  as  caseinogen, 
by  covering  the  curds  with  a  layer  of  insoluble  fat,  thereby  preventing  the  action 
of  gastric  juice  upon  them,  though  secreted  in  sufficient  amount  and  power, 
and  also  by  preventing  the  action  of  the  trypsin  upon  them,  though  brought  in 
contact  with  an  increased  supply  of  pancreatic  juice,  assuming  that  the  action 
of  the  steapsin  on  the  fats  will  be  partially  nil,  or  at  least  much  impeded  by 
the  insolubihty  of  their  fat-covering  permitting  the  curds  to  pass  undigested. 
Fourth,  if  goat's  milk  fat,  relative  to  that  of  cow's  milk  more  closely  approxi- 
mates human  milk  fat,  and  if  the  proteid  and  sugar  constituents  are  not  more 
incompatible  than  in  cow's  milk,  and  if  there  exist  no  serious  commercial  ob- 
stacles, goat's  milk  merits  an  extensive  and  thorough  clinical  trial  in  infant 
feeding. 


Composition  of  the  Mineral  Matter  of  Milk. — The  average  quan- 
tity of  mineral  matter  in  milk  is  pretty  close  to  seven-tenths  of  one  percent. 
The  average  quantity  of  mineral  matter  in  woman's  milk  is  considerably  less 
and  is  variously  given  by  diflFerent  authors.  There  is  also  a  marked  difference 
in  the  composition  of  the  mineral  matters  of  the  milks  of  flesh-eating  animals 
and  of  herb-eating  animals.  Among  the  important  mineral  constituents  of 
milk,  or  rather  those  of  great  dietetic  importance,  is  lecithin,  a  substance  allied 
to  protein  and  which  uniformly  contains  phosphorus.  It  is  true  that  a  con- 
siderable amount  of  the  phosphorus  which  nourishes  the  tissues,  and  especially 
the  bones  of  the  growing  infant,  is  provided  from  the  phosphorus  in  the  lec- 
ithin of  its  foods.  Woman's  milk  is  particularly  rich  in  lecithin,  and  thus 
well  suited  to  nourish  especially  those  tissues  of  the  body  in  which  phosphorus 
is  an  important  element,  such  as  the  bones,  the  nerves,  and  the  brain.  The 
milk  of  the  goat  contains  slightly  more  mineral  matter  than  that  of  the  cow, 
while  the  sheep  contains  slightly  less.  The  amount  of  mineral  matter  in  the 
milk  of  the  horse  and  the  ass  is  not  quite  half  as  much  as  it  is  in  the  cow's 
milk.  The  percentage  composition  of  the  mineral  matter  does  not  differ 
greatly  in  different  milks.    The  distribution  of  the  mineral  substances  in  the 


512 


INFANTS'   AND   INVALIDS'   FOODS. 


milk  of  the  cow  may,  therefore,  be  regarded  as  typical  of  all.    The  average 
composition  of  the  ash  of  cow's  milk  is  as  follows: 

Percent. 

Lime, 20.3 

Magnesia 2.0 

Potash, 28.7 

Soda, 6.7 

Phosphoric  anhydrid, 29.3 

Chlorin, ii.o 

Carbonic  acid, i.o 

Oxid  of  iron 4.0 

103.0 
Less  oxygen  as  chlorin, 3.0 

lOO.O 


The  phosphoric  acid,  lime,  and  iron  are  the  chief  nourishing  constituents  of 
the  ash  of  milk.  The  magnesia,  the  potash,  the  soda,  the  chlorin,  and 
the  carbonic  acid  are  of  less  importance  in  nutrition. 

Adaptation  of  the  Milk  of  Each  Animal  to  its  Own  Young. — Even  a 
brief  study  of  the  composition  of  the  milk  of  different  animals  cannot  fail  to 
lead  to  the  conclusion  that  nature  has  provided  for  each  kind  of  animal  a 
particular  kind  of  diet.  We  cannot  even  say  that  the  same  substances  in  dif- 
ferent kinds  of  milk  have  the  same  nutritive  properties,  and  certainly  they  have 
not  the  same  adaptability.  For  instance,  that  constituent  largely  present  in 
milk,  namely,  nitrogen  or  casein  and  its  cogeners,  while  theoretically  almost 
the  same  in  any  of  the  milks  of  the  various  animals,  is  in  fact  entirely  dif- 
ferent in  its  adaptability  for  nourishing  the  young.  The  same  is  true  of  the 
milk  sugar,  the  fat,  and  the  mineral  constituents.  Why  this  is  so  is  perhaps 
beyond  the  power  of  man  to  say;  that  it  is  so,  is  evident  from  the  fact  that  each 
kind  of  young  does  best  on  its  own  mother 's  milk.  Investigations  of  the  young 
of  many  animals  have  shown  that  these  elements  are  present  in  the  body  of 
the  young  at  the  time  of  birth  in  almost  the  same  proportion  as  in  the  natural 
milk  of  the  mother  of  the  animal.  It  has  been  found,  for  instance,  that  the 
milk  of  the  dog  had  an  ash  content  exactly  the  same  as  the  body  of  a  new-born 
puppy.  Lusk  draws  the  conclusion  from  this  that  the  ash  of  the  milk  is  perfectly 
adapted  for  the  construction  of  the  puppy  tissue,  and,  further,  he  calls  attention 
to  the  fact,  that  it  is  entirely  different  in  composition  from  human  or  cow's 
or  other  milks. 

Percentage  Composition  of  Milk  in  Relation  to  Growth. — In  addition 
to  the  preceding  statements,  it  may  be  shown  that  the  percentage  quantity 
of  certain  milk  constituents  is  related  more  or  less  closely  to  the  rate  of 
growth  of  the  animal.  Lusk  quotes  a  table  from  Bunge  which  shows  this 
comparison. 


MULTIPLICITY    OF    INFANTS'    FOODS. 


513 


Kind  of  Animal. 


Man. 
Horse 
Calf.  - 
Kid.. 
Pig- 
Lamb 
Dog.. 
Cat... 


Time  in  Days 
for  the  isew- 

BoRN  Animal 
TO  Double 
Its  Weight. 


100  Parts  of  Milk  Contain: 


Prcteid. 


Ash. 


180 

1.6 

0.2 

0.0328 

60 

2.0 

•4 

.124 

47 

3-5 

•7 

.160 

19 

4-3 

.8 

.210 

18 

5.6 

10 

6.5 

•9      "' 

.272 

8 

7-1 

1-3 

•453 

7 

9-5 

-- 

-- 

Calcium  Oxid. 


Lusk  has  made  a  careful  study  of  the  science  of  nutrition  of  young  animals 
and  has  quoted  many  authorities  supporting  the  conclusions  which  he  has 
drawn.  It  is  found,  for  instance,  that  human  milk  which  is  secured  from  three  to 
twelve  days  after  the  birth  of  the  child  contains  double  as  much  iron  at  that  time 
as  is  found  at  later  periods  of  lactation.  Especially  if  the  mother  is  imper- 
fectly fed,  or  lives  in  squalor  or  poverty,  the  percentage  of  iron  in  the  milk 
rapidly  diminishes.  The  quantity  of  lime  in  cow's  milk  is  much  greater  than 
that  required  for  the  human  infant,  but  is  adapted  to  the  needs  of  the  calf. 
The  relative  composition  of  cow's  and  mother's  milk  at  a  period  of  lactation 
of  five  or  six  months  shows  a  very  distinct  difference.  For  instance,  the  pro- 
teid  in  the  cow's  milk  at  that  period  is  approximately  3.5  percent  and  in  human 
milk  only  i  percent,  while  the  fat  in  the  two  are  almost  the  same,  though  the 
cow's  milk  has  slightly  the  greater  quantity.  On  the  other  hand,  the  milk 
sugar  in  the  cow's  milk  at  five  months  is  very  much  less  than  that  in  human 
milk  at  the  same  period  of  lactation.  All  these  data  show  that  there  is  not  so 
much  carbohydrate,  that  is,  milk  sugar,  in  cow's  milk  as  is  required  for  the 
normal  nutrition  of  the  human  infant. 


SOME  PROFESSIONAL  OPINIONS   OF  PREPARED 

INFANTS'  FOODS. 

Multiplicity  of  Infants'   Foods.— In  general  it  may  be  said  that  the 

multiplication  of  so-called  prepared,  artificial,  or  manufactured  infants'  foods 

cannot  be  looked  upon  with  much  favor.    Such  foods  may  often  be  kept  for 

months  before  they  are  used;  may  be  subjected  to  all  kinds  of  bacterial  and 

other  contamination;  and  may  fail  in  almost  every  respect  to  meet  the  conditions 

of  ill  health  in  infants,  though  at  times  they  may,  and  apparently  do,  furnish 

the  proper  nutrition  for  a  healthy  child.     These  preparations,  however,  as 

will  be  seen  in  the  more  particular  discussion  which  will  follow,  are  not  of 

the  kind  which  require  previous  manufacture,  but  can  be  easily  supplied  at 

home  by  the  intelligent  mother  or  nurse.    The  evident  advantage  of  the  home- 

34 


514  infants'  and  invalids'  foods. 

modified  or  prepared  milk  is  that  it  can  be  made  of  fresh  materials,  and  under 
the  supervision  of  the  one  most  interested  in  the  welfare  of  the  child.  A  col- 
lection of  the  analyses  of  some  of  the  more  commonly  advertised  infants '  and 
invalids'  foods  is  presented  in  the  table  given  on  page  590,  under  invahds' 
foods,  more  as  an  illustration  of  what  has  been  done  than  with  any  idea  of 
making  a  complete  list  of  the  foods  offered  for  consumption,  as  their  number 
is  legion. 

Definition  and  Standard  for  Infants*  Foods. — Few  countries  have 
made  an  effort  to  establish  an  official  definition  and  standard  for  infants'' 
foods,  but  the  colony  of  Victoria  is  an  exception  to  this  rule.  In  "The  British 
Food  Journal"  for  April,  1909,  page  59,  is  found  a  definition  and  standard 
for  infants'  foods  in  the  colony,  which  is  as  follows: 

Definition:  Infants'  food  is  food  described  or  sold  as  an  article  of  food 
specially  suitable  for  infants  of  twelve  (12)  months  of  age  or  under. 

Standard:  Infants'  food  shall  contain  no  woody  fibre,  no  preservative  sub- 
stance, and  no  mineral  substance  insoluble  in  acid;  and,  unless  described  or 
sold  specifically  as  food  suitable  only  for  infants  over  the  age  of  six  (6) 
months,  shall,  when  prepared  as  directed  by  any  accompanying  label,  contain  no 
starch,  and  shall  contain  the  essential  constituents  of,  and  conform  approx- 
imately in  proportional  composition  to,  normal  mother's  milk. 

Prepared  Infants*  Foods  Not  Generally  Commended. — Prepared  in- 
fants '  foods  are  not  looked  upon  with  general  favor  by  the  medical  profession,, 
especially  those  who  treat  principally  the  diseases  of  children.  A  common  fault,, 
which  cannot  be  too  strongly  condemned,  is  the  extravagant  claims  put  forth 
respecting  the  merits  of  these  prepared  foods.  Products  showing  wide  typical 
differences  in  composition  are  advertised  under  practically  the  same  claims  for 
excellence.  Against  these  extravagant  advertisements  must  be  placed  the 
almost  unanimous  opinion  of  competent  medical  authorities,  not  interested  in 
any  way  directly  or  indirectly  in  the  preparation  or  sale  of  any  particular  kind 
of  proprietary  food. 

It  is  not  the  purpose  of  this  manual  to  deny  that  many  of  these  foods  are 
both  nutritious  and  helpful  in  many  cases;  but  it  is  certainly  not  to  be  supposed 
that  they  have  all  the  virtues  claimed  for  them.  The  discussion  which  follows 
must  not  be  considered  in  any  sense  as  an  attack  upon  the  value  of  prepared 
infants'  foods;  but  only  as  an  attempt  to  set  forth  as  fairly  as  possible  their 
actual  composition  and  nutritive  value;  describe  the  methods  of  their  prepa- 
ration and  administration,  in  so  far  as  known,  and  to  call  attention  to  the 
fact  that  these  foods  are  to  be  regarded  as  substitutes  to  be  used  only  in  cases 
of  emergency  and  are  not  to  be  relied  upon  for  the  nourishment  of  infants  in 
general. 

One  eminent  practitioner  says  that  he  does  not  believe  that  any  prepared 
infants'  food  can  meet  the  requirements  of  infant  feeding,  because  it  is  an 


PREPARED    infants'    FOODS    NOT    GENERALLY    COMMENDED.  515 

individual  and  not  a  general  question.  Another  says  that  a  long  experience  in 
the  feeding  of  infants  has  convinced  him  that  an  ideal  food  need  contain  noth- 
ing beyond  the  normal  constituents  of  cow's  milk,  and  that  he  has  not  found 
any  necessity  for  the  addition  of  starch  or  other  modifying  or  converting  agents. 
Another  says:  "In  my  opinion  the  constituents  of  the  infant's  food  should 
be  those  of  milk  more  or  less  modified  in  preparation  to  meet  the  individual 
case.  In  substituting^ cow's  milk  for  mother's  milk  it  is  generally  not  necessary 
to  spht  the  proteins.  On  the  contrary,  it  is  generally  better  not  to  do  so.  It 
is  quite  as  necessary  to  avoid  an  excess  of  fat  as  of  proteins.  Sterilization 
long  continued  in  this  case  is  capable  of  causing  scurvy.  Pasteurization 
with  ordinary  plants  and  ordinary  care  is  not  reliable,  because  of  the  dan- 
ger of  sterilizing  on  the  one  hand,  or  keeping  at  a  fermenting  temperature  on 
the  other.  As  a  rule,  neither  is  necessary  with  a  clean  milk  and  sufficient 
care. " 

Another  writes:  "  I  am  opposed  to  the  use  of  all  infant  foods  except  as  they 
are  makeshifts.  As  such  they  often  serve  the  useful  purpose  of  tiding  the 
infants  over  periods  where  fresh  milk  is  not  tolerated.  Their  continuous 
and  prolonged  use  is  regarded  as  dangerous. " 

Dr.  Brennemann,  of  Chicago,  has  contributed  a  chapter  to  Hall's  work  on 
"Nutrition  and  Dietetics,"  *  in  which  the  following  statement  is  made: 

The  only  food  that  meets  all  of  the  infant's  requirements  is  human  milk. 
This  is  especially  true  during  the  first  few  WTeks  of  life,  when  any  artificial 
feeding  is  often  a  dangerous  substitute.  Breast  feeding  should  be  encouraged 
in  every  way,  even  if  only  for  a  short  time.  The  pessimism  about  increasing 
inability  of  mothers  to  nurse  their  babies  is  not  entirely  well  founded.  From 
the  "consultations  de  nourrissons"  in  Paris,  and  from  many  other  sources, 
comes  increasing  evidence  that  many  more  mothers  would  be  able  to  nurse 
for  many  months,  and  nearly  all  of  them  for  many  weeks,  if  they  were  properly 
encouraged,  and  properly  taught  how  to  nurse,  and  how  to  care  for  themselves 
and  for  their  babies. 

Dr.  Brennemann  makes  the  following  statements  in  regard  to  substitutes  for 
mother 's  milk : 

The  very  extensive  use  of  these  so-called  "foods"  warrants  their  brief  dis- 
cussion.   For  our  purpose  they  may  be  divided  into  two  classes: 

1.  Those  that  are  advertised  as  complete  foods  in  themselves  and  contain 
milk. 

2.  Those  that  are  to  be  used  only  in  conjunction  with  fresh  milk,  and  are  so 
advertised. 

In  the  first  class  are  the  sweetened  condensed  milks,  the  malted  milks, 
Nestle 's  food,  etc.  Condensed  milk  is  milk  evaporated  to  about  one-fourth 
of  its  volume  with  the  addition  of  about  forty  percent  of  cane  sugar.  In  the 
others  the  milk  is  evaporated  to  dryness,  and  sugar  and  partially  or  completely 
dextrinized  flours  are  added.     In  the  malted  milks  the  predominant  carbo- 

*  Reprinted  from  Hall's  "Nutrition  and  Dietetics."  Copyright,  1910,  by  D.  Apple- 
ton  &  Co. 


5i6  infants'  and  invalids'  foods. 

hydrate  is  malt  sugar;  they  are  all  deficient  in  fat  and  fresh  animal  proteids, 
and  contain  an  excess  of  carbohydrates.  Many  infants  apparently  thrive 
on  them  alone  for  some  time,  but  are  always  less  immune  and  resistant  to 
infections,  and  practically  invariably,  if  fed  on  these  alone  for  a  long  time,  will 
show  decided  evidence  of  rickets,  often  of  scurvy,  and  other  nutritional  dis- 
turbances. 

In  the  second  class  belong  such  malted  foods  as  Mellin's  and  Horlick's,  that 
are  composed  chiefly  of  dextrins  and  maltose,  especially  the  latter;  the  farin- 
aceous foods,  such  as  imperial  granum.  Ridge 's  food,  Robinson's  patent  barley 
flour,  etc.,  that  are  composed  largely,  about  75  percent  (Holt),  of  unchanged 
starch;  Eskav's  albuminized  food,  made  up  largely  of  dextrins,  dextrose',  and 
lactose,  67.81  percent  (Holt);  and  starch,  21.21  percent  (Holt).  They  take  ihe 
place  of  the  simpler  carbohydrates,  barley,  oatmeal,  sugar,  etc.,  over  which  they 
have  few  or  no  advantages.  The  malt  preparations  are  useful  when  malt 
sugar  is  desired  rather  than  milk  sugar  or  cane  sugar.  The  farinaceous  prepa- 
rations form  a  convenient  transition  either  in  the  milk,  or  as  a  porridge,  to 
the  cereals.  The  chief  objections  to  these  "foods"  are  the  price;  the  use  of 
the  word  ''food,"  that  leads  the  uninformed  to  think  of  it  as  the  important 
part  of  the  mixture  and  not  the  milk;  the  questionable  claim  that  they  have 
some  special  virtues  as  milk  modifiers;  and  the  directions  which  go  with  them 
that  assume  that  all  babies  of  a  certain  age  are  ahke,  and  that  the  mother 
(for  they  are  advertised  to  the  laity)  and  a  printed  page  alone  can  meet  one 
of  the  most  complex  problems  in  medicine. 

Opinions  of  an  Eminent  English  Physician. — It  is  well  to  consider 
the  opinions  of  those  who  have  made  a  scientific  study  of  the  nutrition  of  infants 
and  are  qualified  by  their  education  and  experience  to  judge  of  the  efficacy  of 
different  foods.  Dr.  Robert  Hutchison,  who  is  the  assistant  physician  to  the 
London  Hospital  and  the  Hospital  for  Sick  Children,  has  written  most  interest- 
ingly in  regard  to  the  large  group  of  infant 's  foods  offered  to  the  consumers 
in  England.  He  divides  the  English  infants '  foods  into  the  following  three 
groups: 

1.  Complete  Substitutes  for  Human  Milk. — In  the  first  of  these  are  in- 
cluded all  which  are  intended  to  be  complete  substitutes  for  human  milk  and 
on  which  an  infant  may  be  healthfully  reared  without  other  food.  He  states 
that  such  foods  are,  practically  speaking,  desiccated  milks,  although  many  of 
them  not  only  have  had  water  removed,  but  have  had  other  constituents  added. 
Such  foods  may  prove  very  healthful  in  the  nutrition  of  children,  but  still 
must  be  used  with  caution.  One  important  precaution  is  that  when  a  child 
is  more  than  a  few  months  old  some  fresh  fruit  juices  should  be  added  to  the 
food;  otherwise  scurvy  may  result.  Such  foods  also  have  the  disadvantage  of 
containing  too  little  fat.  For  the  poor,  however,  the  great  drawback  is  the 
cost,  as  it  is  vastly  more  expensive  to  rear  a  child  on  one  of  these  foods  than 
upon  fresh  or  even  condensed  milk. 

2.  Malted  Foods. — The  second  class  of  infant's  foods  to  which  Dr.  Hutch- 
ison alludes  are  those  which  contain  malt,  or  which  have  been  subjected  to  the 


THE   ADDITION    OF    CEREALS    TO   INFANT    FOODS.  517 

malting  process.  These,*  of  course,  are  starchy  foods  in  which  the  starch  has 
been  partly  converted  into  sugar  by  the  action  of  a  diastatic  ferment.  According 
to  Dr.  Hytchison,  infants  under  six  months  of  age  are  not  able  to  digest  starch, 
and  these  predigested  starch  foods  have  been  introduced  to  meet  that  difficulty. 
They  are  supposed  to  contain  either  no  starch,  or  a  starch  which  has  undergone 
conversion  into  dextrin  and  maltose  or  dextrose  in  course  of  preparation. 
One  of  the  foods  to  which  reference  is  made  is  well  known  in  this  country  and 
may  be  regarded,  for  practical  purposes,  as  simply  a  desiccated  malt  extract. 
It  bears  to  malt  extract  very  mueh  the  same  relation  that'  some  of  the  foods 
of  the  first  group  do  to  condensed  milk.  Dr.  Hutchison  suggests  that  an  in.- 
fants'  food  of  this  class,  if  a  manufactured  food  is  to  be  used,  is  about  as  good 
as  any,  but  it  is  only  intended  to  be  used  as  an  addition  to  milk. 

This  class  of  infants '  food  also  includes  those  prepared  with  enzyms  which 
are  supposed  to  convert  the  starch  during  the  preparation  of  the  food.  The 
chief  objection  to  this  (supposing  such  a  conversion  could  really  take  place) 
is  the  haphazard  method  of  preparing  food  in  a  general  way  in  the  nursery.  The 
particular  food,  to  which  reference  is  made,  is  poor  in  fat,  especially  for  a 
very  young  infant,  and  the  child's  diet  is,  therefore,  apt  to  be  deficient  in 
that  ingredient  if  such  a  food  is  largely  relied  upon. 

3.  Starchy  Foods. — There  is  still  another  group  of  infants'  foods,  according 
•to  Dr.  Hutchison,  which  make  no  pretense  of  being  malted  at  all.  In  other 
words,  they  are  starchy  foods  pure  and  simple.  In  some  cases  they  may  have 
been  baked  so  that  the  starch  grains  have  been  ruptured,  but  otherwise  they  are 
very  much  hke  flour.  Such  foods  may  not  harm  children  who  are  able  to 
digest  starch,  and  although  they  may  be  of  some  use,  by  way  of  change,  they 
have  no  real  advantage  over  simple  preparations  such  as  baked  flour,  oat 
flour,  or  any  other  ordinary  cereal  preparations.  For  children  less  than  six 
months  of  age  such  foods  should  be  avoided  altogether.    Dr.  Hutchison  says: 

"I  think  that  it  must  have  fallen  to  the  experience  of  everyone  here  to  have 
seen  a  great  deal  of  harm  done  by  a  misuse  of  these  foods.  In  the  case  of 
adults  who  are  confined  to  a  semifluid  diet  such  preparations  may  occasionally 
be  of  service,  but  an  intelligent  manipulation  of  flour,  oatmeal,  and  an  infu- 
sion of  malt  will  make  recourse  to  them  very  rarely  necessary. " 

The  Addition  of  Cereals  to  Infants*  Foods. — There  is  a  very  wide 
difference  of  opinion  in  the  medical  profession  regarding  the  advisability  of 
the  use  of  cereals  in  infants'  foods.  It  may  be  said  that  there  are  two  schools 
which  are  more  or  less  in  agreement  on  some  points  and  quite  opposed  in  their 
opinion  on  others.  Of  the  one  school  it  may  be  said  that  the  admixture  of 
some  form  of  cereal  to  infants'  foods  is  admitted  only  when  cow's  milk  is 
substituted  for  the  milk  of  the  mother.  The  argument  is  that  cow's  milk  is 
not  a  normal  food  for  infants,  and,  therefore,  when  it  is  given  the  admixture 


5i8  infants'  and  invalids'  foods. 

of  other  substances  may  be  indicated.  The  theory  on  which  cereal  foods  in  a 
proper  state  of  subdivision  and  cooking  are  mixed  with  milk  rests  on  the  fact 
that  it  is  supposed  to  render  the  curd  less  coagulable.  In  other  words,  the  ad- 
mixture of  a  certain  quantity  of  rice  flour,  or  barley  flour,  or  wheat  flour,  to 
the  milk  tends  to  keep  the  curd  subdivided  and  thus  avoids  the  danger  of  a 
hard  mass  coagulating  in  the  stomach  of  the  infant.  The  experience  of 
many  eminent  physicians  in  this  line  gives  considerable  weight  to  this  theory, 
and  it  is  fully  developed  in  some  of  the  standard  works  on  infant  feeding.  A 
distinction  must  be  made,  however,  in  the  opinions  of  many  physicians,  be- 
tween those  who  have  never  been  interested  in  any  way  in  any  particular 
form  of  infants'  food,  and  those  who  have  given  their  opinions  at  the  request  of 
manufacturers  of  these  articles  of  diet.  In  the  one  instance  the  opinion  must  be 
regarded  as  unbiased,  and  in  the  other  as  subject  to  a  considerable  degree  of 
suspicion.  One  thing  should  be  kept  in  n^ind,  and  that  is  that  the  saHva  of 
the  infant  contains  at  most  only  a  trace  of  the  digestive  ferment  which  is  cap- 
able of  converting  starch  into  sugar.  This  would  indicate  that  a  starchy 
diet  is  not  a  normal  one  for  young  infants.  The  boihng  of  the  cereal  in  water 
and  using  the  water  is  quite  a  different  proposition,  as  in  such  cases  very  little 
starch  enters  into  the  solution.  The  extract  from  the  boiled  cereal  is  com- 
posed of  soluble  carbohydrates  and  other  bodies  soluble  in  water,  and  thus  in 
the  case  of  starch,  if  any  be  absorbed  at  all,  the  first  steps  of  digestion  have 
taken  place.  The  addition  of  barley  water  or  other  cereal  water  to  milk  is, 
therefore,  hardly  to  be  considered  in  this  discussion,  but  only  the  addition  of 
actual  starch.  The  other  school  of  physicians  is  strongly  of  the  opinion  that 
starch  should  not  be  an  integral  part  of  an  infant 's  food. 

Pritchard  has  compiled  the  most  recent  information,  based  chiefly  upon  the 
work  of  Emil  Fischer,  relating  to  the  digestion  of  carbohydrates  in  the  intes- 
tinal tract.  As  a  result  of  these  investigations  the  whole  conception  of  the  nutri- 
tion of  infants  by  starch  has  been  greatly  modified.  While  it  is  true  that  even 
very  young  infants  may  apparently  dispose  of  starch  by  digestion  in  the  usual 
way,  it  is  found  that  this  is  not  the  case.  Starch  given  at  this  early  period  of 
life  may  be  digested,  but  it  is  digested  in  the  wrong  way,  in  the  wrong  place, 
and  by  the  wrong  agencies.  Instead  of  the  starch  being  broken  down  by  the 
proper  amylopsin  ferment  in  the  duodenum,  it  is  attacked  by  bacteria  in  the 
colon  and  converted  into  irritating  acids,  such  as  acetic,  butyric,  and  valerianic, 
and  into  gases,  such-  as  hydrogen,  methane,  and  carbon  dioxid.  These  results 
should  lead  pediatrists  to  an  ultra-conservatism  in  advising  starchy  additions 
to  synthetic  infants'  food. 

Substitutes  for  Infants*  Foods.— It  cannot  be  admitted  that  the  pre- 
pared solid  foods  which  are  not  modifications  of  milk  have  any  right  to  the 
name  of  infants '  foods.  They  are,  undoubtedly,  substitutes  for  infants '  foods, 
and  should  be  so  considered  and  named.    It  is  not  intended  to  deny  that  these 


SUBSTITUTES    FOR   INFANTS'    FOODS.  519 

foods  often  have  value.  They  are  in  some  instances  undoubtedly  utilized  by  the 
infant  with  benefit,  and  especially  in  those  cases  where  the  actual  food,  viz., 
milk,  cannot  be  obtained  in  the  quantity  or  of  the  quaUty  desired.  In  such 
cases  a  clean,  well  made  substitute  may  often  save  the  infant 's  Hfe.  The 
number  of  so-called  infants'  foods,  or  substitutes  for  infants'  foods,  on  the 
market  is  legion.  They  are  made  of  widely  varying  materials  put  together 
in  very  different  ways.  They  are  sometimes  composed  chiefly  of  starch,  while 
others  have  as  the  most  important  constituent  sugar  of  milk  or  other  sugars. 
Still  other  preparations  consist  largely  of  malted  cereals, -the  starch  during 
the  malting  process  having  undergone  transformation,  chiefly  into  maltose. 

Relative  Nutritive  Properties  of  Different  Substitutes. — No  very  definite 
statement  can  be  made  as  to  the  relative  value  of  these  substitutes.  It  may  be 
safely  asserted,  however,  that  a  preparation  composed  chiefly  of  starch  is  the 
least  desirable  of  all.  Probably  the  most  desirable  would  be  those  which  contain 
large  quantities  of  milk  sugar  or  maltose,  together  with  the  constituents 
of  the  malt  which  accompany  the  maltose,  that  is,  the  protein  and  the  fat.  It 
is  easy  to  determine  the  exact  composition  of  these  preparations  by  analysis, 
and  in  point  of  fact  in  many  instances  their  chemical  constitution  is  plainly 
printed  on  the  labels,  so  that  the  users  of  them  know  exactly  the  relative 
quantities  of  fat,  protein,  and  sugar  which  they  contain.  For  nutritive  pur- 
poses, however,  especially  in  the  case  of  infants,  it  is  not  sufficient  simply  to 
know  the  quantity  of  the  several  ingredients  which  are  present.  It  is  nec- 
essary also  to  know  the  state  in  which  they  exist  and  their  origin.  This 
information  is  not  always  communicated  to  the  purchasers  and  users  of 
these  compounds.  Theoretically,  a  substitute  for  infants'  food  which  would 
have  approximately  the  composition  of  the  milk  of  the  mother,  of  course  ex- 
cluding the  water,  would  be  most  desirable.  It  would  not,  apparently,  be  diffi- 
cult to  prepare  a  compound  of  such  a  composition  that  when  one  part  of  it 
was  mixed  with  nine  parts  of  water  the  solution  would  have  approximately 
the  same  relative  composition  as  mother's  milk,  that  is,  i  percent  of  protein, 
2  percent  of  fat,  6  percent  of  milk  sugar,  and  i  percent  of  miscellaneous  con- 
stituents. Even  this  composition  would  not  be  a  guarantee  that  the  product 
would  be  suitable  for  the  nourishment  of  children.  It  would  be  quite  im- 
possible, in  any  artificial  way,  to  make  a  mixture  which  would  be  identical 
in  nutritive  value  with  that  secreted  by  the  human  breast.  It  cannot, 
therefore,  be  regarded  as  of  prime  necessity  that  substitutes  for  infants' 
foods  should  have  approximately  the  composition  of  mother's  milk. 
Departures  of  considerable  magnitude  might  be  made  from  this  ideal 
standard  without  materially  affecting  the  suitability  of  the  preparation 
for  nutritive  purposes.  The  chief  objection  to  these  prepared  foods  is 
not  that  they  vary  widely  from  the  dry  substances  in  the  mother's  milk;  the 
most  serious  objection  Hes  in  the  fact  that  they  are  artificially  compounded  and 


520  infants'  and  invalids'  foods. 

cannot  possibly  take  the  place  of  nature 's  nourishment.  It  would  be  unwise 
to  place  them  under  universal  ban,  for  reasons  already  given,  but  they  should 
be  used  only  in  cases  of  necessity,  or  when  the  physician  specifically  advises 
their  use  and  takes  the  full  responsibihty  therefor. 

Objections  to  Predigested  Milk. — Predigested  infant  foods,  and  among 
them  predigested  milk,  are  often  advertised.  The  converting  of  the  protein  of 
milk  (casein)  into  a  soluble  form  is  one  of  the  steps  of  digestion  and  the  for- 
mation of  curd  in  an  infant's  stomach  is  one  of  the  most  common  causes  of  irri- 
tation, and  also  of  nausea,  coHc,  and  diarrhea.  It  is  highly  desirable  that  this 
condition  should  be  avoided,  and  attempts  have  been  made  to  convert  the  casein 
of  the  milk  into  a  peptone,  or  some  soluble  form  of  protein,  before  feeding.  This 
process  is  called  peptonizing  the  milk,  and  affects  the  casein  as  a  diastatic 
ferment  does  starch.  In  other  words,  a  diastatic  ferment  converts  starch  into 
a  soluble  form,  sugar,  and  a  peptonizing  ferment  converts  the  casein  into  a 
soluble  form  and  thus  makes  it  more  readily  digestible.  It  must  be  borne  in 
mind,  however,  that  the  predigestion  of  any  food  is  not  a  natural  process.  The 
functions  of  the  body  are  strong  and  vigorous  in  proportion  as  they  are  legiti- 
mately exercised,  and  the  feeding  of  a  predigested  food  for  any  length  of  time 
cannot  fail  to  impair  the  digestive  organs.  For  this  reason  a  predigested  food 
should  not  be  used  except  in  cases  of  disease  where  it  is  necessary  to  tide  over  an 
abnormal  condition  in  order  that  strength  and  health  may  be  regained.  In 
other  words,  it  would  be  a  mistake  to  feed  a  healthy  infant  any  food  modified 
in  such  a  way  as  to  prevent  its  digestive  organs  from  performing  their  normal 
physiological  function.  Pritchard  opposes  the  indiscriminate  use  of  predi- 
gested or  peptonized  milk  on  these  grounds,  admitting,  however,  that  it  has 
some  value  in  acute  gastro-intestinal  derangements  or  for  short  periods  of  time. 

Commercial  Literature  and  Opinions.— When  it  is  considered  that  so 
much  of  the  literature  on  infant  feeding  has  been  written  for  commercial  pur- 
poses, and  when  it  is  further  understood  that  the  highest  skill  of  the  advertiser 
is  employed  both  in  wording  the  praises  of  infants'  foods  and  in  securing- 
proper  pictorial  illustrations  of  their  results,  it  is  plain  that  the  public  may  be 
misled  in  many  instances.  The  only  safe  course  in  such  matters  is  to  have 
recourse  to  the  medical  profession,  and  to  that  part  of  it  which  is  distinctly 
removed  from  any  commercial  interests  in  the  subject.  A  physician  may  be 
very  learned,  very  skilful,  and  highly  appreciated  by  the  people  of  the  community 
in  which  he  resides,  and  yet  be  biased  if  he  is  financially  interested  in  an 
infant  food  or  connected  in  any  way  with  trade  therein.  Happily  there  are 
many  hundreds  of  expert  physicians  who  understand  the  subject  of  nutrition 
and  who  give  their  time  to  its  study  who  have  no  interest  of  any  kind,  of  a 
financial  nature,  in  any  infants*  or  invalids'  foods.  Their  opinions  for  this 
reason  are  the  more  valuable.  All  statements  concerning  the  science  of  infant 
feeding  or  the  art  of  preparing  infants'  foods  should  be  studied  with  a  view 


GENERAL    CONSIDERATIONS.  52 1 

to  showing  their  origin  and  motive  in  order  that  the  reader  may  give  to  each 
of  the  methods  described  a  proper  consideration  and  confidence. 

Fundamental  Principles  Governing  Infant  Nutrition. — Dr.  Chapin 
has  made  some  pertinent  observations  on  this  subject.  In  the  "  Journal  of  the 
American  Medical  Association"  for  September  i8,  1909,  page  907,  he  says: 

In  reference  to  the  infant's  nutrition,  we  have  always  to  deal  with  milk  in 
some  form,  as  biology  shows  that  this  is  always  the  primary  and  elemental 
food  mixture,  containing  in  easily  assimilable  form  all  the  food  principles. 
While  the  different  manipulations  required  to  make  various  milks,  or  other  forms 
of  food,  acceptable  to  the  infant's  stomach  constitute  the  art  of  infant  feeding, 
before  any  of  these  details  can  be  accepted  as  scientific  and  thus  of  permanent 
utihty,  it  must  be  decided  how  far  they  are  in  accordance  with  biologic  laws. 
Biology  must  thus  finally  decide  both  the  possibilities  and  limitations  of  every 
method  that  is  advanced.  This  will  call  for  a  knowledge  of  the  structure  and 
functions  of  the  various  digestive  tracts  in  connection  with  the  pecuHar  char- 
acteristics of  the  milk  early  furnished  to  each  species.  This  study  will  show 
not  only  how  far  different  milks  are  interchangeable,  but  also  throw  light  on 
the  various  manipulations  that  aim  to  make  them  so. 

A  chemical  analysis  of  milk  will  show  the  ingredients  of  this  fluid,  and,  to  a 
certain  extent,  their  potential  food  values  from  their  quantitative  amount. 
There  is  something  beyond  this,  however,  that  chemistry  cannot  explain. 
While  the  fats  and  carbohydrates  in  their  composition  and  reaction  to  the  di- 
gestive secretions  are  a  good  deal  alike  in  different  milks,  the  proteins  are  es- 
sentially different.  Chemistry  alone  can  not  explain  this  phenomenon.  We 
must  study  the  reaction  of  the  protein  to  the  digestive  secretions,  and  then 
examine  such  reactions  in  relation  to  the  growth  and  development  of  the 
digestive  tract — in  other  words,  investigate  the  question  biologically  before 
we  can  understand  the  problem. 

A  certain  portion  of  the  protein  of  all  milks  coagulates  on  coming  in  contact  ^nth 
rennin  or  rennin  and  acid,  but  the  manner  and  extent  of  this  coagulation  stands 
in  a  direct  relation  to  the  proper  evolution  of  the  digestive  tract  of  the  animal. 

The  scientific  principles  involved  in  infant  feeding  are  few  and  simple.  The 
methods  of  applying  them  are  many  and  may  be  as  simple  or  as  complex 
as  one  desires  to  make  them.  The  point  ever  to  be  kept  in  mind  is:  What 
is  the  effect  of  a  proposed  method  and  does  it  apply  correct  scientific  principles? 
Many  of  the  methods  that  have  been  proposed  are  unscientific  when  employed 
as  routine  measures,  although  they  may  be  scientific  under  certain  conditions; 
and  methods  that  may  be  scientific  as  routine  measures  may  be  unscientific 
when  applied  to  abnormal  conditions. 

Various  methods  of  preparing  food  have  been  well  worked  out  and  simplified, 
but  they  will  be  of  Httle  value  to  the  physician  unless  he  knows  why,  and  how, 
and  when  to  use  them.  In  this  way  only  can  scientific  methods  prevail.  In- 
fant feeding  can  only  become  scientific  by  being  placed  in  fine  with  the  methods 
of  science  in  general. 

MODIFIED    MILK. 
General  Considerations. — The  first  important  point  in  this  connection 
is  that  the  milk  should  be  from  a  healthy  cow  which  is  kept  in  a  sanitary  con- 


522 


infants'  and  invalids'  foods. 


dition,  and  that  it  should  be  drawn  and  handled  in  a  thoroughly  sanitary 
way.  The  proper  methods  of  preparing  milk  are  now  well  established  as  a  prac- 
tical result  of  modern  sanitary  theories.  Inasmuch  as  the  cow's  milk  is  not  chem- 
ically identical  with  mother's  milk  it  is  often  advisable,  especially  in  the  case 
of  infants  in  bad  health,  to  modify  the  cow's  milk  so  as  to  bring  it  more  nearly 
in  harmony  with  the  composition  of  mother's  milk.  Although  the  same  ele- 
ments appear  in  the  milk  of  practically  all  mammals,  they  are  not  distributed  in 
the  same  proportions,  nor  do  they  have  exactly  the  same  dietetic  and  same 
physiological  value.  It  does  not  follow  that  even  if  cow's  milk  is  so  modified 
as  to  chemically  consist  of  the  same  general  food  elements  present  in  the  same 
proportions  as  in  mother's  milk,  that  such  modified  milk  will  have  the  same 
nutritive  and  physiological  effects.  In  fact,  experience  shows  that  it  is  not  pos- 
sible for  man  to  prepare  a  food  w^hich  has  exactly  the  same  properties  as  that 
which  nature  provides.  But,  at  least,  one  may  use  sanitary  methods,  as  w^ell  as 
scientific  principles,  in  the  modification  of  milk. 

It  is  well  known  that  cow's  milk  contains  more  protein  and  less  milk  sugar 
than  the  normal  milk  of  woman;  hence  the  most  natural  modification  is  to 
bring  the  cow's  milk  into  nearer  relationship  to  the  natural  milk  which  the 
infant  demands.  When  this  is  done  under  scientific  principles,  and  according 
to  the  directions  furnished  by  competent  physicians,  or  physiologists,  there  is 
no  objection  to  the  modification  if  it  is  accomplished  without  the  exposure  of 
the  milk  to  bacterial  and  other  contamination.  The  addition  of  other  products 
of  any  kind  to  milk  in  its  preparation  for  infants'  use  cannot  be  generally  rec- 
ommended. There  are  times,  however,  when  the  use  of  an  extraneous  body 
may  prove  beneficial,  but  a  competent  physician  should  decide  when  such 
chemical  modification  is  desirable. 

Reasons  for  Modifying  Milk. — By  the  term  milk  alone  is  meant  cow's 
milk  unless  some  other  is  specified.  The  reasons  for  modifying  any  other 
milk  to  resemble  mother's  milk  are  found  in  general  in  the  following  prin- 
ciples: 

The  percentage  of  protein  should  be  diminished  in  cow's  milk  because  an 
infant  only  needs  milk  with  a  low  percentage,  such  as  it  gets  in  the  milk  of  its 
mother.  While  a  higher  percentage  of  nitrogen  may  not  do  any  injury  if  the 
digestive  functions  of  the  infant  are  particularly  good,  the  ingestion  of  excessive 
quantities  of  nitrogen  usually  produces  disturbances,  and  the  whole  organism 
as  well  as  the  stomach  may  be  injured.  This  injury  is  first  made  known  by  loss 
of  appetite,  followed  by  colic,  sleeplessness,  irritability,  and  other  symptoms. 

It  is  important  also  that  the  milk  have  plenty  of  substances  rich  in  phos- 
phorus, such  as  nuclein  and  lecithin.  Mother's  milk  is  usually  richer  in  these 
substances  than  cow's  milk,  and  in  the  dilution  of  cow's  milk  there  is  naturally 
a  dilution  of  those  substances  rich  in  available  phosphorus.  It  is  hardly  ad- 
visable to  add  artificially  prepared  nuclein  and  lecithin,  because  they  are 


MODIFICATION    BY    THE   ADDITION    OF    SUBSTITUTES    NOT    MILK.  523 

less  digestible  than  the  natural  constituents.  In  fact,  it  has  been  found  by 
experience  that  if  it  is  not  possible  to  modify  the  cow's  milk,  it  may  be  diluted 
with  water  free  from  any  harmful  germs.  It  is  a  remarkable  fact  that  while  a 
child  may  not  thrive  on  whole  cow's  milk,  it  may  thrive  quite  well  on  whole 
cow's  milk  diluted,  without  any  other  modification.  Hence,  in  cases  of  irrita- 
bility of  the  stomach  of  the  infant  which  is  fed  other  milk,  it  is  advisable 
in  practically  every  case  to  dilute  it  with  water  if  it  cannot  be  modified  in  any 
other  way.  The  ingestion  of  more  of  any  kind  of  food  than  the  child  requires 
places  upon  its  organism,  which  is  far  from  being  able  to-  bear  any  increased 
burdens  at  this  period  of  life,  the  duty  of  digesting,,  oxidizing,  and  excreting 
excessive  quantities  of  materials.  Therefore  children  should  not  be  heavily 
fed  to  make  them  fat.  Although  plumpness  is  regarded  by  most  people  as  an 
indication  of  health,  it  may  be,  on  the  contrary,  a  premonition  of  disease. 

The  Addition  of  Milk  Sugar. — The  simplest  modification  of  milk,  aside 
from  its  dilution  with  water,  consists  in  the  addition  of  milk  sugar,  and  in 
diluting  cow's  milk  it  is  advisable  always  to  add  milk  sugar  if  no  other  change 
is  made.  In  this  way  a  closer  approximation  will  be  made  to  the  mother's 
milk  than  can  possibly  be  secured  by  the  use  of  water  alone.  A  great  many 
infants  are  successfully  fed  with  mixtures  of  this  kind  and  have  a  normal 
growth.  In  all  cases  the  milk,  the  sugar,  and  the  w^ater  which  are  used  must 
be  as  free  from  bacteria  as  possible.  In  other  words,  the  milk  must  be  fresh, 
the  milk  sugar  perfectly  sterile,  and  the  water  practically  sterile. 

Experience  has  shown  that  artificially  fed  children  do  not  digest  their  meals 
as  rapidly  as  those  fed  mother's  milk.  If,  for  instance,  it  requires  two  hours 
to  empty  the  stomach  of  a  child  fed  mother's  milk,  it  usually  requires  three 
hours  if  artificial  feeding  is  practiced. 

The  Addition  of  Alkalies  to  Milk.— It  is  a  common  practice  to  give  alkali 
in  some  form  to  the  child,  especially  if  it  is  hving  on  other  than  its  mother's 
milk.  Limewater  is  the  form  of  alkali  most  commonly  prescribed.  Cow's 
milk,  if  kept  for  any  length  of  time,  causes  an  acid  reaction,  and  presumably 
the  addition  of  the  alkali  is  for  the  purpose  of  correcting  this  acidity.  In  the 
case  of  the  healthy  child,  w^here  the  digestion  is  not  disordered,  it  is  doubtful 
whether  the  addition  of  the  extra  amount  of  alkali  is  warranted.  It  may  be 
presumed  that  nature  knows  best  the  character  of  the  food  the  infant  should 
have,  and  while  it  is  true  that  the  mother's  milk  is  sHghtly  more  alkaline,  as 
a  rule,  than  that  of  the  cow,  this  does  not  warrant  tampering  with  so  vital  a 
substance  as  an  infant's  food  with  chemicals  of  the  character  described. 
Doubtless,  however,  there  are  conditions  of  disordered  digestion  and  disease 
in  which  the  administration  of  an  alkali  in  the  form  of  limewater  or  citrate 
of  lime  may  be  recommended. 

Modification  by  the  Addition  of  Substitutes  not  Milk. — This  method 
of  modification,  it  seems  to  me,  is  one  which  should  be  regarded  with  suspicion. 


524  .        infants'  and  invalids'  foods. 

There  are  many  preparations  sold  on  the  market  which  are  not  intended  to  be 
used  alone  as  infants'  foods,  but  to  be  employed  in  modifying  milk.  They 
consist  of  various  elements,  and  arjs  usually  either  preparations  of  milk  sugar, 
which  may  be  sold  under  some  fancy  name,  or  preparations  of  malt  or  other 
cereals  in  which  starch  has  been  subjected  to  diastatic  action  and  has  been 
partially  converted  into  maltose  and  intermediate  products.  There  is  always 
a  question  as  to  the  desirability  of  using  bodies  of  this  kind.  It  is  true  that  milk 
sugar  is  one  of  the  most  common  additions  to  milk  in  the  way  cf  mcdificalion, 
and  maltose  is  a  sugar  made  by  natural  means  and  is  probably  as  digestible 
as  any  other  sugar  not  natural  to  milk.  For  instance,  I  do  not  think  there 
would  be  anything  to  choose  in  healthfulness  between  adding  maltose  or  adding 
cane  sugar  to  the  milk,  for  the  purpose  of  modifying  it  to  meet  some  par- 
ticular need  of  the  infant. 

Attention  should  also  be  called  in  such  cases  to  the  possible  bacterial  infec- 
tion of  these  foreign  modifiers.  While  it  is  true  that  these  foods  are  prepared 
usually  with  the  aid  of  heat,  they  are  not  always  perfectly  protected  subse- 
quently against  bacterial  infection.  Such  infection  is  naturally  not  so  much 
to  be  feared  as  that  which  comes  from  the  use  of  milk  of  unknown  composi- 
tion and  history.  Above  all,  warning  should  be  given  against  methods  of 
modifying  cow's  milk  at  home  which  are  given  in  the  interest  of  any  particu- 
lar product.  Such  advice,  even  if  good  in  itself,  is  not  always  applicable  be- 
cause it  is  not  adapted  to  the  particular  case  in  question.  For  instance,  a 
modification  of  milk  which  was  excellent  for  one  condition  of  child  growth  or 
for  a  certain  child,  might  be  entirely  unfitted  for  use  under  other  conditions  of 
growth  or  with  another  child.  The  particular  object,  of  course,  of  such  direc- 
tions for  modification  is  the  sale  of  the  modifier,  and  as  there  are  no  better 
modifiers  than  milk  sugar  and  barley  malt,  these  can  be  kept  at  home  at  much 
less  expense  than  by  purchasing  them  under  a  fancy  name.  Many  of  these 
directions  for  the  home  modification  of  milk  advise  the  use  of  either  milk  sugar 
or  a  malt  product,  and  in  that  respect  the  advice  is  sound,  as  a  rule,  but  that 
any  particular  modification  can  suit  any  particular  case  is  a  matter  which  must 
be  determined  by  the  observation  of  the  child  under  feeding,  either  by  wise 
parents  or  by  a  competent  physician.  I  use  the  word  competent,  not  with  the 
intention  of  throwing  any  doubt  upon  the  general  competency  of  the  profes- 
sion, but  especially  with  reference  to  the  physician  who  has  made  a  specialty 
of  the  science  of  nutrition,  a  branch  of  learning  which,  unfortunately,  is  not 
so  extensively  taught  in  medical  schools  as  it  should  be. 

Difficulties  of  Home  Modification  of  Milk. — Whenever  possible  the 
milk  should  be  modified  at  home.  There  are  many  difficulties,  however,  con- 
nected with  this  problem  which  must  be  considered.  In  the  first  place,  the 
great  majority  of  parents  must  purchase  the  milk,  so  that  they  do  not  know 
its  character  and  know  less  of  its  composition.    In  case  the  milk  is  produced 


CHEMICAL    COMPOSITION    AND    THE    VALUE    OF   LNFANTS'    FOODS.         525 

at  home,  the  task  is  an  easier  one.  It  would  be  possible  in  such  a  case  to  select 
a  healthy  cow  and  ascertain  by  a  few  analyses  the  composition  of  her  milk. 
It  may  be  assumed  that  a  cow  in  a  state  of  health,  and  with  feed  which  is 
reasonably  constant  in  character  and  quality,  produces  a  milk  of  reasonably 
constant  composition.  Hence,  if  one  modification  could  be  successfully  se- 
cured, similar  treatment  on  other  days  would  secure  a  similar  result.  This 
is  the  only  case,  unless  a  certified  milk  of  known  composition  can  be  bought, 
in  which  it  would  be  perfectly  safe  to  attempt  to  modify  the  milk  at  home. 
For  those  w^ho  cannot  secure  these  conditions  there  should  be  modifying  es- 
tablishments, under  the  control  of  disinterested  persons,  furnishing  milk 
according  to  physician's  prescriptions  and  having  a  certain  percentage  com- 
positioM. 

Commercial  Formulas  for  Infants*  Foods. — Medical  and  commercial 
literature  are  rich  in  formulas  for  infant  feeding.  It  should  be  remembered, . 
however,  that  no  matter  how^  honest  and  efficient  physicians  and  manufac- 
turers may  be,  their  statements,  if  self-interest  be  involved,  must  be  accepted 
with  discretion.  More  than  that,  a  general  formula  cannot  meet  each  indi- 
vidual case.  For  healthy  infants  a  general  formula  might  do  very  well,  if  it  is 
a  good  one,  because  all  healthy  babies  can  digest  practically  the  same  charac- 
ter of  food;  but  if  the  food  is  intended  for  an  infant  that  is  ill,  a  formula  that 
might  be  suitable  in  one  kind  of  disease  would  prove  entirely  unfit  in  another. 
In  such  a  case  the  only  proper  method  is  to  have  a  formula  constructed  by 
the  physician  in  charge  of  the  patient.  Even  in  this  case  the  study  of  the 
science  of  nutrition  is  so  neglected  in  our  medical  colleges  that  the  physi- 
cians are  not  always  trained  to  prepare  such  formulas.  Pure,  fresh  cow's  milk, 
if  obtained  from  a  young  and  healthy  animal  and  properly  modified,  is  to  be 
preferred  to  any  preparation  made  according  to  formulas  or  prescriptions  given 
in  absentia. 

It  is  interesting  to  compare  the  formulas  which  are  put  up  by  different 
manufacturers.  In  one  book  it  is  stated  that  the  formulas  and  analyses  which 
are  given  show  the  great  number  of  modifications  of  milk  that  may  be  made 
for  infants  of  different  ages  and  conditions  with  a  certain  advertised  food. 
The  food  so  advertised  is  said  to  contain  no  starch  and  no  dried  milk  or  other 
indigestible  matter;  to  be  entirely  soluble,  and,  with  fresh  milk,  to  make  the 
nearest  approach  to  mother's  milk  yet  produced.  Without  calling  in  question 
the  excellence  of  this  preparation  or  the  honesty  of  the  manufacturers,  it  is 
at  least  desirable  not  to  accept  too  blindly  all  the  statements  made. 

Chemical  Composition  not  a  Complete  Index  to  the  Value  of  Infants' 
Foods. — The  analytical  data  alone  in  connection  with  infant's  food  do  not 
give  reliable  indications  of  its  worth;  as,  for  instance,  a  simple  statement  of 
the  percentage  of  fat,  protein,  carbohydrates,  salts,  and  water  which  are  present 
in  the  prepared  food  and  in  the  mother,'s  milk,  does  not  give  any  adequate  idea 


526  infants'  and  invalids'  foods. 

of  the  relative  degree  of  digestibility.  Presumably,  the  fat  which  is  in  an 
infant's  artificial  food,  as  well  as  the  other  ingredients,  should  correspond  as 
nearly  as  possible  in  character  to  the  fat  of  human  milk.  It  is  certain  that  the 
milk  of  other  mammals  corresponds  more  nearly  in  the  character  of  its  various 
ingredients  to  the  milk  of  the  human  animal  than  would  similar  foods  de- 
rived from  other  sources,  the  carbohydrate,  one  of  the  universal  constitutents 
of  the  milk  of  all  mammals,  being  milk  sugar,  is  practically  of  the  same  con- 
stitution in  all  cases.  The  protein  is  also  practically  the  same,  although  it 
varies  greatly  in  the  amount  and  in  the  relative  quantities  of  the  different 
kinds  of  protein  which  are  found  in  the  milk.  The  mineral  matters  are  largely 
of  the  same  kind  though  also  differing  in  amount.  Hence  in  the  consideration 
•of  analytical  data  in  the  judgment  of  milk,  it  is  not  sufficient  merely  t#  know 
that  the  composition  of  the  milk  approximates  that  of  the  milk  of  the  infant's 
mother;  one  must  also  know  whether  the  various  elements  making  up  this 
milk  in  the  proportions  given  are  similar  in  constitution  to  those  which  exist 
in  its  natural  food.  For  instance,  the  following  analysis  is  given  in  one  of  the 
advertisements  of  an  infant's  food  for  infants  under  one  month  of  age: 

Percent. 

Fat, 0.93 

Proteids, i  .03 

Carbohydrates  (no  starch), 231 

Salts, 0.24 

Water, 95.49 


Total, 100, 


00 


This  analysis  corresponds  very  closely  to  the  composition  of  many  modified 
milks  which  infants  under  one  month  of  age  get.  It  is  made  partially  of  milk, 
with  a  considerable  quantity  of  water  added  to  it,  and  a  few  grams  of  a  well- 
known  infant's  food.  The  analysis  is  given,  not  for  the  purpose  of  condemning 
this  food,  nor  of  expressing  any  opinion  concerning  it,  but  simply  to  show  that 
the  analysis  is  not  the  sole  basis  of  judgment. 

In  the  same  pamphlet  the  following  analysis  is  given  of  a  food  intended  for 
infants  over  six  months  of  age : 

Percent. 

Fat, 4.01 

Proteids, 3.23 

Carbohydrates  (no  starch), '. 6.99 

Salts, 0.74 

Water, 85.03 

Total, ^ . .    100.00 

This  analysis  may  well  pass  for  that  of  a  good  ricti  cow's  milk,  were  it  not 
that  the  carbohvdrates  are  somewhat  higher  than  would  be  normal.  It  is, 
however,  a  compound  made  from  dilute  cream,  milk,  water  and  a  solid  in- 


METHOD  OF  DISTRIBUTING  CLEAN  AND  SCIENTIFICALLY  MODIFIED  MILK.   527 

f ant's  focd.  The  carbohydrates  are  composed  largely  of  other  substances 
than  milk  sugar.  An  infants'  food 'of  this  kind  might  give  most  excellent  re- 
sults in  some  cases,  and  not  in  others. 

A  Practical  Method  of  Distributing  Clean  and  Scientifically  Modified 
Milk. — There  are  many  organizations  in  the  United  States  having  for  their 
object  the  securing  of  pure  milk  for  infants.  There  is  no  disposition  to  dis- 
criminate in  regard  to  the  efficiency  of  any  of  them,  but  it  is  of  interest  to  give 
a  method  of  procedure  which  is  representative  of  work  i3f  this  kind.  The 
Babies'  Hospital  Milk  Dispensary  of  Newark,  New  Jersey,  may  be  used  as 
an  illustration.  This  dispensary  has  now  been  in  operation  nine  years.  Dur- 
ing this  time,  little  by  little,  the  work  has  been  perfected,  the  organization 
completed,  and  many  improvements  have  been  suggested  and  put  into  opera- 
tion in  connection  with  this  charity.  At  the  beginning  of  the  tenth  year  the 
work  of  this  dispensary  is  aided  by  a  committee  consisting  of  representatives 
of  several  philanthropic  and  charitable  organizations  in  the  city.  This  com- 
mittee is  known  as  the  Joint  Committee  on  the  Summer  Care  of  Babies,  cooper- 
ating with  the  Babies'  Hospital  Milk  Dispensary  for  a  larger  distribution  of 
pasteurized  milk  to  the  infants  of  the  poor,  from  milk  stations  conducted  at 
several  points,  in  order  to  place  wholesome  milk  within  the  reach  of  all.  Dur- 
ing the  nine  years  of  service  the  milk  dispensary  has  distributed  1,441,126 
bottles  of  milk,  and  has  fed  over  3000  babies.  The  first  year  of  its  activity  it 
sent  out  66,000  bottles,  and  the  ninth  year  258,000  bottles. 

Committee  Formulas  for  Modifying  Milk. — This  committee  has  constructed 
six  formulas  for  the  modification  of  milk.  In  the  case  of  sick  babies  these 
compounds  may  be  diluted  with  either  boiled  water  or  sterilized  cereal  water, 
in  order  that  the  milk  which  has  been  pasteurized  may  not  become  reinfected. 

Mixture  No.  i.     (From  birth  to  two  months,  and  for  starting  feeble  cases.) 

Percent. 

Milk  fat, i.oo 

Albuminoids, i-oo 

Carbohydrates, 5-5° 

Eight  bottles,  of  4  oz,  each,  per  day. 

Mixture  No.  2.     (Two  to  four  and  one-half  months.) 

Percent. 

Milk  fat, 2.00 

Albuminoids, - i-oo 

Carbohydrates, 6.00 

Seven  bottles  of  5  oz.  each. 

Mixture  No.  3.     (Four  and  one-half  to  six  months.) 

Percent. 

Milk  fat, 3-00 

Albuminoids, i'5® 

Carbohydrates, 6.00 

Six  bottles  of  6  or.,  each. 


528  infants'  and  invalids'  foods. 

Mixture  No.  4.     (Six  to  nine  months  and  until  weaning.) 

Percent. 

Milk  fat, 3-50 

Albuminoids, 2.00 

Carbohydrates, 6.50 

Six  bottles  of  8  oz.  each. 

Mixture  No.  5.     (Nine  to  twelve  months  and  during  second  year.) 

Percent. 

Milk  fat, 4-00 

Albuminoids, 3-oo 

Carbohydrates, 4-5° 

Five'  bottles  of  8  oz.  each. 

Mixture  No.  6.     (For  temporary  use  with  infants  having  fever  or  diarrhea.) 

Percent. 

Milk  fat, 0.25 

Milk  proteids, i  .00 

Milk  serum, 25 .00 

Cereal  water, 50.00 

Eight  bottles  of  4  oz.  each  (to  be  diluted  for  infants  under  six  months). 

Directions  jor  Use. — The  milk  is  adjusted  to  the  requirements  of  normal 
infants  during  the  year,  the  six  mixtures  as  described  being  furnished,  and 
diluted  for  sick  babies  by  adding  boiled  water  or  boiled  cereal  water.  It  is  not 
intended  that  a  full  bottle  shall  be  given  to  a  baby  that  is  just  beginning  the 
age  periods  indicated  in  the  formulary.  A  small  charge  is  made  for  this  milk 
so  that  it  is  not  a  complete  charity.  The  milk  furnished  by  the  committee  is 
not  certified  milk,  but  is  good  milk  which  is  carefully  pasteurized,  and,  there- 
fore, has  both  the  merits  and  demerits  which  attach  to  pasteurized  milk. 

Straus  Laboratory  Formulas. — The  following  formulas  for  modifying 
milk  are  recommended  by  the  Straus  Laboratories: 

First  to  Fourth  Week: 

f  ounce   of  16  percent  cream. 
3    ounces  of  full  milk. 
19    ounces  of  water. 
i\  ounces  of  lime  water, 
i^  ounces  of  milk  sugar. 
This  mixture  fills  8  bottles — each  to  contain  3  ounces.     Feed  two  and  one-half 
hours  apart. 

First  to  Third  Month:  .  . 

i^  ounces  of  16  percent  cream. 
3    ounces  of  full  milk. 
13    ounces  of  water. 
\  ounce    of  limewater. 
I    ounce    of  milk  sugar. 
This  mixture  fills  6  bottles — each  to  contain  3  ounces.     Feed  three  hours  apart. 

Second  to  Sixth  Month: 

18    ounces  of  full  milk. 
16^  ounces  of  water. 

i\  ounces  of  limewater. 

i^  ounces  of  milk  sugar. 
This  mixture  fills  6  bottles — each  to  contain  6  ounces.     Feed  three  hours  apart. 


PREPARATION  OF  MILK  FOR  INFANT  FEEDING  AT  A  LONDON  HOSPITAL.    529 

Third  to  Seventh  Month: 

18  ounces  of  full  milk. 
18  ounces  of  barley  water. 

1  ounce  of  cane  sugar. 

20  grains  of  table  salt  (less  than  \  teaspoonful). 

This  mixture  fills  6  bottles — each  to  contain  6  ounces.     Feed  three  hours  apart. 

Seventh  to  Ninth  Month: 

32  ounces  of  full  milk. 
16  ounces  of  barley  water. 

2  ounces  of  milk  sugar. 

This  mixture  fills  6  bottles — each  to  contain  8  ounces.     Feed  three  hours  apart. 

After  Ninth  Month: 

Full  pasteurized  milk,  8  ounces  every  four  hours. 

To  make  one  quart  of  Oat  or  Barley  Water. — Boil  2  tablespoonfuls  of  the  flour  in  a 
quart  of  water  until  it  is  reduced  to  half  the  quantity;  then  add  sufficient  water 
to  make  up  the  quart. 

Preparation  of  Milk  for  Infant  Feeding  at  a  London  Hospital. — One 

of  the  best  descriptions  of  the  preparation  of  milk  for  infant  feeding,  especially 
for  the  nourishment  of  sick  infants,  is  that  found  in  the  report  prepared  by  Dr. 
Ralph  Vincent,  Senior  Physician  to  the  Infant's  Hospital,  Westminster, 
London.  Dr.  Vincent  eliminates  from  possible  infants'  foods  the  artificial 
preparations  which  are  so  often  recommended  for  that  purpose,  and  also 
advises  that  even  in  the  case  of  growing  children  a  milk  suitable  for  infants 
should  constitute  a  large  proportion  of  the  daily  food.  Usually  cow's  milk  is 
the  only  kind  available,  the  supply  of  mare's,  goat's,  or  asses'  milk  being  so 
limited  as  to  be  practically  excluded  from  commercial  considerations. 

Importance  of  Adequate  Nourishment. — Attention  is  called  in  this  connection 
to  the  especial  necessity  of  insuring  that  growing  children  are  well  nourished 
in  order  that  pathogenic  organisms  may  be  speedily  overcome.  It  is  a  well- 
known  fact  that  healthy  children  make  a  speedy  and  complete  recovery  from 
infectious  diseases  such  as  scarlet  fever  or  measles,  and  often  seem  better  after 
the  attack  than  before,  while  in  the  case  of  poorly  nourished  children  most 
serious  and  continuing  results  follow,  such  as  deafness,  rickets,  and  other 
ailments.  Even  special  and  general  tuberculosis  is  not  an  unusual  complica- 
tion when  the  child's  vitality  is  not  sufl&cient  to  repel  the  invasion  of  the  hostile 
pathogenic  germs. 

Quality  of  Original  Milk. — The  character  of  the  milk  employed  in  the  In- 
fant's Hospital  is  described  by  Dr.  Vincent  somewhat  as  follows.  The  milk 
is  obtained  from  a  farm  which  is  entirely  under  the  control  of  the  authorities 
of  the  hospital.  The  milking  shed  is  apart  from  any  other  stable  and  the  cows 
are  in  it  only  during  the  milking.  The  attendants  are  required  to  sterilize 
their  hands  and  clothing  and  to  use  sterilized  vessels,  while  the  cows  are  kept 
so  clean  that  no  possible  filth  of  any  kind  can  fall  into  the  pail  during  the 
process  of  milking.  The  cows  are  specifically  selected  for  their  milk-giving 
35 


530 


infants'  and  invalid's  foods. 


qualities,  Jerseys  and  Guernseys  which  produce  excessive  amounts  of  fat, 
being  excluded  from  the  herd.  They  are  fed  well-balanced  rations  of  whole- 
some feed  from  which  all  slops,  oil-cake,  brewers'  grains,  and  other  questionable 
feeds  are  excluded.  Grass,  hay,  pea-meal,  bean-meal,  and  mangolds  are  some 
of  the  chief  articles  used  for  food,  the  greatest  care  being  exercised  to  prevent 
an  undue  proportion  of  roots  and  green  food,  as  these  should  be  present  only 
in  sufficient  quantities  to  make  the  rest  of  the  food  palatable  and  wholesome. 

Care  of  Milk. — As  has  already  been  stated,  the  milking  is  conducted  as 
nearly  as  possible  on  the  principles  of  aseptic  surgery.  As  soon  as  the  milk  is 
drawn  it  is  separated  into  fat-free  milk  and  cream  by  appropriate  machinery. 
The  two  products  are  immediately  cooled  to  38°  F.  and  placed  in  sterilized 
containers.  These  containers  are  constructed  throughout  with  a  double  wall. 
Between  the  outer  and  inner  walls  is  a  layer  of  air,  so  that  the  temperature 
of  the  milk  rises  very  slowly  during  transportation.  The  milk  is  received  at 
the  hospital  within  four  hours  after  the  milking  and  is  there  subjected  to  sys- 
tematic bacteriological  and  microscopical  tests. 

A  remarkable  fact  in  connection  with  the  production  of  this  milk  is  that  the 
records  of  expenditure  shown  by  careful  bookkeeping  indicate  that  the  total 
cost  to  the  hospital  is  25  percent  less  than  the  ordinary  retail  price  of  milk  in 
London. 

Composition  of  Milk. — Vincent  gives  the  comparative  composition  of  human 
milk  and  cow's  milk  as  ascertained  at  the  Westminster  Hospital  as  follows: 

Human  Milk.  Cows'  Milk. 

Percent.  Percent. 

Fat, , , 4.00  4.00 

Milk  sugar, 7.00  4.50 

Proteins, , 1.50  3.50 

Mineral  salts 0.25  0.75 

It  is  seen  that  the  mere  dilution  of  cow's  milk  with  water  fails  utterly  to 
produce  a  milk  which  approaches  in  composition  the  average  of  human  milk. 
It  is  evident  that  the  relative  composition  of  a  diluted  milk  is  exactly  the  same 
as  it  was  before,  that  is,  the  ratio  of  the  proteins  to  the  milk  sugar,  the  fat,  and 
the  mineral  salts,  or  of  any  one  of  these  four  to  the  other  three,  is  not  changed. 
But  in  order  to  simulate  mothers'  milk  the  ratio  must  be  changed  in  such  a 
way  that  while  the  fat  remains  practically  the  same,  there  may  be  a  marked 
change  in  the  ratio  of  the  other  three  constituents,  namely,  milk  sugar,  pro- 
teins, and  mineral  salts.  Vincent  distinguishes  the  proteins  as  whey-proteins 
and  caseinogen,  and  gives  the  following  proportions  of  the  percentages  of 
each  in  human  and  cows'  milk: 

Human  Milk.  Cows'  Milk. 
Percent.  Percent. 

Whey-proteins i  .00  i  .00 

Caseinogen, 0.50  2.50 

Total, 1.50  3.50 


PREPARATION  OF  MILK  FOR  INFANT  FEEDING  AT  A  LONDON  HOSPITAL.    53 1 

It  is  seen  that  in  a  given  quantity  of  human  milk  the  whey-proteins  will  be 
very  much  in  excess  of  the  caseinogen,  almost  or  quite  double,  while  the  re- 
verse of  this  is  true  in  cow's  milk,  where  the  proportionate  quantity  of  caseino- 
gen is  more  than  twice  that  of  the  whey-proteins.  The  caseinogen  is  consid- 
ered far  less  digestible  than  the  whey-proteins,  hence  the  additional  necessity 
of  some  modification  of  the  cows'  milk  to  meet  the  demands  of  the  infant. 

Principle  of  Modification. — The  principle  of  modification  of  the  milk  at 
the  Westminster  Hospital  is  a  strict  adherence  to  a  standard  human  milk  in 
its  natural  condition.  Boiling,  pasteurizing,  or  cooking  the  milk  in  any  way 
is  wholly  forbidden.  Sterilization  is  applied  to  the  vessels  in  which  the  milk 
is  contained,  but  not  to  the  milk  itself.  In  modifying  the  milk  it  is  necessary 
to  have  certain  standard  solutions  which  are  available  for  instant  use.  Stan- 
dard solution  No.  i  is  standard  cream  diluted  with  fat-free  milk  so  as  to  con- 
tain 32  percent  of  butter  fat.  The  fat-free  milk  obtained  by  the  separation 
previously  mentioned  is  standard  solution  No.  2;  standard  solution  No.  3  is 
saturated  solution  of  calcium  hydrate  free  of  calcium  chlorid;  standard 
solution  No.  4  is  a  milk-sugar  solution  containing  20  pjercent  of  lactose;  stan- 
dard solution  No.  5  is  whey  prepared  from  precipitating  the  caseinogen  from  fat- 
free  milk;  standard  solution  No.  6  is  sterile  water  obtained  by  filtering  water 
through  a  Pasteur- Chamberland  filter.  Each  of  these  standard  solutions  is  placed 
in  a  sterilized  metal  tank  partially  surrounded  with  ice,  and  the  milk  is  made  by 
taking  a  specific  quantity  from  each  of  the  tanks  to  fill  a  given  prescription. 

Sample  Prescription. — The  prescriptions  are  of  course  varied  according 
to  the  specific  needs  of  each  infant. 

The  foUowing  is  a  sample  prescription,  showing  the  amounts  of  each  of  the 
standard  solutions  prescribed  in  one  case: 

Ward  I,  Infant  N^o.  24 

Percent. 

Fat, 2.00 

Lactose, 6.50 

Whey-proteins, 0.75 

Caseinogen, 0.25 

Alkalinity,* 5 .00 

Ten  tubes  each  of  4  oz. 

In  the  laboratory  the  prescription  is  translated  into  actual  amounts. 
The  following  is  the  translation  of  the  above  prescription: 

Cubic 
Centimeteks. 

Cream  (32  percent), 75 

Lactose  solution  (20  percent),. 121 

Whey...... 858 

Fat-free  milk, ^g 

Limewater, 60 

Water, 27 

*  Expression  "  alkalinity  5  percent"  indicates  that  5  percent  of  the  total  volume  of  the 
mixture  consists  of  standard  solution  No.  3. 


532  infants'  and  invalids'  foods. 

Storage  oj  Milk. — Attention  is  called  to  the  importance  of  permitting  as 
little  change  as  possible  to  take  place  in  the  milk  from  the  time  of  the  milking 
until  it  is  consumed  by  the  infant.  For  this  reason  the  storage  of  the  milk  and 
of  the  standard  solutions  made  therefrom  should  be  at  a  low  temperature 
approaching  that  of  the  freezing-point  of  water.  In  this  v/ay  the  changes 
which  would  naturally  take  place  due  to  growth  of  bacteria  at  room  tempera- 
ture are  kept  at  a  minimum.  It  is  unnecessary  to  say  that  before  the  modified 
milk,  after  preparation,  is  given  to  the  infant  it  should  be  restored  to  the  nor- 
mal temperature  of  the  human  body,  or  a  little  above,  that  is,  to  about  ioo°  F. 


PRESERVATION  OF  MILK. 

Introduction. — It  has  been  stated  already  that  the  ideal  food  for  children 
deprived  of  nature's  supply  is  a  milk  properly  balanced  in  its  nutritive  ele- 
ments to  suit  the  organism  of  the  child,  and  which  is  as  fresh  from  the  dairy 
where  it  was  produced  as  possible.  There  are  many  cases,  however,  in  which 
it  becomes  necessary  to  use  milk  which  cannot  possibly  be  fresh.  For  ex- 
ample, there  are  localities  where  fresh  milk  cannot  be  obtained,  and  long 
journeys  by  sea  and  land  may  render  fresh  milk  inaccessible.  Hence  it  is 
necessary  to  consider  the  art  of  preserving  milk  in  order  to  meet  such  exig- 
encies and  emergencies.  While  no  preserved  product  is  to  be  preferred  to  the 
fresh  milk,  there  are  some  methods  which  injure  the  character  of  the  milk  so 
little  as  to  be  preferred  to  others  in  which  greater  dangers  from  preservation 
must  be  expected. 

Cold  Storage. — Allusion  has  already  been  made  to  the  keeping  of  milk  by 
cold  storage.  This  is  by  far  the  best  method  when  the  milk  is  to  be  kept  only 
a  few  hours,  or  at  most  over  a  day.  Fresh,  sweet,  clean  milk  may  be  cold 
stored  at  or  near  the  freezing-point  for  twenty-four  or  even  forty-eight  hours 
and  still  be  suitable  for  feeding  to  infants  after  it  is  warmed  to  the  proper 
temperature.  Fortunately,  the  very  exigencies  which  require  the  preserving 
of  milk  are  those  which  would  preclude  the  possibilities  of  preserving  it  at 
least  for  a  longer  period  than  that  mentioned.  A  mother  traveling  on  a  railway 
train  might  well  pack  the  milk  for  her  infant  with  ice  and  carry  it  with  her, 
replacing  the  ice  from  time  to  time  as  it  melted.  In  this  way,  through  a  journey 
of  twenty-four  hours,  she  could  have  the  milk  which  she  knows  to  be  pure, 
at  all  times,  removing  a  small  portion  of  it  now  and  then  from  its  container 
and  warming  it  to  the  proper  temperature  for  .feeding  the  child.  A  longer 
period  than  twenty-four  hours  for  keeping  milk  by  cold  storage  should  not  be 
advised. 

Chemical  Preservatives. — Many  attempts  have  been  made  to  keep  milk 
fresh  by  means  of  chemical  preservatives.  By  the  term  chemical  preserva- 
tives is  meant  those  substances  which,  without  having  in  themselves  any 


CONDENSED    MILK.  533 

marked  taste  or  odor,  are  capable  of  paralyzing  or  inhibiting  bacterial  action, 
or  of  actually  killing  the  bacteria,  and  thus  preventing  the  ordinary  fermenta- 
tive and  putrefactive  processes.  Among  the  substances  which  are  used  for 
this  purpose  in  milk,  formaldehyde  and  boron  compounds  have  been  most 
common.  Practically  all  nations  have,  by  legislation  or  judicial  decision,  pro- 
hibited the  use  of  these  preservatives  in  milk,  though  some  permit  the  presence 
of  boron  in  other  substances.  In  this  country  the  presence  of  borax  and  for- 
maldehyde is  forbidden  in  milk,  but  benzoate  of  soda  m^-y  be  used  in  any 
quantity  desired  by  the  manufacturers,  provided  its  presence  and  the  amount 
employed  be  stated  on  the  label.  Fortunately,  benzoate  of  soda  is  an  extremely 
poor  preservative  for  milk,  since  milk  is  an  alkaline  body,  and  as  such  it  does 
not  tend  to  decompose  the  benzoate  of  soda  and  set  the  benzoic  acid  free,  and 
it  is  only  free  benzoic  acid  which  is  very  active  as  a  preserving  agent.  In  so 
far  as  I  know^,  very  little  use  has  been  made  by  milk  producers  and  dealers 
of  the  permission  granted  to  use  this  chemical.  In  point  of  fact,  there  is  very 
little  adulteration  of  milk  with  chemical  preservatives  in  the  United  States. 
National,  State  and  municipal  laws  have  been  so  well  drawn  and  so  vigorously 
executed  as  to  practically  put  a  stop  to  this  objectionable  practice.  Whatever 
may  be  true  of  the  abihty  of  adults  to  tolerate  a  certain  amount  of  chemicals 
in  their  food,  it  must  be  admitted  that  the  infant  is  not  thus  constituted.  No 
matter  what  the  chemical  may  be,  nor  what  the  opinion  or  experience  may  be 
concerning  its  action  upon  health,  there  are  few  who  have  the  temerity  to  urge 
either  the  unrestricted,  or  even  the  restricted,  use  of  chemical  preservatives  in 
milk. 

Condensed  Milk. — Owing  to  the  difficulty,  in  many  cases,  of  securing 
fresh  milk  for  the  use  of  infants,  condensed  milk  has  been  very  widely  recom- 
mended as  a  substitute.  There  are  several  difficulties  which  arise  in  connection 
with  the  use  of  condensed  milk  for  children  instead  of  the  fresh  milk  which 
they  naturally  should  have.  In  the  first  place,  one  should  be  certain  that  the 
condensed  milk  is  made  from  fresh  milk  produced  by  heahhy  cows.  It  is  en- 
tirely possible  to  conceive  of  a  situation  where  milk  is  delivered  to  the  conden- 
sory  which  is  unfit  for  infants'  food.  Milk  coming  from  unsanitary  dairies, 
or  from  diseased  cows,  or  which  is  handled  in  an  unsanitary  manner,  or  which 
is  kept  too  long  or  at  too  high  a  temperature  becomes  unfit  for  consumption  by 
infants,  and,  therefore,  totally  unfit  for  condensation  if  the  condensed  product 
is  to  be  consumed  by  infants.  If  condensed  milk  is  to  be  made  part  of  an  in- 
fant's diet,  it  should  be  produced  from  a  certified  fresh  milk  free  from  every 
possible  disease  germ,  transported  to  the  condensory  in  the  most  sanitary 
manner,  and  evaporated  in  the  shortest  possible  time  after  reception.  While 
it  is  idle  to  claim  that  such  a  condensed  food  is  as  good  for  the  infant  as  the 
fresh  article  would  have  been,  it  must  be  admitted  that  such  a  product  would 
be  preferable  to  the  indiscriminate  fresh  milk  supplies  of  our  towns  and  cities.. 


534 


infants'  and  invalids'  foods. 


In  fact,  for  congested  centers  where  it  is  difficult  to  secure  fresh  milk  at  all,  I 
think  no  one  would  doubt  that  a  properly  manufactured  condensed  milk  would 
be  a  most  helpful  substitute.  A  milk  prepared  in  this  way  and  securely  canned 
and  sterilized  will  keep  for  a  limited  time,  especially  if  held  in  a  cold  place, 
without  developing  any  undesirable  qualities.  In  this  condition  the  milk  could 
be  much  more  easily  transported  and  delivered  to  congested  centers  than  could 
fresh  milk.  In  my  opinion,  it  would  be  a  boon  to  the  children  of  the  poor  in 
our  large  cities  if  an  abundant  supply  of  properly  prepared  condensed  milk 
could  be  secured  for  them.  I  say  this  without  in  any  way  departing  from  the 
opinion,  which  I  think  is  a  correct  one,  that,  if  possible,  perfectly  fresh  milk 
should  always  be  secured.  But  such  possibihties  do  not  offer  themselves  to 
poorer  residents  of  densely  populated  cities,  and  hence  it  seems  to  me  that  a 
properly  certified  condensed  milk  would  prove  a  great  blessing  in  such  cir- 
cumstances. Pritchard,  however,  maintains  that  fresh  milk  is  the  thing  to  be 
desired  in  all  cases  for  healthy  infants,  and  that  the  more  milk  is  manipulated, 
the  more  it  loses  some  subtle  quality,  the  loss  being  due  principally  to  the 
destruction  of  the  proteolytic  and  fat-splitting  ferments.  He  does  not  attach 
any  value  whatever  to  dried  or  condensed  milk  as  a  food  for  infants;  if  the 
"fat  in  the  milk  has  been  reduced  by  water  or  otherwise,  he  advises  the  use  of  the 
emulsions  of  cod-liver  oil,  or  of  olive  or  other  vegetable  oils. 

Composition  of  Condensed  Milks. — The  composition  of  condensed  milk  is 
determined  by  the  character  of  the  fresh  milk.  If  the  fresh  contains  a  large 
percentage  of  fat,  the  condensed  product  will  show  a  preponderance  of  that 
constituent.  If,  on  the  other  hand,  the  fat  is  abnormally  low,  then  the  finished 
product  will  have  the  same  deficiency,  and  the  same  is  true  of  each  of  the  con- 
stituents of  the  milk. 

The  following  analyses  of  four  different  brands  of  evaporated  or  unsweetened 
condensed  milk  and  two  brands  of  sweetened  condensed  milk  show  the  typical 
composition  of  such  products: 

EVAPORATED  OR  UNSWEETENED  CONDENSED  MILKS. 


Constituents. 

Percent. 

Percent. 

Percent. 

Percent. 

Water, 

72.03 
8.42 
7.10 
1.68 

10.77 

70.26 
8.Q7 

7-83 
1.44 

10.85 
0.65 

72.17 
8.0Q 

7-25 

1.67 

10.82 

Fat, 

71-34 
8.18 

Proteins, 

Ash,. 

7.29 

Lactose  by  difference, 

1-59 

Lactose  by  copper  reduction, 

10.83 

Undetermined, 

0.77 

Total  solids, 

100.00 

27.97 
30.10 

I  :  1. 18 

100.00 

29.74 
30.09 

I  :i.i5 

100.00 

100.00 

^0  </: 

Fat  in  solids, 

29.07           28.58 

Ratio  of  proteins  to  fat, 

. 

CONDENSED    MILK.  535 

SWEETENED  CONDENSED  MILKS. 

Percent.  Percent. 

Water, 26.87  24.90 

Fat, 9.82  10.30 

Proteins, 8.04  8.77 

Lactose  by  difference, 11. 11  11. 18* 

Sucrose, 42.22  42.12 

Ash, 1.92                             1.85 

Undetermined, 0.88 

100.00  100.00 

Total  solids, 73-13  75-io 

Milk  solids, 3o-9i  32.98 

Fat  in  milk  solids, 3i-77  31-23 

Ratio  of  proteins  to  fat, i  :  1.22  i  :  1.17 

It  is  a  very  common  practice  to  add  sugar  to  the  milk  at  the  time  of  its  con- 
densation, in  order  to  preserve  it  more  readily.  Such  products  are  known  as 
sweetened  condensed  milks.  The  usual  quantity  of  sugar  used  is  about  40 
pounds  to  100  of  the  condensed  product.  The  added  cane  sugar  is  usually 
in  greater  quantity  than  the  natural  milk  sugar.  I  cannot  see  any  advantage, 
in  so  far  as  infant  feeding  is  concerned,  in  using  a  sweetened  condensed  milk 
rather  than  a  plain  product.  While  there  is  no  positive  evidence  that  sugar  is 
hurtful,  it  at  least  is  not  natiu-al.  The  infant  fed  at  the  breast  would  probably 
not  consume  any  cane  sugar  at  all,  and  the  only  sugar  it  would  have  would  be 
the  milk  sugar  of  its  mother's  milk.  To  add  a  larger  quantity  of  another  sugar, 
while  it  would  not  harm  adults,  and  possibly  might  not  injure  infants,  would 
certainly  modify  the  natural  sustenance  of  the  child  to  a  marked  degree.  For 
this  reason  alone  the  sweetened  condensed  milks  would  not  be  desirable  for 
infant  nutrition. 

Density  of  Condensed  Milk. — An  important  factor  in  regard  to  the  purchas- 
ing of  condensed  milk  is  found  in  the  fact  that  it  does  not  always  have  a  uni- 
form density.  The  national  standard  for  condensed  milk  requires  that  it  shall 
contain  not  less  than  28  percent  of  solid  matter,  while  many  of  the  milks  found 
upon  the  market  contain  decidedly  less  than  this  amount.  To  the  poor  man 
especially,  who  buys  his  condensed  milk  at  a  high  price,  it  is  of  some  impor- 
tance to  know  whether  he  gets  a  sufficiently  condensed  article,  or  whether 
he  is  buying  a  large  amount  of  water. 

Difficulties  of  Making  Condensed  Milk. — Many  manufacturers  claim  that 
it  is  difficult,  and  sometimes  quite  impossible,  to  produce  a  condensed  milk 
with  a  content  of  28  percent  of  solid  matter.  It  is  claimed  that  at  such  a 
degree  of  condensation  a  crystalline,  sandy  product  separates  after  standing 
for  some  time,  presumably  composed  largely  of  citrate  of  lime,  which  gives 
to  the  milk  a  bad  appearance  and  prejudices  the  consumer  agamst  its  use. 
Without  calling  into  question  the  good  faith  of  this  statement,  it  may  be  said 
that  many  manufacturers  do  constantly  make  a  condensed  milk  with  28  per- 

*  By  copper  reduction. 


536  infants'  and  invalids'  foods. 

cent  and  over  of  solid  matter,  and  do  not  have  any  special  difficulty  in  preserv- 
ing it  for  a  proper  length  of  time.  It  is  true,  doubtless,  that  most  highly  con- 
densed milks  would,  in  course  of  time,  produce  a  crystalline  deposit  of  the 
character  named,  but  this  would  only  show  that  the  milk  had  probably  been 
kept  longer  than  is  desirable.  In  the  case  of  condensed  milk,  the  fresher  it 
is  when  used  the  better.  As  the  supplies  of  condensed  milk  are  made  through- 
out the  year,  there  should  be  no  difficulty  in  getting  a  product  for  consumption 
which  is  less  than  three  months  old.  Such  samples  of  recent  manufacture 
would  doubtless  in  most  cases  fail  to  show  a  crystalline  deposit  in  any  appre- 
ciable quantity. 

Drying  Milk. — The  drying  of  milk  and  reducing  the  product  to  a  powder 
has  become  quite  an  industry  in  the  United  States.  Many  methods  of  desic- 
cation have  been  tried,  but  the  effective  ones  all  depend  upon  two  principles 
— first,  rapidity  of  drying,  and,  second,  drying  at  comparatively  low  tempera- 
tures. The  object  in  drying  the  milk  is  to  remove  only  the  water,  so  that  when 
the  same  amount  of  water  is  added,  the  milk  wuU  be  restored  practically  to  its- 
normal  state.  To  this  end  it  is  necessary  that  no  part  of  the  soluble  materials 
of  the  milk  become  coagulated  in  drying;  otherwise  the  addition  of  water 
would  not  restore  the  milk  to  its  former  homogeneous  state.  A  certain  portion 
of  the  protein  of  milk  is  composed  of  albumen,  and,  as  is  well  known,  albumen, 
when  heated  to  a  temperature  which  is  very  much  above  blood  heat,  becomes 
sohdified  or  coagulated  and  is  no  longer  soluble  in  a  menstruum  Hke  the 
water  of  milk.  Various  forms  of  apparatus  have  been  devised  for  drying  milk 
at  a  low  temperature.  The  most  common  method  has  been  drying  in  a  very 
thin  film  on  metal  plates,  sometimes  in  vacuo,  the  vapor  of  the  water  being 
given  off  rapidly  and  at  a  very  low  temperature.  The  result  is  that  milk  can  be 
reduced  to  a  dry  state  in  a  short  time  and  without  reaching  a  temperature 
sufficiently  high  to  coagulate  the  albumen.  Such  a  product  when  mixed  with 
water  is  practically  restored  to  its  original  state. 

Another  method  of  drying  milk  consists  in  atomizing  it  under  pressure 
and  projecting  it  into  a  warm  chamber  the  temperature  of  which  is  so  regu- 
lated that  the  particles  of  vapor  before  they  reach  the  bottom  of  the  drying 
vessel  are  completely  deprived  of  their  water.  The  milk  is  thus  reduced  at 
once  to  a  state  of  fine  subdivision.  When  treated  in  this  way  the  milk  does  not 
reach  a  temperature  sufficiently  high  to  coagulate  its  albumen,  and,  as  in  the 
other  process,  it  is  readily  restored  to  practically  its  original  condition. 

Keeping  Qualities  of  Milk  Powder. — By  reason  of  the  amount  of  fat  in  the 
milk  powder  it  is  quite  likely  to  become  rancid  if  kept  for  a  very  long  while  at 
room  temperatures  or  exposed  to  the  air.  A  milk  powder,  therefore,  however 
prepared,  should  be  kept  in  a  cool  place  and  out  of  contact  with  the  air  as 
far  as  is  possible,  until  used.  It  is  very  important  that  it  be  placed  in  packages 
which  are  practically  air-tight,  in  order  to  prevent  this  rancidity,  in  case  cold 


PROCESS    OF    STERILIZATION.  537 

Storage  facilities  are  not  at  hand.  In  any  case  the  dried  milk  powder  should 
not  be  kept  for  any  length  of  time,  but  should  be  consumed  as  soon  as  possible 
after  it  is  made.  Nevertheless  it  must  be  admitted  that  for  purposes  of  trans- 
portation the  milk  powder  has  advantages  over  any  other  form  of  milk.  Since 
practically  88  percent  of  milk  is  water,  it  is  seen  that  in  so  far  as  transportation 
is  concerned,  there  is  great  economy  in  carrying  milk  powder  instead  of  the 
milk  itself.  Thus  for  long  journeys  on  which  milk  in  its  natural  state  cannot 
be  secured,  and  even  for  railway  and  steamship  travel,  dried  milk  may  prove 
useful.  In  all  cases,  of  course,  it  is  assumed  that  the  milk  powder  is  obtained 
from  milk  which  is  derived  from  healthy  cows,  under  sanitary  conditions, 
and  is  free  from  any  infection. 


PASTEURIZATION  AND  STERILIZATION. 

Process  of  Pasteurization. — The  word  "pasteurization"  is  derived  from 
the  name  of  the  immortal  scientist  Pasteur,  who  found  that  it  was  not  neces- 
sary to  kill  all  the  organisms  in  the  milk  to  keep  it  fresh  for  a  limited  time, 
but  that  a  gentle  heat,  far  below  the  boiling  point  of  the  milk,  would  kill  prac- 
tically all  the  organisms  which  cause  the  milk  to  speedily  sour  and  solidify. 
Bodies  which  are  heated  to  a  temperature  below  that  necessary  to  kill  all  the 
germs  and  spores  of  the  germ  are  said  to  be  pasteurized.  In  point  of  fact  the 
temperature  of  pasteurization  which  is  usually  employed  varies  from  130°  to 
160°  F.,  which,  as  is  seen,  is  very  much  below  the  boiling  point  which  is  always 
employed  if  complete  sterilization  is  required.  The  point  to  be  kept  in  view 
in  pasteurizing  is,  that  all  parts  of  the  milk  shall  be  heated  to  the  same  temper- 
ature. Let  us  assume  that  this  temperature  is  150°.  All  of  the  milk  then  must 
certainly  be  heated  at  that  temperature  probably  for  about  twenty  minutes, 
and  then  rapidly  cooled  and  kept  free  of  infection  from  the  air  or  other  sources. 
Milk  thus  treated  will  remain  sweet  for  two  or  three  days,  and  perhaps  in 
many  instances,  if  kept  cold,  for  a  longer  period.  Pasteurization  is  recom- 
mended by  a  great  majority  of  hygienists  for  all  milk  supplies  the  origin  and 
nature  of  which  are  unknown.  The  objections  to  pasteurization  will  be 
mentioned  later.  It*  must  be  admitted,  however,  in  the  interest  of  pubhc 
health,  that  as  the  milk  supplies  of  the  world  are  produced  at  present,  espe- 
cially those  going  to  large  cities,  general  pasteurization  would  be  highly 
desirable. 

Process  of  Sterilization. — As  has  already  been  intimated,  sterilization 
differs  from  pasteurization  in  that  the  temperature  of  the  milk  is  raised  to  the 
boiling  point  of  water,  or  above.  The  object  of  sterilization  is  to  remove  com- 
pletely aU  bacterial  life  from  the  milk;  not  only  to  kill  the  bacteria  which  are 
present,  but  also  any  spores  which  may  subsequently  develop  into  bacterial 
activity.    Bacteria  usually  multiply  by  fission,  that  is,  one  bacterium  develops 


538  infants'  and  invalids'  foods. 

a  constriction  which  gradually  increases  until  it  is  cut  in  two,  making  two  in- 
dividuals, and  these  in  turn  undergo  the  same  process,  and  so  on  ad  infinitum, 
until  the  development  of  the  growth  is  stopped  by  lack  of  food,  changes  in 
temperature,  or  otherwise.  Other  bacteria  are  produced  by  spores,  which 
have  the  same  relation  to  the  bacterium  as  the  egg  to  the  chicken.  These 
spores  are  more  resistant  to  heat  than  the  bacteria  themselves,  and  hence  the 
heat  must  be  higher  or  longer  continued  in  order  to  completely  destroy  them. 
As  has  been  indicated,  sterilization  is  objectionable  in  the  preservation  of 
milk  for  two  reasons,  first,  in  that  it  gives  it  a  bad  taste,  and,  second,  that  it  so 
modifies  the  structure  of  the  milk  as  to  decrease,  to  a  certain  extent,  its  diges- 
tibility, especially  for  infants. 

Bacteriological  Characteristics  of  Milk. — There  is  nothing  more  impor- 
tant in  the  subject  of  infant  feeding  than  the  bacteriology  of  milk,  and  it  may 
properly  be  considered  in  connection  with  the  pasteurization  and  sterihzation 
data.  Though  all  possible  sanitary  precautions  may  be  observed,  the  number 
of  bacteria  in  milk  rapidly  increases  on  standing.  Under  sanitary  conditions 
this  increase  is  a  matter  of  no  consequence,  up  to  a  certain  hmit,  since  the  bac- 
teria which  are  thus  introduced  are  wholly  harmless,  and  have  even  proved 
beneficial.  When  milk  is  secured  from  healthy  cows  in  a  sanitary  manner 
and  properly  handled  by  chilling  and  bottling,  the  bacterial  count  may  be 
usually  kept  below  10,000  per  cubic  centimeter.  But  it  is  only  by  the  exercise 
of  careful  supervision  that  such  a  condition  can  be  secured.  The  ordinary 
milk  of  commerce  often  contains  miUions  of  bacteria  per  cubic  centimeter 
and  sometimes  over  a  hundred  million.  If  these  bacteria  are  wholly  harmless, 
such  a  milk  may  not  prove  injurious  to  a  grown-up  person,  but  even  harmless 
bacteria,  in  the  ordinary  sense  of  that  word,  in  such  numbers  in  milk  given 
to  infants,  especially  if  they  are  very  young,  may  prove  extremely  detrimental. 
The  milk  which  is  secured  for  infant  food  should,  therefore,  always  be  ob- 
tained in  the  most  sanitary  way,  and  if  possible  it  should  contain  less  than 
10,000  bacteria  per  cubic  centimeter. 

Milk  a  Favorable  Medium  jor  Bacterial  Growth. — There  is  perhaps  no  more 
favorable  medium  for  the  growth  of  ordinary  bacteria  than  milk  at  certain 
temperatures,  that  is,  from  70°  to  90°  F.  Milk  is  not  only  an  ideal  food  for 
an  infant,  but  also  for  a  bacterium.  In  point  of  fact  the  latter  thrives  even 
better  than  the  former  on  a  milk  diet.  The  increase  in  the  bacteria  in  milk  in 
favorable  circumstances  is  marvelous;  the  number  in  a  few  hours  may  grow 
from  practically  none  to  many  millions,  so  rapidly  do  they  multiply.  The 
milk  affords  every  food  which  the  bacterium  requires  and  in  the  form  best 
suited  to  rapid  assimilation.  Inasmuch  as  the  bacteria  digest  their  food  they 
must  put  into  the  milk  large  quantities  of  excremental  matter,  mostly  in  the 
form  of  enzyms,  which  may  act  as  an  irritant  upon  the  delicate  and  sensitive 
coats  of  the  intestinal  tract  of  the  infant.     The  rapidity  of  growth  is  very 


BACTERIOLOGICAL    CHARACTERISTICS    OF    MILK.  '539 

greatly  checked  by  lowering  the  temperature;  even  if  not  brought  under  50°, 
the  growth  of  the  bacterial  flora  is  greatly  limited.  Milk  may  be  kept  at  a 
temperature  just  above  the  freezing  point  for  a  long  time,  so  greatly  does  low 
temperature  interfere  with  the  growth  and  reproduction  of  the  bacteria.  But 
even  under  these  conditions,  although  the  milk  may  not  sour,  bacterial  life 
is  by  no  means  wholly  destroyed,  though  its  character  may  be  profoundly 
modified.  Changes  of  an  objectionable  nature,  so  far  as  infants  are  concerned, 
go  on  in  milk  stored  at  these  low  terhperatures  without  giving  any  of  the  ordi- 
nary evidence  of  decomposition.  For  this  reason  it  is  not  advisable  to  feed 
infants  stored  milks,  that  is,  those  which  are  stored  in  the  fresh  state,  without 
pasteurizing  or  sterilizing. 

Kinds  of  Organisms  in  Milk. — Yeasts  as  well  as  bacteria  grow  with  great 
rapidity  in  milk,  and  the  forms  which  produce  acidity,  that  is,  lactic  acid,  are 
likewise  found  growing  with  great  vigor.  Among  the  most  objectionable  forms 
of  bacteria  in  milk  are  those  which  produce  putrefaction,  or,  in  other  words, 
decomposition  of  the  protein  bodies  of  the  milk.  This  putrefaction  gives 
rise  not  only  to  bad  tastes,  but  to  bad  odors.  Putrefactive  bacteria  are  found 
everywhere,  but  particularly  do  they  collect  around  stables,  where  the  soil  is 
very  rich  and  where  there  is  much  manure.  Another  bacterium  which  is 
particularly  objectionable  in  milk  is  that  which  produces  the  sliminess  so  often 
found.  There  are  also  numbers  of  chromogenic  bacteria  in  milk,  which  pro- 
duce various  shades  of  blue,  red,  and  yellow.  These,  fortunately,  are  not  very 
common.  Again,  the  protein  may  be  converted  into  peptone,  which  is  the 
first  step  toward  putrefaction.  The  conversion  of  the  protein  into  peptone,  if 
it  stops  there,  is  not  harmful,  but  it  is  difficult  often  to  draw  the  line  between 
peptonizing  and  putrefaction.  It  would  be  useless  to  undertake  to  give  any 
description  of  a  popular  character  of  the  bacteria,  since  this  is  a  subject 
which  is  extremely  technical. 

Bacterial  Count  of  Milk.— It  may  be  asked,  and  very  properly,  how  can 
anybody  count  hundreds  of  thousands  or  millions  of  bacteria  in  a  little  particle 
of  milk,  not  much  more  than  a  dozen  drops,  which  would  make  a  cubic  centi- 
meter? The  answer  is  that  it  is  impossible  to  do  so.  Bacteria  are  counted  by 
adding  some  of  the  substance  which  is  supposed  to  contain  them  to  a  sterile 
dish  which  contains  nutritive  material,  usually  of  a  gelatinous  nature,  suitable 
for  the  growth  of  bacteria.  Each  bacterium  in  the  added  substance  grows  on 
the  surface  of  this  nourishing  medium  and  produces  colonies  which  can  be 
seen  with  the  naked  eye.  The  number  of  colonies  found  indicates  the  number 
of  bacteria  in  the  original  milk.  In  order  to  secure  a  count,  therefore,  it  is 
necessary  to  dilute  the  milk  often  many  times  before  adding  a  drop  of  it  to  the 
sterilized  medium.  If  milk  is  diluted  a  thousand  times  and  a  cubic  centimeter 
of  it  is  found  to  contain  a  hundred  organisms,  we  only  have  to  multiply  the 
hundred  by  the  thousand  to  get  the  total  number  originally  present.     The 


540 


infants'  and  invalids'  foods. 


skilful  bacteriologist  by  making  a  number  of  trials  will  be  able  to  approximate, 
with  a  very  great  degree  of  accuracy,  the  total  number  of  bacterial  organisms 
in  the  substance  with  which  he  is  working. 

Result  of  Pasteurization.— Let  us  understand  at  the  first  that  pasteuri- 
zation cannot  purify  milk.  If  milk  is  dirty  before  pasteurization,  it  is  just  as 
dirty  afterward,  but  the  greater  number  of  germs  which  it  contains  have  been 
killed  or  paralyzed.  Fortunately  pathogenic  germs  which  are  the  most  ob- 
jectionable ones  in  milk  are  quite  susceptible  to  the  influence  of  heat,  and  are 
quite  likely  to  be  destroyed  by  a  proper  pasteurization,  while  other  germs  which 
are  not  objectionable  may  continue  to  Hve  and  develop.  The  mother  who 
feeds  her  infant  on  pasteurized  milk,  assuming  that  it  is  properly  done,  may 
feel  assured  that  none  of  the  contagious  diseases  w^hich  can  be  transmitted 
by  milk,  namely,  typhoid  fever,  tuberculosis,  diphtheria,  etc.,  will  be  given  to 
the  child;  but  at  the  same  time  she  may  be  certain  that  the  nutritive  value  of 
the  milk,  if  it  was  low  before  pasteurization,  is  even  more  so  afterward  since 
it  is  proven  by  experience  that  infants,  as  a  rule,  do  not  thrive  so  well  on  pas- 
teurized milk  as  they  do  on  good  milk  v/hich  has  not  been  pasteurized.  One 
great  advantage  of  pasteurization  is  that  the  milk  thus  treated  does  not  have 
the  burnt  taste  which  is  so  objectionable  to  many  people  in  milks  which  have 
been  subjected  to  the  boiling  temperature.  Others  who  are  accustomed  to 
the  taste  of  boiled  milk,  however,  do  not  objecf  to  it,  and  in  such  cases,  if 
it  is  a  grown  person,  it  is  far  better  that  the  milk  should  be  absolutely  steril- 
ized. For  infant's  use,  however,  I  am  of  the  opinion  that  boiled  milk  is  not 
so  wholesome  nor  so  nutritious  as  pasteurized  milk,  just  as  pasteurized  milk 
is  not  so  wholesome  nor  nutritious  as  perfectly  fresh  and  pure  milk.  The  value 
of  pasteurization,  however,  as  a  prophylactic  precaution,  cannot  be  overes- 
timated. On  the  other  hand,  it  must  not  be  forgotten  that  in  pasteurized 
milk  the  organisms  which  produce  sourness  and  thus  give  warning  of  danger 
are  likely  to  be  killed,  while  certain  spore-bearing  organisms  that  produce 
putrescence  and  decay,  survive.  The  presence  of  these  organisms  in  pas- 
teurized milk  is  far  more  objectionable  than  the  presence  of  the  lactic  acid 
organisms  in  unpasteurized  milk.  In  fact,  the  vigorous  growth  of  the  or- 
ganisms that  produce  sourness  may  suppress  or  destroy  the  activity  of  those 
organisms  that  produce  decay. 

Pasteurization  at  Home  and  under  Scientific  Control.— Home  pas- 
teurization of  milk  is  not  advisable  if  a  competent  municipal  supervision  of  the 
process  can  be  secured.  Municipalities  should  maintain  pasteurizing  depots, 
at  least  for  the  use  of  infants,  and  these  should  be  so  supervised  that  the  milk 
entering  them  is  as  pure  as  possible  before  pasteurization,  and  is  then  properly 
pasteurized,  cooled,  sealed,  and  prepared  for  delivery.  No  better  service 
could  be  rendered  by  a  municipality  than  to  thus  make  the  best  of  bad  condi- 
tions, where  the  milk  supplies  are  not  ideal.    If  the  milk  is  produced  at  home. 


THE    STRAUS    HOME  .PASTEURIZER. 


541 


as  is  the  case  on  the  farm,  then  pasteurization  is  rarely  necessary,  as  fresh  milk 
can  be  obtained  at  all  hours  for  the  infant,  and  should  always  be  used.  Even 
at  the  present  time,  people  living  in  cities  who  have  places  where  they  could 
keep  a  cow  very  commonly  secure  a  cow,  or  a  goat,  to  provide  the  milk  for 
the  infants  of  the  family.  This  is,  of  course,  advisable  if  cows  and  goats  can 
be  kept  under  sanitary  conditions,  but  only  the  very  rich  are  able  to  do  this 
in  cities,  since  there  must  be  yards  large  enough  to  secure  sufficient  ventilation 


INSIDE 

SECTION 

SHOWING 

BRACKET 

FOR 

TRAY 


O 


Fig.  87.— The  Straus  Home  Pasteurizer. 


and  exercise  for  the  animals.  The  constant  confinement  of  a  cow  or  goat  in 
the  stall  or  the  stable  cannot  be  regarded  in  any  sense  as  an  icleal  condition  for 
the  production  of  pure  milk. 

The  Straus  Home  Pasteurizer. — A  simple  method  for  home  pasteuri- 
zation which  can  be  practiced  where  city  supervision  fails  has  been  devised 
by  Straus.  The  apparatus  is-  shown  in  the  accompanying  illustration. 
The  directions  for  using  this  pasteurizer  are  as  follows: 


542  infants'  and  invalids'  foods. 

1.  Use  only  fresh,  filtered  milk,  which  has  been  kept  cold,  and  proceed  as 
follows: 

2.  Set  the  bottles,  after  they  have  been  thoroughly  cleaned,  in  the  tray,  fill 
them  to  the  neck,  and  put  on  the  corks  or  patent  stoppers. 

3.  The  pot  is  then  placed  on  a  wooden  surface  (table  or  floor)  and  filled 
to  the  three  supports  (in  the  pot)  with  boiling  water. 

4.  Place  tray,  with  the  filled  bottles,  in  the  pot  so  that  the  bottom  of  the 
tray  rests  on  the  three  supports,  and  put  cover  on  quickly. 

5.  After  the  bottles  have  been  warmed  up  by  the  steam  for  five  minutes, 
remove  the  cover  quickly,  and  turn  the  tray  so  that  it  drops  into  the  water. 
The  cover  is  to  be  put  on  again  immediately.  This  manipulation  is  to  be 
made  very  quickly,  so  that  as  little  steam  as  possible  can  escape.  Thus  it 
remains  for  twenty-five  minutes. 

6.  Now  take  the  tray  out  of  the  water  and  cool  the  bottles  with  cold  water 
and  ice  as  quickly  as  possible,  and  keep  them  at  this  low  temperature  till  used. 

7.  Before  use,  warm  the  milk — in  the  bottles — to  blood  heat.  Never  pour 
it  into  another  vessel. 

8.  The  milk  must  not  be  used ,  for  children  later  than  twenty-four  hours 
after  pasteurization.    Never  use  remnants. 

9.  The  advantages  of  pasteurization  over  other  systems,  such  as  sterilization 
or  boiling,  consists  in  the  lower  degree  of  heat  applied,  which  is  sufficient  to 
kill  all  noxious  germs,  while  the  nourishing  quality  and  good  taste  qf  the  milk 
are  retained. 

Views  of  Nathan  Straus  on  Pasteurization.— Mr.  Straus  has  devoted 
much  time  and  money  to  improving  the  quaHty  of  city  shipped  milk  and 
has  established  many  municipal  pasteurizing  plants.  In  a  paper  prepared 
for  the  Seventh  International  Congress  of  Applied  Chemistry  he  says: 

An  epoch  in  life  saving  is  marked  by  the  assembling  in  London  of  the 
Seventh  International  Congress,  of  Applied  Chemistry,  for  the  workers  in 
that  branch  of  chemistry  which  has  to  do  with  the  purity  of  foods  have  won 
the  right  to  celebrate  the  triumph  of   their  science  over  commercial  greed. 

************* 
But  my  interest  in  the  science  of  applied  chemistry  is  due  to  the  aid  given 
me  by  your  profession  in  my  Hfe  work  of  saving  the  lives  of  babies. 

For  eighteen  years  I  have  done  what  one  man  could  do  to  stop  the  slaughter 
of  children.  In  1892  I  was  convinced  that  infected  milk  was  responsible  for 
the  excessive  infantile  death-rates  and  for  the  persistence  of  tuberculosis 
among  human  beings. 

Forthwith  I  proceeded  to  put  pasteurized  milk  within  the  reach  of  the 
children  of  New  York  city.  Instant  was  the  response  in  decreased  mortality, 
and  conclusive  was  the  demonstration  obtained  by  feeding  the  city  waifs  on 
Randall's  Island  with  pasteurized  milk,  resulting  in  the  reduction  of  the  death- 
rate  from  44  percent  to  19.8  percent.  Therefore  I  proceeded  to  urge  both  in 
America  and  in  Europe  the  adoption  of  pasteurization  as  a  practical  means 


VIEWS    OF    NATHAN    STRAUS   ON    PASTEURIZATION.  543 

of  killing  pathogenic  germs  in  milk  and  saving  children  from  disease  and  death, 
doing  what  I  could  to  facilitate  the  putting  of  such  milk  at  the  disposal  of 
mothers. 

Instantly  my  work  was  bitterly  opposed.  In  those  days  I  could  only  point 
to  the  babies  fed  upon  pasteurized  milk  to  prove  that  I  was  right.  Objections 
to  pasteurization  multiplied,  based  entirely  upon  ignorance  or  hostility  at 
the  idea  of  a  mere  layman  teaching  how  to  save  lives. 

However,  throughout  all  these  years,  with  no  purpose  but  to  save  lives,  I 
was  compelled  to  be  on  the  defensive,  and  the  extension  of  the  benefits  of 
pasteurization  was  hindered  everywhere  by  the  noisy  clamor  of  those  who 
did  not  know  and  who  would  not  beheve. 
************  * 

Such  was  the  condition  when  applied  chemistry  stepped  in  to  determine 
scientifically  the  value  of  pasteurization  and  the  true  weight  of  the  objections 
shouted  from  the  housetops  by  its  foes. 

I  submitted,  with  perfect  frankness,  to  the  Public  Health  Service  of  the 
United  States  in  1907,  every  objection  that  I  had  ever  heard  raised  against 
pasteurization,  every  alleged  disadvantage,  every  criticism,  and  I  asked  noth- 
ing but  that  each  of  these  objections  should  be  carefully  considered,  and  that  a 
true  scientific  verdict  should  be  rendered. 

The  result  was  given  to  the  public  last  year  in  the  famous  Hygienic  Labor- 
atory Bulletin  No.  41,  ''Milk  and  its  Relation  to  the  Pubhc  Health,"  which  was 
a  complete  and  thorough  vindication  of  pasteurization,  proving  scientifically 
that  the  heat  necessary  to  kill  the  germs  of  disease  does  not  impair  the  ferments 
necessary  to  digestion,  does  not  deteriorate  the  quality  of  the  milk  or  lessen  its 
food  value,  does  not  alter  its  chemical  or  physical  qualities,  and  does  prevent 
much  sickness  and  save  many  lives. 

In  short,  the  experts  working  in  the  investigation  of  the  milk  problem  ex- 
perimentally demonstrated  the  scientific  correctness  of  pasteurization  as  the 
practical  method  of  making  milk  safe  food,  confirming  my  practical  experience 
of  eighteen  years  in  two  hemispheres,  and  I  take  this  opportunity  to  express 
my  sense  of  the  obligation  that  humanity  thus  owes  to  applied  chemistry  for 
sweeping  away  the  crude  errors  and  noisy  ignorance  that  has  so  long  protected 
the  pathogenic  germs  in  milk  and  thus  enabled  them  to  spread  disease  and 
death  broadcast. 

The  importance  of  this  addition  to  the  sum  of  human  knowledge  can  be 
appreciated  only  by  one  who  has  tried  to  stand  between  disease  and  the  babies 
and  to  shield  them  from  untimely  death. 

When  the  results  of  this  American  investigation  are  properly  grasped  by  the 
medical  profession  and  by  the  officers  charged  with  the  protection  of  the  health 
of  nations  and  communities,  it  will  be  held  to  be  a  crime  to  sell  milk  unless  it 
has  been  produced  under  sanitary  conditions  from  tuberculin-tested  herds, 
and  delivered  uncontaminated  in  sterilized  containers,  or  unless  it  has  been 
properly  pasteurized. 

Hundreds  of  thousands  of  lives  will  be  saved  if  this  Congress  will  make  a 
clear  and  emphatic  declaration  for  pasteurization  as  the  scientifically  correct 
and  practically  efficient  method  of  saving  human  beings  from  tuberculosis  and 
other  milk-borne  infections.  I  sincerely  hope  that  the  great  influence  of  the 
International  Congress  of  Applied  Chemistry  will  be  exerted  in  the  cause  of 
health  and  life  and  against  disease  and  death. 


544 


INFANTS'   AND   INVALIDS'   FOODS. 


Commercial  Pasteurization  of  Milk. — The  commercial  pasteurization 
of  milk  has  greater  or  less  efficiency  according  to  the  care  with  which  it  is 
practiced.  B.  R.  Rickards,  formerly  director  of  the  Boston  Board  of  Health 
Laboratory,  in  a  paper  read  before  the  American  Public  Health  Association, 
has  called  attention  to  the  temperatures  which  are  attained  during  the  process 
of  pasteurization.  The  temperatures  observed  by  him  varied  from  140°  to 
165°  F.,  and  the  time  of  exposure  to  the  highest  temperatures  varied  from  three 
to  twenty  minutes.  It  is  stated  by  Rosenau  that  exposure  for  two  minutes  at 
140°  F.  is  sufficient  to  kill  most  of  the  pathogenic  bacteria  producing  diph- 
theria, typhoid,  and  dysentery,  but  at  least  twenty  minutes  at  140°  are  neces- 
sary to  kill  the  tuberculosis  germ. 

As  to  the  efficiency  of  pasteurization  of  a  commercial  character,  it  is  found 
by  Rickards  to  vary  from  92.4  percent  to  98.9  percent.  In  other  words,  the 
percentage  of  organisms  present  which  are  killed  by  the  pasteurization 
varies  within  the  limits  mentioned. 

Growth  of  Organisms  in  Pasteurized  Milk. — Attention  is  called,  however, 
to  the  very  great  rapidity  with  which  organisms  increase  in  unpasteurized  milk. 
For  instance,  in  twenty-four  hours  at  the  temperature  of  the  ice  box  the 
number  of  organisms  in  pasteurized  milk  increases  8400  percent,  while  the  num- 
ber of  organisms  in  unpasteurized  milk  increases  only  2100  percent,  showing 
four  times  as  rapid  an  increase  in  the  pasteurized  as  in  the  unpasteurized  milk. 

Pasteurized  milk  keeps  a  long  time,  but  eventually  acquires  a  strong  odor 
and  may  reach  rather  advanced  stages  of  decomposition  without  turning  sour, 
and  this,  of  course,  is  an  element  of  danger.  In  almost  every  case  reported  by 
Rickards  the  pasteurized  milk,  although  heavily  loaded  with  bacteria,  did  not 
decompose  until  after  the  unpasteurized  milk  taken  at  the  same  time  had 
curdled.  It  is  evident  that  such  milk,  apparently  sweet,  must  be  decidedly 
unfit  for  feeding  infants. 

Results  Obtained  in  Boston. — The  conclusions  reached  by  Rickards  are  pre- 
sented in  the  ''Medical  Officer"  of  London  for  November  6,  1909,  as  follows: 

1.  A  large  amount  of  milk  is  pasteurized  in  Boston  every  day.  Some  of  the 
milk  of  one  contractor  is  pasteurized  in  the  country  and  is  again  pasteurized  in 
Boston. 

2.  The  percentage  of  milk  pasteurized  is  probably  increasing. 

3.  Some  of  this  milk  is  of  very  high  bacterial  content. 

4.  Bacteria  will  increase  much  faster  in  pasteurized  than  in  unpasteurized  milk. 

5.  The  pasteurization  of  milk  affects  the  microscopic  estimate  of  bacteria 
and  leucocytes. 

6.  Commercial  pasteurization  of  milk  without  restriction  puts  a  premium 
on  dirty  milk,  since  dirty  and  old  milk,  otherwise  unsalable,  can  then  be  put 
on  the  market. 

7.  Pasteurized  milk  may  well  mean  cooked  dirt,  cooked  dung,  and  cooked 
bacterial  products;  and  the  laboratory  is  powerless  to  detect  it  unless  ap- 
parent to  the  naked  eye. 


CHANGES    DUE    TO    SUPERHEATING    MILK.  545 

8.  The  commercial  pasteurization  as  at  present  practiced  in  Boston  prob- 
ably would  destroy  all  disease-producing  organisms,  with  the  possible  exception 
of  the  bacilli  of  tuberculosis.  The  latter  would  probably  be  killed  in  the  ma- 
jority of  instances.  One  machine  only  out  of  the  three  tested  would  be  likely 
to  destroy  the  latter.  The  toxins  produced  by  these  and  by  the  putrefactive 
organisms  in  dirty  milk  would  undoubtedly  escape  unharmed,  and  in  many  cases 
be  capable  of  producing  severe  intestinal  disturbances,  especially  in  babies. 

9.  A  false  sense  of  security  is  undoubtedly  conveyed  by  the  term  pasteurized 
milk.  The  lack  of  security  may  come  from  either  improper  pasteurization,  the 
pasteurization  of  improperly  handled  milk,  or  improper  care  of  pasteurized  milk. 

10.  The  unrestricted  pasteurization  of  improperly  kept,  old,  or  dirty  milk 
should  be  prevented  by  regulations  or  ordinances  prohibiting  the  pasteuriza- 
tion of  milk  containing  over  a  certain  specified  number  of  bacteria  per  cubic 
centimeter,  the  bacterial  limit  being  set  with  due  regard  to  local  conditions, 
especially  the  distance  from  which  the  milk  comes.  Such  regulation  should, 
of  course,  be  coupled  with  a  regulation  forbidding  the  sale  of  milk  above  the 
bacterial  limit  established. 

11.  The  law  should  require  that  milk  heated  above  140°  F.  should  be  marked 
heated  or  pasteurized  milk.    Pasteurized  milk  should  not  be  sold  as  fresh  milk. 

The  pasteurization  of  milk  in  itself  is  probably  not  a  harmful  process,  and 
is,  perhaps  to  a  certain  extent,  a  necessity  under  modern  conditions  in  large 
cities,  but  commercial  pasteurization  should  be  carried  on  only  under  the  most 
stringent  supervision. 

Changes  due  to  Superheating  Milk. — A  work  on  the  hygiene  of  infancy 
by  Dr.  Variot  has  just  been  presented  to  the  French  Academy,  The  following 
remarks  were  made  at  the  time  of  presentation  by  Prof.  Gautier: 

As  a  result  of  observations  based  upon  several  thousand  young  infants, 
Variot  asserts  that  the  superheating  of  milk  to  a  temperature  of  108°  to  110°  C. 
(about  230°  F.)  renders  it  more  digestible  than  even  fresh  milk.  The  cow's 
milk  thus  prepared  gives  soft  coagulations,  easily  broken  up  and  readily  lending 
themselves  to  the  action  of  digestion.  Although  its  long  use  presents  certain 
disadvantages,  especially  in  producing  constipation  and  swelling  of  the  ab- 
domen, cows'  milk  thus  sterilized  is  generally  better  suited  to  the  bringing  up 
of  infants  than  crude  milk  corresponding  thereto.  It  is  certain  that  milk  super- 
heated to  this  degree  saves  a  multitude  of  children  unfortunately  deprived  of 
mother's  milk. 

Variot  in  this  statement  takes  no  account  of  the  changes  in  the  constitution 
of  a  milk  due  to  heating  and  their  possible  effect  on  infant  nutrition. 


CONTROL  OF  THE  MILK  SUPPLY. 
Sources  of  Pure  Milk  for  Infants. — There  are  two  or  three  points  that 
are  of  prime  importance  in  the  selection  of  a  dairy  for  producing  milk  for  in- 
fant feeding.    In  the  first  place,  it  must  be  located  in  a  country  that  produces 
dairy  cows  of  high  grade  and  efficiency.    By  reason  of  natural  advan.tages, 
36 


546  infants'  and  invalids'  foods. 

such  as  the  character  of  the  pasture  and  its  continuity  during  the  grassy  sea- 
son, certain  parts  of  the  United  States  have  been  found  to  be  more  suitable 
for  the  estabhshment  of  dairies  than  others. 

The  same  difference  obtains  in  other  countries,  and  experience .  has  shown 
that  northern  sections  are  more  suitable,  as  a  rule,  for  dairying  than  those 
farther  south;  not  only  is  the  grass  more  abundant,  more  nutritious,  and  more 
persistent,  but  the  cows  are  less  annoyed  by  flies  and  other  insect  pests,  are 
kept  in  better  health,  and  produce  a  higher  grade  of  milk.  Undoubtedly,  the 
region  of  Normandy  is  most  famous  for  the  character  of  the  dairies  and  the 
dairy  supplies  which  are  produced.  The  surroundings  of  the  cow  are  of 
equal  importance,  and  there  must  be  plenty  of  shade  in  the  pasture  and  an 
abundance  of  fresh  water  in  order  that  the  cow  may  produce  a  milk  suitable 
for  infant  feeding.  Not  only  should  the  environment  of  the  cow  be  such  as  has 
been  described,  but  the  animal  itself  must  be  healthy  and  free  from  any  disease, 
especially  tuberculosis.  Frequent  testing  of  the  herds  is  necessary,  in  order 
to  guard  against  this  disease.  The  more  the  cow  lives  in  the  open,  the  less  is 
she  subject  to  tuberculosis.  For  instance,  the  climate  of  Normandy  is  so 
mild  that  the  cows  are  not  even  stabled  for  milking.  Experience  has  shown 
that  high  breeding,  which  means  indoor  breeding,  usually  renders  an  animal 
more  subject  to  tuberculosis  than  an  ordinary  one  would  be.  For  instance. 
the  high-bred  Jersey  is  much  more  prone  to  tuberculosis  than  the  native 
cows  of  the  mountains  or  woodlands.  For  this  reason  a  grade  cow  or  any  or- 
dinary cow  might  be  better  suited  for  the  production  of  milk  for  infant  feeding 
than  a  higher  grade  Jersey  or  other  breed.  When  possible,  the  milk  for  in- 
fants should  be  that  of  a  herd  rather  than  of  a  single  cow.  The  principal 
point,  however,  is  to  secure  first  of  all  cows  free  from  disease,  and  then  to 
keep  them  in  such  ideal  quarters  as  to  make  infection  practically  impossible. 

Control  of  Milk  Supply  for  Large  Cities. — It  is  easy,  as  may  be  seen,  to 
secure  proper  control  of  a  milk  supply  for  a  farm  or  for  a  small  village  in  the 
country,  but  when  great  units  are  considered,  such  as  London,  Paris,  Berlin, 
or  New  York,  the  problem  becomes  extremely  difficult.  The  keeping  of 
cows  within  a  city  should  certainly  be  prohibited  by  law.  It  has  been  said 
that  in  some  congested  quarters  of  New  York  city  cows  have  been  found  even 
on  the  third  and  fourth  floors  of  tenement-houses;  these  animals  never  see 
the  sunlight  or  get  a  breath  of  fresh  air  from  year  to  year.  Whether  this  is 
an  actual  condition  or  not,  it  illustrates  the  extreme  of  what  should  not  happen. 
The  cow  without  a  pasture  is  not  a  suitable  animal  to  furnish  milk  for  an  infant, 
no  matter  where  she  may  be  found. 

The  very  fondness  of  the  farmer  for  his  stock  sometimes  leads  to  injury. 
Stables  which  are  so  constructed  as  to  exclude  the  air  and  thus  remain  very 
warm  during  the  winter  are  not  as  apt  to  result  in  healthy  milk  as  the  one 
which  by  means  of  numerous  cracks  or  vents  permits  the  free  passage  of  air, 


CERTIFIED    MILK.  547 

cold  as  it  may  be.  Stables,  therefore,  should  he  constructed  with  as  perfect 
ventilation  as  can  be  secured,  even  if  some  slight  discomfort  should  arise  there- 
from for  the  animal  herself.  A  cow  will  naturally  endure  great  extremes  of  tem- 
perature if  she  has  not  been  inured  to  luxury  by  protection  during  her  growth. 

Certified  Milk. — The  ideal  milk  for  use  of  infants  in  large  cities  is,  undoubt- 
edly, the  certified  milk.  Adults  may  drink  milk  of  a  quality  which  would  be 
almost  fatal  to  an  infant  and  suffer  therefrom  no  appreciable  harm.  I  do  not 
mean  to  convey  the  idea  that  adults  are  not  entitled  to  pure  milk,  but  the  point 
which  is  to  be  accentuated  is  that  impure  milk  may  not  harm  an  adult  seriously 
and  yet  may  kill  an  infant.  If  the  quantity  of  certified  milk,  therefore,  is  to 
be  restricted,  that  which  can  be  obtained  should  be  devoted  to  infant  feeding. 
The  municipal  authorities  might  well  take  action  along  these  lines,  requiring 
infants  to  be  fed  only  with  certified  milk  in  all  quarters  of  the  city.  As  this 
would  bear  heavily  on  the  poor,  it  would  be  a  wise  expenditure  of  the  public 
funds  to  provide  the  difference  in  price  between  the  low-grade  milk  which 
the  poor  person  otherwise  would  secure  and  the  high-grade  milk  which  the-  law 
requires  him  to  use.  In  other  words,  if  a  poor  man  can  get  milk  of  a  low  grade 
for  six  cents  a  quart,  municipaUties  should  see  to  it  that  when  infants  are  in 
the  family  a  sufficient  quantity  of  certified  milk  should  be  provided,  although 
the  price  to  be  paid  by  the  poor  family  might  not  be  greater  than  the  six  cents, 
the  difference  being  made  up  from  the  municipal  treasury.  Thus  there  would 
be  no  direct  giving  of  pure  milk  to  the  poor  man's  child,  as  he  would  still  be 
required  to  pay  the  same  amount  which  he  was  paying  for  the  dangerous  milk. 
Many  cities  have  undertaken,  through  pubHc-spirited  men  and  associations 
to  supply  milk  of  this  character.  Notable  among  these  is  the  New  York  Milk 
Committee,  organized  for  the  purpose  of  securing,  if  possible,  pure  milk  for 
the  poor  children  cf  New  York. 

Inadequacy  0)  Certified  Milk. — According  to  some  authorities  the  idea  that 
all  the  ills  due  to  imperfect  milk  may  be  remedied  by  a  proper  supervision  of 
stables  and  dairies  is  net  wholly  warranted.  Unhappily  perfect  control  is 
not  often  obtained,  and  the  chief  objection  to  certified  milk  comes  frcm  the 
indifference  of  the  producers.  If  the  milk  is  in  charge  of  a  person  enthusiasti- 
cally devoted  to  the  production  of  pure  milk,  and  who  has  ample  means  to 
carry  out  his  ideas,  little  is  to  be  feared.  If,  however,  certified  milk  is  furnished 
without  adequate  hygienic  control  many  cf  the  precautions  which  are  neces- 
sary may  be  omitted  and  injury  done  before  the  fault  is  discovered.  Some 
authorities  even  advise  the  pasteurizing  of  certified  miik,  but  in  this  case  they 
do  not  take  into  consideration  the  objections  which  have  been  raised  to  such 
pasteurization.  According  to  some  authorities  it  tends  to  derange  nutrition, 
especially  of  the  bones.  Among  those  who  have  opposed  pasteurization  may 
be  mentioned  the  lUinois  State  Board  of  Health,  which  has  pointed  out  the 
danger  of  the  development  of  rickets  in  infants  fed  on  such  milk. 


548 


infants'  and  invalids'  foods. 


Influence  of  Pure  Milk  on  the  Death-rate. — Every  one  has  recognized 
the  fact  that  pure  milk,  for  infants  especially,  would  diminish  the  death-rate, 
especially  during  the  summer  months,  to  a  very  perceptible  extent.  This 
reduction  has  been  practically  worked  out  by  Dr.  Goler,  of  Rochester,  who 
has  for  years  been  interested  in  the  milk  supply  of  that  city.  An  illustration  of 
the  efifect  produced  by  careful  control  of  the  milk  supply  is  furnished  in  tabular 
form  by  Dr.  Goler,  in  an  article  printed  in  the  ''Maryland  Medical  Journal" 
in  January,  1906.  The  death-rates  in  July  and  August  in  Rochester  are  com- 
pared for  a  period  of  twenty  years.  The  comparison  is  made  for  nine-year 
periods,  namely,  from  1888  to  1896  and  from  1897  ^^  ^9^Si  inclusive. 


July  Deaths. 

August  Deaths. 

Under  i  year. 

I  to  5  years. 

Under  i  year. 

I  to  s  years. 

1888, 

90 
81 

lOI 

99 

82 

92 

108 

28 
18 
18 

li 

16 
12 
16 
18 

118 
83 
94 
93 

104 

85 
72 

56 

59 

25 
24 
18 

1880 

^„  ^' 

1800 

I80I 

17 

34 
19 
29 
II 

i8q2 

i8q^, 

1804 

i8q<;, 

1896, 

17 

Totals, 

874 

167 

764 

194 

General  total, 

lO/lT 

QCR 

J- 

1897, 

1898, 

1899, 

1900, 

I90I, 

1902, 

1903. 

1904, 

i905> 

Totals,. 

General  total 


July  Deaths. 


Under  i  year. 


43 
47 
51 
50 

37 
26 

32 
15 
53 


354 


I  to  5  years. 


475 


7 
II 

33 
16 
12 

5 

16 
II 
10 


August  Deaths. 


Under  i  year. 


44 
47 
44 
54 
38 
43 
34 
43 
60 


407 


to  5  years. 


527 


13 
10 
18 

14 
8 

20 

18 
6 

13 


Total  deaths  under  five  years,  July  and  August,  first  period,  nine  years,  without 

municipal  milk  stations, 1999 

Total  deaths  under  five  years,  July  and  August,  second  period,  nine  years,  with 

municipal  milk  stations 1002 


CARE    OF    FOOD.  549 

Conclusions. — No  more  striking  evidence  of  the  effect  of  the  control  of  the 
food  supply  on  infant  mortahty  could  possibly  be  given  than  these  figures. 
While  it  is  more  than  probable  that  a  part  of  the  conservation  of  the  infant  life 
is  due  to  general  improvements  in  medicine  and  sanitation,  and  not  all  to  the 
milk  supply,  yet  I  think  no  one  would  deny  that  the  latter  is  the  dominant  fac- 
tor in  diminishing  the  death-rate.  When  one  considers  for  a  moment  that  the 
death-rate  of  children  under  the  age  of  five  years  has  been  diminished  by 
nearly  one-half  in  the  city  of  Rochester  alone,  under  the  influence  of  sanitary 
food,  sanitary  surroundings,  and  progressive  medicine,  it  is  plain  that  it  is 
almost  criminal  on  the  part  of  the  rulers  of  large  cities  to  permit  the  old  sys- 
tem of  child  slaughter  to  go  on.  It  may  be  thought  that  the  death  of  an  in- 
fant before  it  has  any  economic  value  is  of  small  importance.  This  may  be  a 
consoling  doctrine  when  the  case  is  looked  at  solely  from  the  point  of  utility, 
and  yet  even  from  this  point  the  argument  is  faulty.  It  is  true  that  a  child 
under  five  years  of  age  has  no  economic  value,  but  there  is  an  expenditure  of  an 
economic  character  in  bearing  and  caring  for  children  under  five  years  of  age. 
The  whole  amount  so  invested  is  lost  by  the  death  of  the  child.  But  when 
we  consider  the  higher  motives  and  the  importance  of  saving  the  child  to  the 
family,  the  sorrow  of  the  parents,  and  the  general  depressing  effect  of  disease 
and  death,  there  is  no  excuse  left  for  the  authorities  of  municipalities  who 
still  permit  the  old  death-rate  to  continue. 

Under  the  influence  of  progressive  medicine  and  the  advance  of  science, 
nearly  all  communities  have  made  great  improvements  in  the  care  of  milk 
for  infant  uses,  and  yet,  perhaps  even  in  Rochester  and  other  cities  as  well 
kept,  still  greater  improvements  might  be  made  and  the  death-rate  still  further 
lowered.  There  is  every  incentive  to  sanitary  scieiice  and  medical  skiU  to 
develop  to  the  utmost  all  the  means  which  man  can  command  to  protect  the 
life  of  the  human  family  in  its  most  tender  years,  for  if  the  infants  can  all  be 
saved,  the  average  length  of  life  of  the  human  race  will  be  immensely  increased, 
even  should  the  grown  man  not  live  longer  than  he  does  today. 


INVALIDS'  FOODS. 

Care  of  Food. — Special  care  should  be  exercised  in  connection  with  the 
keeping  of  infants'  and  invalids'  foods  to  avoid  the  possibility  of  deterioration 
and  infection  after  the  food  has  reached  the  house.  What  is  true  of  sanitary 
precautions  respecting  infants'  and  invalids'  foods  applies  with  equal  force 
to  foods  of  all  kinds. 

Absorption  of  Bad  Odors. — Butter,  cream,  and  milk  especially  should  not 
be  exposed  to  the  odors  of  other  foods,  as  they  absorb  these  odors  and  hold 
them  with  tenacity,  so  that  in  consumption  they  give  rise  to  unpleasant  sen- 
sations of  taste  and  smell. 


550  infants'  and  invalids'  foods. 

Care  oj  the  Ice  Chest. — At  all  times,  but  especially  during  hot  weather, 
the  greatest  care  should  be  exercised  that  the  cooler  or  ice  chest  is  kept  in  a 
sanitary  condition.  In  the  construction  of  a  cooler  of  this  kind  it  is  advisable 
to  have  as  few  sharp  corners  or  other  receptacles  where  impurities  can  congre- 
gate as  possible.  Coolers  made  with  curved  joints  and  of  glass  or  enameled 
materials,  so  as  to  prevent  the  absorption  of  moisture  or  of  objectionable 
organisms,  are  to  be  preferred. 

The  cooler  must  always  be  kept  scrupulously  clean  and  this  can  best  be 
done  by  removing  the  contents  very  frequently  and  thoroughly  washing  and 
sterilizing  the  food  receptacles,  and  in  fact  all  parts  of  the  cooler.  By  scrub- 
bing with  hot  water  and  subsequently  exposing  the  interior  of  the  cooler,  while 
still  moist,  to  the  fumes  of  formaldehyde  or  of  burning  sulphur  complete 
sterilization  and  sweetening  of  the  interior  of  the  cooler  can  be  secured.  Be- 
fore restoring  the  food,  any  fumes  of  sulphur  or  formaldehyde  remaining  should, 
of  course,  be  removed  by  leaving  the  doors  open  for  a  proper  time. 

Protection  from  Dust. — Infants'  and  invalids'  foods,  as  well  as  others,  should 
be  carefully  protected  from  dust,  and  when  not  in  the  cooler  they  should  be 
well  covered.  Glass  covers  are  preferable  for  this  purpose,  and  permit  the 
condition  of  the  food  to  be  readily  ascertained.  Shelves  on  which  these  foods 
are  kept  should  be  perfectly  clean  and  sanitary,  and  sterilized  from  time 
to  time  as  directed  for  the  ice  chest. 

Contamination  by  Domesticated  Animals. — Foods  should  not  be  left  where 
cats,  dogs,  or  other  animals  of  the  house  can  reach  them.  Often  the  family 
dog  and  cat  are  admitted  to  too  intimate  association  both  with  the  members 
of  the  family  and  with  the  food  supplies,  and  precautions  should  be  taken  to 
prevent  any  contamination  from  this  source.  Protection  of  foods  from  rats 
and  mice  might  also  be  mentioned  in  this  connection. 

Danger  from  Flies  and  Mosquitoes. — The  fiy  is  the  house  pest  which  is  most 
carefully  to  be  watched.  If  the  house  is  near  the  stable,  the  plague  of  flies  is 
apt  to  be  greatest,  since  they  breed  most  profusely  in  manure  heaps.  Since 
the  discovery  of  the  activities  of  the  mosquito  in  transmitting  disease,  greater 
attention  has  been  paid  throughout  the  whole  country  to  the  screening  of 
dwellings  in  summer-time,  and  this  screening  of  course  is  more  effective  in 
keeping  out  the  fly  than  the  mosquito.  There  is  no  excuse  for  the  plague  of 
flies  which  prevails  in  many  households.  It  is  better  to  exclude  them  by  screen- 
ing than  to  kill  them,  in  any  manner,  after  they  may  have  gained  an  entry; 
but  if  it  is  difficult  to  drive  all  the  flies  out  of  the  screened  house,  the  use  of 
fly-paper  or  a  fly  poison  of  some  kind  is  advisable  to  destroy  those  that  remain. 
The  fly  is  one  of  the  most  common  sources  of  food  contamination,  and  should 
be  rigidly  excluded  from  the  house,  and  especially  from  the  kitchen.  It  is 
also  believed  to  be  a  carrier  of  typhoid  fever.  The  mosquito  in  some  local- 
ities is  even  a  greater  pest  than  the  house-fly.     The  mosquito  breeds  in  stag- 


TOLERATION   OF    FOODS.  551 

nant  water,  in  swamps  and  ponds,  in  vessels  of  water  kept  about  the  house 
and  barn,  and  even  in  cisterns  and  wells.  If  the  breeding  cannot  be  pre- 
vented, screening  is  the  next  best  remedy.  The  mosquito,  although  an  in- 
tolerable pest,  is  not  so  apti  to  contaminate  the  food  as  the  fly. 

Sanitation  in  the  Kitchen. — The  kitchen  and  the  larder  should  be  kept 
clean  and  free  from  organisms  with  as  much  care  as  the  cooler.  All  utensils 
employed  in  the  preparation  and  transportation  of  infants'  and  invaUds' 
foods  should  be  absolutely  sterile  and  free  from  dirt  and  dust  of  every  kind. 
The  kitchen  which  has  an  odor  of  stale  food  is  not  in  a  Sanitary  condition. 
Ventilation  and  cleanliness  are  the  cardinal  principles  on  which  the  kitchen 
should  be  conducted. 

Classes  of  Invalids*  Foods. — For  convenience  these  foods  may  be  di- 
vided into  three  classes:  First,  foods  which  are  offered  simply  for  building 
up  and  restoring  the  strength  of  the  body,  without  specific  reference  to  any 
particular  disease;  second,  those  which  are  intended  for  use  in  particular 
diseases  where  the  food  has  some  specific  relation  to  the  character  of  the 
disease;  third,  materials,  perhaps  hardly  to  be  classed  as  true  foods,  which 
in  themselves  contain  but  little  nourishment,  but  which  by  means  of  rapidity 
of  absorption  or  of  palatability  are  used  more  as  stimuli  in  cases  of  extreme 
depression  or  inanition. 

Disordered  Nutrition  during  Illness. — Usually  one  of  the  first  symptoms 
of  illness  is  disordered  nutrition.  Loss  of  appetite  is  a  symptom  of  almost 
every  disease,  and  disordered  digestion  attends  many  of  the  ailments  to  which 
humanity  is  heir,  other  than  those  connected  directly  with  digestion.  In  the 
treatment  of  many  diseases,  especially  those  of  a  chronic  character,  the  prob- 
lem of  nutrition  is  one  of  the  most  important  with  which  the  physician  has  to 
deal.  All  physicians  admit  that  medicine  and  physical  or  electrical  treatments 
do  not  cure.  The  surgeon's  knife  simply  amputates  and  removes  the  diseased 
part,  but  nature  must  restore  the  tissues  and  reestabhsh  normal  conditions. 
When  a  disordered  system  is  restored  to  health,  it  is  due  to  natural  causes,  but 
these  can  be.  aided,  promoted,  and  stimulated  by  legitimate  remedies,  electrical 
treatment,  and  proper  nutrition.  Hence,  food  is  as  much  a  part  of  materia 
medica  as  any  drug. 

Toleration  of  Food. — There  is  the  widest  divergence  among  the  sick 
in  their  toleration  of  food.  In  some  diseases,  especially  tuberculosis,  there 
may  be  but  little  difficulty  in  tolerating  the  ordinary  foods.  In  ether  cases, 
especially  acute  diseases  of  the  digestive  organs,  certain  ordinary  forms  of 
food  which  the  patient  relished  when  well  become  extremely  objectionable 
to  him  in  ill  health.  The  ingestion  of  these  foods  then  produces  nausea  and 
vomiting  to  such  an  extent  that  scarcely  any  nourishment  can  be  retained  in 
the  stomach.  In  such  cases  it  is  the  duty  of  the  physician  to  endeavor  by  every 
known  means  to  discover  what  the  patient  can  tolerate.     The  patient's  own 


552  INTANTS'   AND   INVALIDS'   FOODS. 

taste  in  this  matter  sometimes  leads  to  a  proper  selection  of  the  food,  but  this 
cannot  always  be  trusted. 

Danger  of  Overfeeding. — In  most  cases  care  must  be  taken  in  the  nutri- 
tion of  invalids  to  avoid  overfeeding.  In  some  instances,  however,  it  is  claimed 
by  leading  physicians  that  overfeeding  is  advisable.  This  is  especially  true 
in  a  disease  like  tuberculosis.  In  diseases  which  are  accompanied  by  fever 
the  waste  of  the  body  is  always  abnormally  rapid.  In  fact,  fever  is  only  the 
result  of  accelerated  consumption  of  tissue;  in  other  words,  ener*gized  katabo- 
lism.  Usually  the  high  temperature  is  secured  at  the  expense  of  the  tissues  of 
the  body  and  not  of  the  ingested  food.  This  explains  the  rapid  wasting  away 
in  all  diseases  accompanied  with  a  high  fever.  To  check  this  waste  it  is  neces- 
sary to  stop  the  disease,  and  to  regain  health  the  lost  tissues  must  be  restored. 
The  object  of  feeding,  therefore,  in  the  case  of  sickness  is  twofold:  First,  to 
supply  the  body  with  as  much  nourishment  as  possible  to  assist  in  checking 
the  progress  of  the  disease  by  sparing  the  body  tissues,  and,  second,  to  rebuild 
the  tissues  which  have  been  torn  down  by  the  ravages  of  the  disease.  There 
is,  however,  a  danger  to  be  avoided  in  the  case  of  an  insatiable  appetite  follow- 
ing heavy  destruction  of  the  body  tissues  as  in  typhoid  fever.  Rupture  of  the 
intestinal  walls  and  other  troubles  may  ensue  if  the  diet  be  too  heavy  or  not 
fully  cooked. 

Ordinary  or  Natural  Foods. — It  is  evident  that  in  the  case  of  invalids' 
foods  the  materials  to  be  used  are  those  ordinarily  employed,  and  it  is  only  nec- 
essary to  modify  them  in  their  preparation  and  the  relative  proportions  and 
quantities  in  which  they  are  used.  Selection  also  should  be  made  of  such  foods 
as  are  easily  digestible,  and  this  leads  to  the  first  of  the  more  important  con- 
siderations, namely,  the  administration  of  liquid  nourishment.  Milk,  of 
course,  is  most  frequently  used  in  such  cases,  but  the  preparation  of  other 
foods,  so  as  to  bring  their  soluble  constituents  into  a  form  suitable  for  consump- 
tion, is  highly  important.  In  each  case  great  care  must  be  exercised  in  ad- 
ministering these  preparations  in  small  and  often  repeated  quantities,  in  order 
to  guard  against  injury.  It  is  usually  advisable  to  administer  the  juice  of 
fruits  instead  of  the  fruits  themselves.  Great  benefit  frequently  results  from 
the  use  of  the  juice  of  apples,  grapes,  or  other  fruits.  When  sohd  food  is  ad- 
ministered, it  should  be  in  small  quantities  and  in  a  proper  state  of  sub- 
division, produced  mechanically  or  by  cooking,  which  renders  it  easily  suscepti- 
ble to  the  action  of  the  digestive  ferments.  Soft-boiled  eggs  are  very  useful 
in  many  cases  of  this  kind,  and  sour  milk,  either  buttermilk  or  fermented 
milk,  known  as  koumiss,  is  frequently  of  great  aid,  being  more  readily  tolerated, 
as  a  rule,  than  sweet  milk  or  cream. 

While  the  partial  or  wholly  digested  foods  are  of  value  in  sustaining  life  and 
bridging  over  brief  periods  of  illness,  they  should  not  be  given  to  a  patient  any 
longer  than  necessary,  as  the  healthy  organism  is  better  nourished  by  a  food 


FOODS  AS  A  CAUSE  OF  DISEASE.  553 

in  its  natural  undigested  state  than  by  a  digested  food.  Further,  it  is  well  to 
give  invalids  a  food  that  has  been  digested  by  natural  means,  that  is  by  enzyms, 
rather  than  one  in  which  the  cleavage  was  brought  about  by  artificial  means, 
the  latter  appearing  to  differ  somewhat  in  character  from  the  former  and  the 
results  to  be  less  beneficial. 

It  is  also  important  to  select  foods  for  invalids  and  infants  which  have  a 
neutral  or  alkaline  ash,  as  foods  with  an  ash  possessing  an  acid  reaction  are  a 
constant  source  of  drain  on  the  available  alkali  of  the  body,  leading  to  an  excre- 
tion of  sodium,  potash,  and  ammonia  and  perhaps  other' available  free  alkali 
in  combination  with  the  acid  elements  of  the  ash.  The  ill  effects  of  feeding 
corn  and  other  foods  with  an  acid  ash  has  been  demonstrated  in  the  case  of 
animals  by  several  investigators. 

Foods  as  a  Cause  of  Disease. — That  some  foods  are  the  direct  cause  of 
certain  diseases,  as  well  as  predisposing  causes  in  hundreds  of  other  instances, 
is  a  well  known  fact.  One  of  the  most  familiar  illustrations  of  this  fact  is  the 
case  of  scurvy,  a  disease  which  is  due  principally  to  the  continued  and  exclu- 
sive use  of  cured  foods,  especially  meats.  The  disease  is  removed  only  when 
the  cause  of  its  production  ceases  to  exist,  and  fresh  vegetables  and  fruits, 
particularly  oranges,  lemons,  and  grape  fruit,  form  at  least  a  part  of  the  dietary. 

Another  mysterious  disease  which  has  long  puzzled  medical  men  is  beri- 
beri, which  occurs  principally  in  rice-eating  countries.  Extensive  investiga- 
tions made  as  to  the  cause  of  this  disease  have  indicated  that  it  was  seen  in  its 
greatest  virulence  among  soldiers,  and  especially  sailors,  confined  almost  ex- 
clusively to  a  diet  of  rice.  In  other  words,  beri-beri  holds  the  same  relation 
apparently  to  rice  as  scurvy  holds  to  cured  meats.  One  of  the  most  interesting 
of  the  modern  developments,  however,  in  the  case  of  beri-beri  is  seen  in  the 
fact  that  it  is  now  beheved  to  be  caused  but  rarely  by  natural  rice,  but  rather 
by  rice  which  has  been  polished.  Polishing  rice  is  a  process  whereby  its  outer 
coat  is  largely  removed,  and  together  with  it  the  layer  of  phosphate  cells 
found  immediately  beneath  the  external  covering.  Japan  has  succeeded  in 
stamping  out  beri-beri  from  her  navy  by  an  improved  dietary,  while  in  Java 
the  Dutch  physicians  have  reported  that  a  mixture  of  other  foods  with  rice 
has  vastly  reduced  the  prevalence  of  this  disease.  Further  than  this,  the  Dutch 
physicians  have  found  that  when  rice  was  eaten  unhuUed,  namely,  unpolished, 
the  proportion  of  cases  among  the  soldiers  was  only  one  in  ten  thousand,  while, 
on  the  other  hand,  if  the  outer  covering  was  entirely  removed  the  proportion 
was  one  to  thirty-nine.  It  is  evident  from  this  that  one  method  of  preventing 
the  introduction  of  beri-beri  into  this  country,  where  the  consumption  of  rice 
is  largely  increasing,  would  be  to  forbid  the  importation  of  rice  which  had 
been  polished  or  treated  in  this  or  a  similar  manner,  and  to  forbid  inter- 
state commerce  in  such  rice  as  having  undergone  a  treatment  which  may 
render  it  injurious  to  health. 


554  INFANTS'   AND   INVALIDS'   FOODS. 

The  following  resolution  was  passed  by  the  Biennial  Congress  of  the  Far 
Eastern  Association  of  Tropical  Medicine,  held  at  Manila,  March  5  to  14, 
1910: 

Resolved,  That  in  the  opinion  of  this  association  sufficient  evidence  has 
now  been  produced  in  support  of  the  vi^w  that  beri-beri  is  associated  with  the 
continuous  consumption  of  white  (polished)  rice  as  the  staple  article  of  diet, 
and  the  association  accordingly  desires  to  bring  this  matter  to  the  notice  of  the 
various  Governments  concerned. 

Sour  Milk  -and  Longevity. — Many  and  extravagant  claims  have  been 
made  respecting  the  virtues  of  sour  milk  in  the  prolonging  of  life.  It  is  claimed 
that  the  ferments  which  produce  the  acidity  of  milk  are  not  only  harmless  in 
themselves,  but  are  highly  mihtant  and  eager  to  undertake  a  campaign  of  ex- 
termination against  the  pathogenic  bacteria  of  the  intestines.  That  sour  milk 
is  wholesome  and  palatable  there  is  no  manner  of  doubt.  It  is  an  item  of 
nutrition  of  considerable  importance,  especially  on  the  farm  where  the  old- 
fashioned  method  of  making  butter  still  prevails. 

Misleading  conclusions  have  been  drawn  from  the  studies  of  many  investiga- 
tors, especially  of  Metchnikoff,  respecting  the  virtues  of  sour  milk,  and  the 
most  extravagant  claims  are  made  respecting  its  abiHty  to  prolong  life.  Even 
if  this  faculty  of  sour  milk  were  apparent,  it  is  entirely  too  soon  after  its  dis- 
covery and  promulgation  to  base  any  experimental  conclusions  upon  it.  It 
requires,  of  course,  more  than  eighty  years  to  determine  whether  or  not  sour  milk 
will  prolong  life.  The  fact  that  people  who  consume  sour  milk  live  to  a  ripe 
old  age  is  of  no  consequence,  since  a  great  many  who  do  not  drink  it  do  the 
same.  The  only  valuable  experimental  evidence  would  be  to  begin  with  a  cokrfty 
of  infants,  nourished  in  the  ordinary  way,  both  during  -infancy  and  when 
grown,  and  another  colony  of  a  similar  number,  nourished  in  the  usual  way 
and  afterward  fed  constantly  and  largely  on  a  sour  milk  diet.  The  determina- 
tion of  the  respective  lengths  of  life  of  the  two  groups,  not  of  individuals  thereof, 
might  finally  be  considered  as  a  demonstration  of  the  value  or  lack  of  value 
of  a  sour  milk  diet  to  prolong  life.  But  whatever  the  real  merits  of  the  case 
may  be,  there  is  no  doubt  of  the  great  interest  in  the  matter  at  the  present 
time. 

Some  of  the  sour  milks  which  have  been  long  known  have  already  been 
spoken  of,  such  as  koumiss  and  kephir,  and  there  are  many  others.  These 
terms  are  usually  the  names  of  sour  milk  in  the  several  countries  in  which  they 
have  been  largely  used.  Lately  there  has  been  discovered  an  organism, 
Bacillus  Bulgaricus,  which  is  said  to  have  peculiarly  developed  the  properties 
of  souring  milk.  It  is  claimed  also  that  the  Bulgarian  bacillus,  so  called,  does 
not  produce  alcohol,  nor  any  other  injurious  substances  which  too  often  attend 
ordinary  yeast  and  bacterial  fermentation.     Further,  it  is  claimed  that  this 


SOUR    MILK    AND   LONGEVITY.  555 

bacillus  has  no  action  upon  the  albuminoids  of  the  milk  nor  on  the  fats.  If  all 
of  these  assumptions  are  true,  then  it  is  certain  that  the  Bacillus  Bulgaricus 
will  prove  one  of  the  most  useful  agents  for  souring  milk  yet  discovered, 
especially  if  it  can  be  accHmated  to  the  digestive  tract.  In  this  case  it  might 
prove  of  great  benefit  in  the  way  of  arresting  pernicious  fermentations  and  put- 
refractions.  In  point  of  fact,  all  kinds  of  bacterial  flora  flourish  in  milk,  and 
it  is  rather  difficult  to  cultivate  one  at  the  expense  of  the  others  unless  it  be 
one  of  such  a  vigorous  life  as  to  practically  preclude  the  growth  of  other  less 
fortunately  endowed  organisms. 

Preparations  of  this  bacillus  are  now  offered,  with  the  assurance  of  the  purity 
of  V  the  cultures  and  the  activity  of  the  ferments.  The  Bacillus  Bulgaricus  is 
said  to  produce  lactic  acid,  not  only  from  milk  sugar,  but  also  from  ordinary 
sugars,  such  as  cane  sugar,  maltose,  levulose,  and  dextrose.  For  this  reason 
the  cultures  of  the  bacillus  can  be  made  not  only  in  milk,  but  in  vegetable 
broths  or  other  preparations  which  contain  sugars  on  which  they  can  act. 

Already  many  certificates  are  found  in  the  public  press  and  in  advertising 
literature  of  the  virtues  of  sour  milk  specially  prepared  by  some  particular 
process  like  that  described  for  preparation  of  the  Bacillus  Bulgaricus.  Nat- 
urally, as  in  other  cases  of  the  same  kind,  these  certificates  must  be  considered 
cum  grano  salis.  For  instance,  in  Bulgaria,  where  this  bacillus  flourishes  and 
where  sour  milk  is  used  in  large  quantities,  it  is  stated  in  some  of  this  adver- 
tising literature  that  centenarians  are  extremely  common,  some  of  whom  are 
said  to  have  lived  chiefly  on  a  milk  diet.  An  example  of  one  case,  Marie 
Prion,  who  died  in  1838  at  the  age  of  one  hundred  and  fifty-eight  years,  shows 
that  she  lived  for  the  last  ten  years  of  her  life  entirely  on  cheese  and  goat's 
milk.  This,  however,  would  not  prove  much,  as  it  appears  she  lived  for  one 
hundred  and  forty-eight  years  on  an  ordinary  diet  and  thus  had  already  es- 
tabhshed  a  reputation  for  longevity.  It  is  doubtless  true  that  many  people  who 
have  lived  to  extreme  old  age  have  used  milk  largely  as  a  diet,  and  sour  milk 
at  that.  On  the  other  hand,  it  is  perfectly  certain  that  many  other  people  who 
have  used  milk  and  sour  milk  chiefly  as  a  diet  have  died  early  in  Hfe. 

One  of  the  most  interesting  of  these  surprising  statements  is  the  following: 

In  the  village  of  Sba,  in  the  district  of  Gori,  there  is  an  old  Ossete  woman, 
Thense  Abalva,  whose  age  is  supposed  to  be  about  one  hundred  and  eighty 
years.  This  woman  is  still  quite  capable  and  looks  after  her  household  duties 
and  sews.  Although  she  is  bent,  she  walks  firmly  enough.  Thense  has  never 
taken  alcohohc  liquors.  She  rises  early  in  the  morning,  and  her  chief  food  is 
barley  bread  and  buttermilk,  taken  after  the  churning  of  the  cream. 

There  are  perhaps  other  factors  besides  the  buttermilk  which  have  contrib- 
uted to  the  extreme  age  of  this  old  woman;  her  abstinence  from  alcoholic 
beverages  and  the  use  of  barley  bread  ought  not  to  be  left  out  of  consideration. 


556  infants'  and  invalids'  foods. 

Another  one  of  these  instances  of  long  life  due  to  sour  milk  reads  much 
like  the  advertisement  of  a  certain  whiskey.  It  is  as  follows:  "Mrs. 
Jenny  Read,  an  American,  has  written  to  me  that  her  father,  eighty-four 
years  old,  owes  his  health  to  the  curdled  milk  which  he  has  taken  for  the 
last  forty  years." 

These  instances  are  taken  from  the  works  of  Metchnikoff  and  hence  have 
received  much  greater  vogue  than  they  otherwise  would  have  done.  This 
authority,  however,  realizes  that  a  great  many  other  factors  besides  sour  milk 
tend  to  promote  health  and  prolong  life.    He  says: 

If  it  be  true  that  our  precocious  and  unhappy  old  age  is  due  to  poisoning  of 
the  tissues  (the  greater  part  of  the  poisoning  coming  from  the  large  intestine, 
inhabited  by  numberless  microbes),  it  is  clear  that  agents  which  arrest  in- 
testinal putrefaction  must  at  the  same  time  postpone  and  ameliorate  old  age. 
This  theoretical  view  is  confirmed  by  the  collection  of  facts  regarding  races 
which  live  chiefly  on  sour  milk,  and  amongst  which  great  ages  are  common. 
However,  in  a  question  so  important,  the  theory  must  be  tested  by  direct  ob- 
servations. For  this  purpose  the  numerous  infirmaries  for  old  people  should 
be  taken  advantage  of,  and  systematic  investigations  should  be  made  on  the 
relation  of  intestinal  microbes  to  precocious  old  age,  and  on  the  influence,  of 
diets  which  prevent  intestinal  putrefaction  in  prolonging  life  and  maintaining 
the  forces  of  the  body.  It  can  only  be  in  the  future,  near  or  remote,  that  we 
shall  obtain  exact  information  upon  what  is  one  of  the  chief  problems  of  hu- 
manity. 

In  the  meantime,  those  who  wish  to  preserve  their  intelligence  as  long  as 
possible  and  to  make  their  cycle  of  life  as  complete  and  as  normal  as  is  possible 
under  present  conditions,  must  depend  on  general  sobriety  and  on  habits 
conforming  to  the  rules  of  rational  hygiene. 

From  the  above  it  will  be  seen  that  after  all  Metchnikoff  is  not  yet  willing 
to  say  that  the  consumption  of  sour  milk  is  the  sole  or  even  the  chief  factor  in 
the  prolongation  of  life. 

Advertising  Claims. — It  is  unfortunate  that  scheming  manufacturers  have 
taken  advantage  of  this  possibility  without  waiting  for  any  convincing  dem- 
onstration and  are  offering  to  the  public  what  are  said  to  be  pure  cultures  of 
the  Bacillus  Bulgaricus,  with  lists  of  diseases  in  which  its  use  is  efficacious. 
'For  instance,  the  following  diseases,  among  others,  are  said  to  yield  to  the 
treatment  of  this  bacillus:  Eczema  and  all  diseases  of  the  skin,  diarrhea, 
dyspepsia,  dysentery,  typhoid  fever,  sick  headaches,  all  complaints  of  the 
liver,  malaria  in  all  of  its  forms,  diabetes,  Bright's  disease  and  other  diseases 
of  the  kidneys,  rheumatism,  gout,  sclerosis,  atheroma,  senihty,  all  diseases 
due  to  uric  acid,  all  kinds  of  gastro-intestinal  disturbances.  All  statements 
similar  to  those  above  can  only  serve  to  bring  the  whole  subject  of  the  use 
of  sour  milk  into  deserved  contempt. 

As  the  pure  culture  of  the  bacillus  is  not  at  all  pleasant  to  the  taste,  it  is 


PRESERVATIVES    IN    FRUIT    JUICES.  557 

recommended  that  it  be  administered  by  masking  it  with  sterihzed  water, 
carbonated  or  plain,  a  httle  sugar,  or  any  saccharine  or  other  sirup,  with  some 
powdered  cinnamon,  or  crumbs  of  dry  black  bread,  guch  as  pumpernickle; 
in  other  words,  some  vehicle  to  mask  its  acidity  and  unpleasant  taste. 

Summary. — It  would  be  quite  out  of  place  in  a  work  of  this  kind  to  either 
recommend  any  proprietary  food  or  specialty,  or  to  say  anything  derogatory 
thereto,  and  therefore  I  am  considering  only  the  general  principle  and  not  any 
particular  preparation.  The  summary  of  the  present  condition  of  the  sour 
milk  agitation,  it  seems  to  me,  is  this.  Sour  milk  has  from"  immemorial  times 
been  used  and  appreciated  by  man.  It  is,  doubtless,  a  wholesome,  palatable, 
and  nutritious  form  of  milk  diet.  Sour  milk  can  even  be  tolerated  when  sweet 
milk  is  extremely  nauseating  and  objectionable  and  in  such  cases  of  deranged 
nutrition  its  administration  is  highly  advisable.  That  it  acts  in  any  specific 
w^ay  in  protecting  the  body  against  the  dangers  of  intestinal  putrefaction  re- 
mains to  be  proved.  It  may  do  so  in  a  general  way,  as  does  any  good  food 
which  is  palatable  and  easily  digested.  To  this  extent  its  utility  cannot  be 
denied.  That  it  will  have  any  general  specific  effect  in  prolonging  human  life 
is  a  matter  which  is  wholly  speculative.  It  may  be  said  that  care  in  the  selec- 
tion of  foods,  so  that  they  may  be  all  of  the  best  and  purest  and  freshest,  will 
doubtless  tend  to  prolong  life.  Milk  is  one  of  the  most  important  of  human 
foods,  and  hence  its  presentation  in  the  most  palatable  and  digestible  manner  is 
of  the  highest  consequence,  and  when  so  presented,  it  will,  doubtless,  tend  to 
prolong  life.  It  is,  however,  entirely  beyond  the  scope  of  our  present  knowledge 
to  affirm  that  sour  milk,  as  such,  is  a  protection  against  premature  death. 

Preservatives  in  Fruit  Juices. — As  fruit  juices  are  used  quite  exten- 
sively, especially  grape  juice,  for  invalids,  the  following  statement  made  in  the 
''Zeitschrift  fiir  offentliche  Chemie,"  February  15,  1910,  in  regard  to  the  action 
taken  in  Saxony  forbidding  the  use  of  preservatives  in  such  products  is  of 
interest : 

From  the  point  of  view  of  the  nutrition  of  the  people  and  the  control  of  food 
products,  weighty  suspicions  are  aroused  against  the  use  of  preserving  ma- 
terials in  the  food  industry,  with  the  exception  of  alcohol,  as  recommended  by 
the  Chamber  of  Commerce  of  Dresden  on  the  third  of  September,  1909;  even 
if  the  use  is  restricted,  as  suggested  by  the  Chamber  of  Coftimerce,  important 
objections  are  raised  to  this  practice.  Science  does  not  possess  sufficient  exper- 
ience and  experimental  data  on  a  single  substance  to  be  able  to  state  definitely 
the  amount  per  hundredweight  which  would  be  non-injurious  and  therefore 
allowable.  Further,  after  allowing  a  designated  preservative  to  be  added  to 
fruit  juices,  the  same  would  have  to  be  allowed  for  all  foods  on  the  market. 
The  result  would  be  a  flooding  of  the  markets  with  all  sorts  of  preparations 
which  had  been  preserved  in  like  manner  as  the  fruit  juices,  for  instance, 
milk,  beer,  butter,  and  preserves  of  all  kinds.  A  public  statement  as  to  the 
non-injuriousness  of  x  milHgrams  of  salicylic  acid  or  boric  acid  in  fruit  juices 
would  therefore  entail  the  general  use  of  these  bodies  in  foods  and  condiments. 


558  infants'  and  invalids'  foods. 

This,  however,  would  be  lamentable  from  the  standpoint  of  the  interests  of 
human  health,  and  also  from  the  standpoint  of  honest  trade.  Further,  there 
would  be  an  encroachment  on  the  food  control,  as  has  been  suggested  by  the 
Chamber  of  Commerce,  which  would  not  be  reconcilable  with  the  imperial 
prohibition  of  the  addition  of  salicylic  acid,  boric  acid,  benzoic  acid,  and  formic 
acid  to  wine,  or  even  to  drinks  containing  wine,  and  of  salicylic  acid  and  its 
compounds  to  meats.  The  Minister  of  the  Interior,  therefore,  does  not  find 
himself  in  position  to  take  a  step  which  would  permit  the  introduction  cf  the 
above-mentioned  preserving  substances  into  the  food  industry,  all  the  less  so 
because  to  the  makers  of  the  fresh  fruit  juices  there  is  a  choice  between  pas- 
teurization and  the  addition  of  alcohol,  processes  which  up  to  the  present  time 
have  been  demonstrated  as  useful  in  the  preservation  of  these  foods.  The 
fear  that  the  high  price  of  alcohol  would  make  its  use  in  the  manufacture  of 
fruit  juices  impossible  in  the  future,  the  Minister  of  the  Interior,  in  view  of  the 
price  of  the  production  of  the  spirit,  cannot  share. 


FOODS  USED  AS  DRUGS. 

Medicinal  Foods. — There  is  a  large  class  of  foods  which  are  intended  for 
the  use  of  infants  and  invalids,  which  partake  more  of  the  nature  of  a  medicine 
than  of  a  food,  to  which  the  term  ''medicinal  foods"  is  applied.  Most  of  them 
are  liquid  or  semi-liquid  in  form,  and  some  are  said  to  be  predigested.  They 
are,  therefore,  solutions  which  contain  as  their  essential  constituents  small 
amounts  of  food  substances,  consisting  chiefly  of  protein  and  carbohydrates, 
containing  no,  or  very  little  fat,  and  usually  preserved  from  decay  by  the  use 
of  alcohol  or  glycerol.  The  proteins  have  been  converted  into  soluble  ma- 
terial, that  is,  peptones  or  proteoses,  by  means  of  enzymic  or  chemical  action. 
The  carbohydrate  constituent  of  these  foods  is  either  lactose  or  sucrose  or 
starch  which  has  likewise  been  converted  into  a  soluble  form,  either  by  diastatic 
action  or  by  an  acid.  Sometimes  proteins  may  be  converted  into  soluble  forms 
by  means  of  the  action  of  acids,  alkalies,  or  superheated  steam,  or  all  three 
combined.  These  and  similar  products  are  not,  however,  suitable  for  medicinal 
foods,  that  is,  for  the  nourishment  of  those  whose  digestive  and  assimilative 
powers  have  been  so  weakened  by  reason  of  disease  that  it  is  not  possible  any 
longer  to  nourish  them  with  the  usual  foods.  Foods  that  have  been  rendered 
soluble  by  means  of  chemical  and  physical  means  are  regarded  by  many  phy- 
sicians as  toxic  or  at  least  dangerous  as  nutritive  agents. 

These  foods  have  a  varying  composition,  the  protein  in  them  ranging  frcm 
less  than  0.5  percent  to  more  than  6  percent;  the  carbohydrates  also  range 
from  about  0.5  percent  to  more  than  15  percent,  and  the  alcohol  content  varies 
from  12  to  19  percent  by  weight,  while  the  percentage  by  volume,  of  course, 
would  be  considerably  greater.  As  before  stated,  some  of  these  foods  contain 
large  quantities  of  glycerol,  used  as  the  preserving  agent  instead  of  alcohol. 

The  Value  of  Medicinal  Foods. — The  value  of  rtiedicinal  foods  depends  on 


MEDICINAL    FOODS  559 

the  protein  and  carbohydrate  bodies  contained  therein.  Glycerol  does  not,  so 
far  as  known  at  present,  possess  any  recognized  food  value,  although  there  is  a 
number  of  experiments  on  record  to  indicate  that  it  influences  metabolism. 
The  food  value  of  the  alcohol  contained  in  these  mixtures  is  of  doubtful  nature. 
While  it  is  true  that  in  a  state  of  health  a  man  is  able  to  oxidize  a  considerable 
quantity  of  alcohol,  estimated  by  some  at  as  much  as  three  ounces  of  absolute 
alcohol  per  day,  the  abiHty  to  do  this  in  times  of  extreme  depression  and  weak- 
ness is  doubtful.  The  alcohol,  therefore,  may  act  in  a  toxic  manner  rather 
than  as  a  food.  Hence  it  must  be  admitted  that  the  presence  of  alcohol  in 
such  cases  is  to  be  looked  upon  as  reprehensible,  and  this  too  without  denying 
that  in  a  state  of  health  it  may  have  some  food  value.  In  point  of  fact,  the  use 
of  alcohol  as  a  remedial  agent  is  by  no  means  so  generally  considered  to  be 
effective  as  in  former  times.  There  is  a  large  and  growing  school  of  dieticians, 
including  many  learned  members  of  the  medical  profession,  who  deny  to  alco- 
hol the  therapeutic  value  which  heretofore  has  commonly  been  assigned  to  it. 
If,  therefore,  alcohol  has  neither  therapeutic  value  nor  can  be  assimilated  in 
the  stages  of  depressed  vitality  in  which  medicinal  foods  are  resorted  to,  it 
can  readily  be  seen  that  its  presence  is  an  unmitigated  evil.  In  no  case  can 
alcohol  act  to  build  up  the  tissues,  w^hich  is  the  effect  most  desired  in  cases  of 
pronounced  anemia  and  emaciation.  What  value  the  soluble  protein  ar^d 
soluble  carbohydrate  may  have  in  such  cases  is,  therefore,  likely  to  be  counter- 
balanced by  the  evil  effects  of  the  alcohol  present. 

Studies  of  Council  on  Pharmacy  and  Chemistry. — The  Council  on  Phar- 
macy and  Chemistry  of  the  American  Medical  Association  has  made  a  study 
of  these  foods,  and  has  found  that  some  of  them  possess  less  than  one- 
sixth  the  nutritive  power  of  milk,  while  the  best  of  them  have  a  nourishing 
power  but  httle  greater  than  that  of  milk  itself.  The  Council  has,  therefore, 
decided  that  no  liquid  medicinal,  or  so-called  predigested  food,  should  be  given 
consideration  which  contains  less  nutritive  value,  exclusive  of  alcohol  and  gly- 
cerol, than  milk,  and  that  at  least  one-fourth  of  this  value  must  be  in  its  nitro- 
genous constituents.  It  should  be  remembered  that  to  sustain  the  equilibrium 
of  a  patient  during  a  serious  illness  and  prevent  a  waste  which  threatens  death, 
not  less  than  two  quarts  of  milk,  having  a  food  value  of  1430  calories,  are  re- 
quired per  day;  to  give  a  patient  this  amount  of  nourishment  in  the  form  of 
the  medicinal  foods  alone  would  require  the  exhibition  of  such  a  quantity  of 
liquid  as  would  keep  the  patient  in  a  state  of  continuous  intoxication,  even  if 
it  could  be  tolerated.  If  the  small  doses  which  are  usually  prescribed  are 
given,  the  patient  will  be,  undoubtedly,  on  a  starvation  diet,  and  thus  suffer 
great  injury  when  his  friends  and  even  the  physician  may  think  he  is  being 
nourished.  Plainly,  the  only  use  of  these  foods,  if  they  are  to  be  employed 
at  all,  is  in  connection  with  a  diet  of  milk  or  other  ordinary  food.  The  compo- 
sition of  some  of  these  medicinal  foods  is  given  further  on. 


560  infants'  and  invalids'  foods. 

MEAT  PREPARATIONS. 

Meat  Juices. — The  juices  of  fresh  meats,  prepared  in  the  home,  are  often 
found  to  be  extremely  palatable  and  to  have  some  food  value.  The  supposition 
that  meat  juices  are  highly  nutritious  is  erroneous,  but  they  are  quickly  di- 
gested and  absorbed.  On  account  of  the  tendency  of  meat  juices  to  decompose 
it  is  advisable  in  all  cases,  if  at  all  possible,  to  have  them  prepared  immediately 
before  using  at  the  home.  The  quantity  of  juice  v^hich  may  be  pressed  from 
meat  is  not  very  great,  but  there  are  many  little  presses  on  sale  which  can  be 
utilized  for  this  purpose.  If  cold  pressed  meat  juice  is  not  required,  the  meat 
may  be  warmed  to  a  moderate  temperature  before  pressing;  care  should  be 
exercised,  however,  not  to  apply  a  temperature  approaching  the  boiling  point 
of  water,  as  this  will  coagulate  some  of  the  substances  in  solution.  An  excellent 
preparation  is  obtained  by  grinding  the  meat  very  finely,  adding  a  little  water, 
and  allowing  the  preparation  to  warm  gently  on  the  stove  below  the  boiling 
point  before  pressing. 

Commercial  Meat  Juices. — Many  preparations  of  meat  juices  are  found  on 
the  market  in  various  forms.  The  chief  objection  to  them  is  that  they  must  be 
preserved  in  some  artificial  way.  The  age  of  the  preparation  and  the  character 
of  the  preservative  often  make  such  foods  more  harmful  than  helpful.  Pas- 
teurization or  sterilization  is  not  suitable  for  the  preservation  of  meat  juices 
because  of  the  coagula  formed  by  the  high  temperature.  A  prepared  meat 
juice  will  probably  be  preserved  either  by  salt,  glycerin,  alcohol,  or  a  chemical 
preservative  which  must  necessarily  be  consumed  with  the  juice  itself.  I 
think  it  will  not  be  denied  that  all  such  methods  of  preservation  are  injurious 
to  an  invalid.  The  quantity  of  the  preservative  is  often  greater  than  the  total 
nutritious  substances  of  the  juice,  so  that  the  patient  does  not  get  much  nourish- 
ment but  does  get  relatively  large  quantities  of  these  preservatives  in  his  food. 

Impurities  of  any  kind  in  any  foods  are  to  be  deprecated,  but  their  addition 
to  or  occurrence  in  foods  of  the  sick,  whose  bodies  are  already  depleted  by 
reason  of  disease  and  abnormal  conditions,  is  obviously  inexcusable.  .  To  tax 
the  system  with  the  handhng  and  excretion  of  ingredients  which  serve  no  good 
purpose  is  bad  enough  in  the  case  of  health,  but  in  illness,  when  the  vitality 
is  low  and  the  organs  already  overtaxed,  it  is  a  case  of  "whoever  is  not  with  me 
is  against  me";  the  disastrous  effects  are  apt  to  be  swift  and  pronounced, 
and  every  precaution  should  be  taken  to  insure  that  all  food  materials  used 
are  pure  and  unadulterated.  The  use  of  chemical  preservatives  and  other 
harmful  ingredients  in  invalids'  foods  is  plainly  criminal.  In  this  connection 
attention  is  called  to  the  action  taken  in  Saxony  in  excluding  preservatives 
from  fruit  juices  as  already  mentioned. 

Meat  Extracts. — Meat  extracts  are  more  numerous  than  meat  juices.  A 
meat  extract  is  a  liquid  or  semi-solid  obtained  from  meat,  usually  by  heating 


MEAT    EXTRACTS.  561 

and  generally  with  the  addition  of  water,  though  it  may  be  made  without. 
The  average  water  content  of  the  semi-solid  extract  is  about  25  percent.  Very 
little  nutrient  matter  is  extracted  from  meat  by  hot  water,  but  the  extract 
is  pleasing  to  the  taste,  is  rapidly  assimilated,  and  in  some  cases  is  highly 
desirable,  especially  in  tiding  over  crises  in  which  the  body  does  not  need  a  great 
deal  of  nourishment,  but  must  get  it  quickly.  They  are  also  useful  in  flavoring 
broths,  etc.  It  is,  of  course,  presumed  that  in  the  preparation  of  meat  juices 
healthy  animals  are  employed,  though  it  cannot  be  said  that  this  is  always 
the  case.  Sometimes  animals  which  are  not  suitable  for  eating,  and  yet  not 
diseased,  are  used  for  the  purpose  of  making  meat  extracts.  Old  bullocks 
which  are  too  tough  for  beef  purposes  have  been  used  very  extensively  for 
this  purpose.  ^ 

Commercial  extracts  are  generally  prepared  by  evaporating  the  water  in 
which  the  beef  for  canning  was  heated,  that  is,  they  are  a  by-product  in  the 
preparation  of  canned  beef. 

The  subject  of  meat  extracts  has  been  very  extensively  studied  by  Bigelow 
and  Cook,  who  have  pubhshed  the  results  of  their  investigations  in  Bulletin 
No.  114  of  the  Bureau  of  Chemistry,  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture.  The 
samples  which  were  examined  by  these  investigators  were  purchased  prior  to 
the  enactment  of  the  Food  and  Drugs  Act,  and,  hence,  represent  the  character 
of  goods  which  were  on  the  market  at  that  time.  The  analyses  of  the  samples 
were  submitted  to  the  manufacturers  for  any  comments  which  they  chose 
to  make  upon  them  before  publication. 

Solid  Meat  Extracts. — There  are  some  extracts  of  meat  in  which  the  liquid 
is  evaporated  apparently  to  dryness,  and  this  enables  the  extract  to  be  preserved 
with  greater  facihty,  and  also  diminishes  the  cost  of  transportation.  Although 
the  products  are  in  a  solid  state  they  are  by  no  means  dry,  containing  from  1 2 
to  26  percent  of  moisture.  In  the  solid  meat  extracts  the  mineral  constituents, 
of  course,  are  very  much  concentrated.  These  consist  of  common  salt  together 
with  the  mineral  constituents  which  are  present  in  the  extract,  or  which  may  be 
added  in  the  course  of  manufacture. 

For  convenient  study  and  inspection,  Bigelow  and  Cook  divide  meat  extracts 
into  four  classes,  i.  e.,  sohd  meat  extracts,  fluid  meat  extracts,  meat  juices,  and 
miscellaneous  preparations.  The  analyses  of  these  different  classes  are  given 
in  the  table  further  on. 

Substitutes  for  Meat  Extracts. — Attempts  have  been  made  in  the  preparation  of 
infants'  and  invalids'  foods  to  substitute  some  less  expensive  material  for  meat 
extracts.  The  most  promising  substitutes  which  have  been  used  are  extracts 
•of  yeast,  which  are  in  some  respects  similar  in  composition  to  these  obtained 
from  meat.  Yeast  extracts  are  prepared  by  evaporation  in  vacuum  cookers, 
resembling  the  method  used  in  making  meat  extracts.  In  Germany  prepara- 
tions have  been  found  consisting  of  a  dilute  preparation  of  meat  to  which  a 
37 


562  infants'  and  invalids'  foods. 

large  amount  of  foreign  protein,  such  as  egg  albumen,  has  been  added.  For 
many  years  yeast  extracts  have  appeared  on  the  market,  especially  in  Germany, 
and  have  also  been  mixed  with  and  used  to  adulterate  meat  extracts;  their 
manufacture  in  the  United  States,  however,  has  not  obtained  any  great  vogue, 
although  it  is  claimed  that  small  quantities  are  now  made.  When  the  aqueous 
extract  of  yeast  is  evaporated,  especially  in  an  open  kettle,  the  color  changes 
greatly  and  finely  simulates  that"t)f  meat  extract.  When  the  color  is  not  deep 
enough  in  such  cases,  the  use  of  caramel  is  resorted  to  in  order  to  secure  the 
necessary  tint.  Care  is  taken  not  to  allow  the  evaporation  to  go  too  far,  since 
otherwise  bitter  principles  are  formed,  which  in  seme  respects  resemble  pep- 
tones, and  which  may  be  partially  removed  by  washing  with  water  and  dilute 
ammonia. 

The  quantity  of  nitrogenous  constituents  in  yeast  extracts  is  smaller  than  in 
meat  extracts.  Some  authors  claim  that  their  stimulating  effect  on  the  diges- 
tion is  about  equal  in  intensity,  and  as  far  as  nutritive  value  is  concerned, 
weight  for  weight  of  dry  matter,  there  does  not  appear  to  be  very  much  differ- 
ence between  them.  The  principal  difference  of  a  chemical  nature  between 
the  yeast  and  the  meat  extract  is  found  in  the  fact  that  the  former  contains  no 
kreatin  or  kreatinin,  while  in  the  typical  meat  extracts  from  10  to  20  percent 
of  the  total  nitrogen  is  in  these  forms.  The  xanthin  bases  are  also  distributed 
differently  in  the  two  extracts.  In  meat  extracts  xanthin  and  hypoxanthin 
predominate,  while  in  the  yeast  extracts  adenin  and  guanin  are  the  principal 
constituents. 

Miscellaneous  Extracts  Intended  for  Invalids  and  Infants.— In 
the  tables  at  the  end  of  the  chapter  are  found  some  miscellaneous  compounds 
which  are  intended  for  infants  and  invalids.  Among  these  may  be  mentioned 
the  albumose  and  peptone  powders,  which  are  divided  into  two  classes:  first, 
those  formed  by  the  action  of  steam  and  acid  on  exhausted  meat  or  other 
protein;  and,  second,  powders  prepared  by  chemically  treating  lean  meat  with 
hydrochloric  acid  and  pepsin,  by  means  of  which  all  the  fibrin,  albumin,  and 
gelatin  are  rendered  soluble  after  being  digested  in  water  at  a  temperature  of 
blood  heat.  These  preparations  may  be  more  nutritious  than  the  ordinary 
meat  extract,  but  the  methods  of  making  the  meat  soluble  are  such  as  to  throw 
doubt  on  the  wholesomeness  of  the  preparation.  In  fact  it  may  be  said  that 
aside  from  the  home-made  meat  juices  or  meat  extracts  there  would  be  little 
loss  to  invalids  if  the  standard  preparations  on  the  market  were  withdrawn. 

Extracts  from  the  crab  and  other  crustaceans  are  also  found,  the  crab  ex- 
tract being  quite  common  in  Germany.  In  this  country  there  is  quite  a  large 
sale  for  clam  juice,  which  may,  in  some  respects,  be  compared  with  crab  ex- 
tract. Other  extracts  prepared  from  fish,  shrimps,  clams,  and  anchovies  are 
sometimes  sold,  but  they  are  not  of  commercial  importance. 

Classification. — These  miscellaneous  compounds  may  be  grouped  for  study 


ADDITION    OF    GELATIN    TO   MEAT   EXTRACTS.  563 

according  to  certain  characteristics  of  composition.  In  the  first  class  Bigelow 
and  Cook  place  extracts  with  high  total  kreatinin,  approaching  10  percent,  and 
a  total  meat  base  content  of  40  percent  of  the  total  nitrogen.  In  these  products 
the  proteose  and  peptone  nitrogen  should  include  from  30  to  50  percent  of  the 
total  nitrogen" present.  In  class  two  are  placed  those  miscellaneous  preparations 
which  have  a  proteose  and  peptone  nitrogen  content  of  above  50  percent  of  the 
total  nitrogen.  This  class  of  bodies  is  low  in  both  kreatinin  and  meat  bases. 
Class  three  includes  preparations  low  in  proteose  and  peptone  nitrogen  and  in 
kreatinin,  but  high  in  meat  bases,  while  in  class  four  are  the  extracts  that  are 
high  in  insoluble  and  coagulable  proteid.  In  the  above  statements  the  krea- 
tin  is  included  with  the  kreatinin. 

In  several  of  these  preparations  but  a  small  amount  of  meat  extractives  or  bases 
are  found.  The  data  show  that  kreatin  and  kreatinin  were  absent  in  several 
cases,  proving  that  the  products  in  question  were  not  made  by  the  evaporation 
of  an  infusion  of  meat,  and  in  some  cases  the  total  nitrogen  was  less  than  i 
percent.  The  stimulating  effect  of  these  compounds  and  the  nutritive  value 
of  the  nitrogenous  bases  are,  of  course,  extremely  small  in  all  these  cases. 
In  fact,  all  of  these  liquid  meat  products,  as  far  as  nutrition  is  concerned,  as 
has  already  been  stated,  are  of  Httle  value,  but  they  probably  have  uses  in  ex- 
treme cases  of  depression  where  a  temporary  stimulating  effect  is  necessary  in 
order  that  the  digestive  organs  may  be  enabled  to  readily  take  care  of  more 
nutritious  foods. 

Addition  of  Gelatin  to  Meat  Extracts. — It  is  doubtless  true  that  the  addi- 
tion of  gelatin  to  meat  extracts  has  been  practiced  more  or  less  in  the  past,  as 
pointed  out  by  Bigelow  and  Cook.  By  this  means  the  manufacturer  increased 
and  maintained  a  certain  nitrogen  content,  but  suppHed  the  nitrogen  in  a  form 
lacking  in  stimulating  effect  and  probably  to  some  extent  in  nutritive  value. 
Certain  compounds,  namely,  tyrosin  and  tryptophane,  are  not  present  in  gela- 
tin, while  they  are  found  in  true  proteins.  Gelatin  alone  is  said  not  to  support 
life  in  spite  of  its  relatively  high  nitrogen  content,  while  a  true  protein  with  a 
lower  nitrogen  content  will.  Gelatin,  however,  must  be  accorded  some  value 
as  a  protein-sparer.  The  buyer  of  an  extract  containing  gelatins  is,  however, 
deprived  of  the  characteristic  essentials  of  a  true  meat  extract,  although  the 
nitrogen  content  may  be  relatively  high.  In  many  cases  only  a  small  propor- 
tion of  the  added  gelatin  existed  in  the  extract  as  such,  as  it  was  converted  by 
the  gradual  process  of  hydration  into  gelatoses  and  gelatin  peptones.  But 
although  gelatin  as  such  is  sometimes  added  to  meat  extracts,  more  frequently 
an  extract  prepared  from  bones  to  which  some  meat  clings  (which  necessarily 
gives  a  product  high  in  nitrogen  due  to  the  formation  of  gelatin  from  the  bone) 
is  mixed  with  straight  meat  extract,  which  contains  Httle  or  no  gelatin.  Such 
preparations  as  these  bone  extracts  are  sold  as  second  and  third  grades  by  the 
most  reliable  dealers. 


564  infants'  and  invalids'  foods. 

Some  gelatin  may  be  formed  in  the  preparation  of  a  high-grade  extract  of 
meat,  although  with  proper  precautions  there  should  be  none  present.  When  a 
sufficient  amount  of  gelatin  is  present,  it  is  readily  detected  by  the  setting 
qualities  of  the  extract  after  warming.  The  power  of  gelatinizing  is  only 
possessed  by  unaltered  gelatin;  its  dissociation  products  do  not  have  this 
power.  It  is  evident,  therefore,  that  gelatin  has  no  proper  place  in  extracts 
of  this  kind,  as  it  is  totally  different  from  them  in  its  character  and  cannot  be 
claimed  to  have  the  same  stimulating  effect  for  tiding  over  periods  of  great 
prostration  as  have  the  meat  extracts.  Bigelow  and  Cook  conclude  their 
studies  with  the  following  observations: 

It  is  commonly  assumed  that  proteids,  gelatinoids,  and  the  simpler  amids 
have  very  different  nutritive  values,  and,  while  all  authorities  would  agree  in 
assigning  the  highest  value  to  the  first  of  these,  there  is  probably  no  small 
difference  of  opinion  as  to  the  order  in  which  the  second  and  third  should  be 
rated.  In  considering  such  a  question,  there  should  be  separately  taken  into 
account  relative  digestibility  or  solubility,  capability  of  undergoing  osmotic 
absorption,  and  oxidizability  for  the  production  of  energy.  At  present,  no 
definite  numerical  statement  of  the  relative  nutritive  values  of  nitrogenous 
bodies  of  these  three  classes  can  be  made.  It  seems  much  to  be  desired  that 
more  extended  experiments  than  have  so  far  been  recorded  should  be  made 
upon  living  animals  (as  far  as  possible  upon  human  beings)  to  determine  the 
utilization  of  both  the  gelatinoids  and  the  simpler  amids.  The  latter  no  doubt 
undergo  oxidation  to  some  extent  in  the  animal  body,  and  produce  some  energy 
in  consequence.  It  is  probably  true  of  these  simpler  amidic  substances  that 
much  larger  quantities  than  analysis  exhibits  as  constituents  of  the  food  con- 
sumed, or  than  analysis  detects  among  the  residue  of  food  rejected  from  the 
body  without  having  undergone  complete  oxidation,  may  be  constantly  formed 
among  the  earlier  products  of  the  metabolism  of  the  proteids,  and  afterward 
themselves  undergo  further  change  into  the  simpler  and  more  stable  forms  of 
carbon  dioxid,  water,  and  urea. 

In  the  animal  body  the  amido  acids  are  acted  upon  in  two  ways;  that  is, 
they  are  converted  into  the  corresponding  fixed  acids  or  carbonic  acid  is  split 
off,  leading  to  the  formation  of  Brieger's  diamins,  or  it  is  possible  for  both  of 
these  processes  to  take  place.  Usually  the  albumins  are  converted  in  the 
alimentary  tract  by  the  four  proteolytic  ferments  (pepsin,  trypsin,  erepsin,  and 
arginase)  into  primary  crystalline  dissociation  products,  namely,  the  amido 
acids,  which  are  absorbed  in  this  form.  Whether  a  part  of  the  albumin  taken 
as  food  can  or  cannot  be  absorbed  in  the  form  of  albumoses,  peptones,  and 
peptids  remains  to  be  determined. 

Meat  preparations  of  the  sort  included  in  this  report  are  largely  used  by  the 
sick  and  the  young.  Their  use  is  recommended  frequently  by  physicians  who 
may  not  have  taken  the  trouble  to  ascertain  the  true  nutritive  value  of  the  prod- 
uct prescribed.  It  seems  to  be  the  general  consensus  of  opinion  among 
scientific  investigators  who  have  studied  this  question  that  the  food  value  of 
these  meat  extracts  is  rather  limited,  and  although  they  are  a  source  of  energy 
to  the  body,  they  must  not  be  looked  upon  as  representing  in  any  notable 
degree  the  food  value  of  the  beef  or  other  meat  from  which  they  are  derived. 


ADDITION    OF    GELATIN    TO    MEAT    EXTRACTS. 


565 


When  prepared  under  the  best  possible  conditions,  a  commercial  meat  extract 
is,  of  necessity,  in  order  that  it  may  not  spoil,  deprived  of  the  greater  part  of 
the  coagulable  proteids,  which  constitute  the  chief  nutritious  elements  of  the 
juice.  It  is  fair  to  state  that  many  manufacturers  make  no  claim  as  to  the  food 
value  of  their  preparations,  only  a  comparatively  few  making  extravagant 
statements  as  to  the  nutritive  value  of  these  products. 

Preparations  of  this  character  are  not  wholly  valueless  in  the  sick  room,  for 
they  possess  stimulating  qualities,  and  in  the  kitchen  they  are  useful  on  ac- 
count of  their  flavoring  properties.  They  are  not,  however,  concentrated  foods, 
having,  on  the  contrary,  but  comparatively  little  nutritive  value.  The  meat 
juice  prepared  from  fresh  meat,  in  the  home  or  hospital,  lyy  continued  heating 
at  a  low  temperature,  is  far  superior  as  a  food  to  the  coinmercial  meat  extracts 
and  so-called  meat  juices. 

ANALYSES  OF  MEAT  EXTRACTS,  JUICES,  AND  POWDERS. 
f  {From  Bulletin  No.  114,  Bureau  of  Chemistry.) 


Solid  Meat  Extr 

\CTS. 

Name. 

Mois- 
ture. 

Min- 
eral 
Mat- 
ter. 

Salt. 

Total 
Phos- 
phoric 
Acid. 

Or- 
ganic 
Phos- 
phoric 
Acid. 

Acid- 
ity AS 
I.ACTIC 
Acid. 

Ether 

Ex- 
tract. 

Total 
Pro- 
teids.* 

Total 
Meat 
Bases. 

"  Rex  "  Brand  Beef  Ex- 
tract 

26.50 
21.14 

21.66 

21.86 
20.16 
12.39 

24.06 
21.03 

20.46 

30.92 
27.28 

31.68 

1l> 

8.54 
3-II 

5-47 

18.32 
13-51 
1325 

2.29 
2.40 

4-55 
2.53 

3-19 

•49 

.24 
.18 
.21 

5i 

6.01 

8.13 

8.42 

515 
4- 15 
6.44 

1.30 
•94 

.50 

•53 
•43 
•43 

22.12 
30^5o 

27^51 

14-93 
I5-38 
15.01 

II. II 

Liebig's  Extract  of  Meat, 

Armour's      Extract      of 

Beef, 

11.92 
9-52 

9.98 
10.70 

Extract  of  Beef  Premier 
(Libby,   McNeill,   and 

Swift   &' Go's   Beef 'Ex- 
tract,   

Beef  Extract,  Coin  Spe- 
cial (Hammond  Co.),  . 

13^  14 

Fluid  Meat  Extracts. 


Armour's  Concentrated 
Fluid  Beef  Extract,  .    . 

John  Wyeth  &  Bro.'s 
Beef  Juice, 

Valentine's  Meat  Juice 
Co's  Meat  Juice.    .    .    . 

Vigoral  (Armour  &  Co.), 

"  Rex"  Fluid  Beef  Ex- 
tract (CudahyCo.),  .   . 

Cibils  Co's  Fluid  Extract 
of  Beef 

The  Mosque ra-Tulia 
Food  Co's  Fluid  Beef 
Jelly 


57.75 

17.23 

8.27 

2.32 

0.26 

3.11 

0.09 

6.76 

58^84 

16.21 

6.71 

3.27 

.04 

3.92 

•23 

6.45 

57^64 
49.94 

10.26 
15.91 

1-77 
7.02 

3.41 
3.29 

:tl 

4.53 
4.76 

•50 
.04 

5^63 
10.75 

55-99 

16.99 

8.48 

2.48 

•38 

4.92 

•05 ' 

7.00 

64.63 

16.13 

11.38 

.95 

.14 

2.43 

.06 

10.25 

68.97 

13.85 

10.05 

.80 

.18 

2.20 

.09 

8.13 

5.18 

5-99 

6.05 
6.30 

8.21 

4.24 

3.06 


*  Sum  of  protein,  proteoses,  and  peptones. 


566 


infants'  and  invalids'  foods. 


MEAT  JUICES  PREPARED  IN  LABORATORY. 
{From  Bulletin  No.  14,  .Bureau  0}  Chemistry.) 


Preparation  of  Juice. 


Round  beef,  cold  pressed, 

Chuck  beef,  cold  pressed, 

Round  beef  pressed  at  60°  C, 

Chuck  beef  pressed  at  60°  C, 

Juice  from  beef  chuck  at  60°  C, 

Juice  pressed  from  sirloin  steak  and 

water, 

Juice  extracted  from  sirloin  steak  by 

cold  pressure, 

Juice  extracted  from  beef  chuck  by 

cold  pressure, 

Juice  extracted  from  beef  chuck  by 

cold  pressure  after  six  hours  at  60° 

to  100°  C, 


M 

U 

0 

t 

•— > 

^ 

"Z 

M 

H 

w 

5 

z 

^ 

>-. 

% 

% 

85.76 

1-53 

86.85 

1.86 

90.65 

1.36 

91.90 

1.29 

89.56 

1.27 

91.10 

1.40 

96.13 

.46 

96.58 

.43 

98.11 

•39 

d 

Q 

0 

Oh 

a, 

U 

u 
n 

C3 

< 

3 

< 

d 

H 

% 

% 

.          % 

1. 00 

8.56 

0.38 

1.81 

6.13 

•44 

4.25 

•25 

•75  1  2.56 

•44 

3.06 

2.63 

3-38 

1.25 

2.13 

Trace 

2.13 

Trace 

0 

Trace 

% 

1. 00 

.69 

.c6 
I-3I 


1-13 
None 
None 


•75 


MISCELLANEOUS     PREPARATIONS     (MEAT    EXTRACTS,     JUICES, 

POWDERS). 

{From  Bulletin  No.  114,  Bureau  oj  Chemistry.) 

Class  I. 


Name  of  Preparation. 


Bouillon  Capsules, , 

Bovril,  Seasoned, 

Beef-  Jelly,  Mosquera  Extract  of  Beef, 
Essence  of  Beef, 


6 

M 

^ 

* 

U 

^ 

^ 

S 

D  H 

< 

i-l 

w 

<« 

§ 

V) 

g 

^(S 

I-) 

< 

SS 

P^ 

t^ 

H  0 

0  g 

5 

^ 

F 

< 

0  I-! 

% 

% 

% 

% 

% 

14-75 

39-75 

5.80 

22.19 

2.06 

43-39 

16.09 

?>-^1 

22.06 

7-56 

27.82 

17-31 

7-53 

28.63 

1. 19 

90-93 

1-34 

.88 

5-07 

.19 

Class  II. 


Predigested  Beef, 

Soluble  Beef, 

Bovox  Essence  of  Beef, 

Johnson's  Fluid  Beef, 

American  Brand  Extract  of  Beef, 

Bovinine  Concentrated  Beef, 

Essence  of  Mutton, 

Liquid  Food  (extract  of  beef,  mutton,  and 

fruits), j  86.09 


91.69 

.18 

.96 

1. 19 

.06 

30-15 

14-55 

5-46 

37-76 

3-19 

65-77 

17.29 

2.91 

16.57 

.19 

47-22 

9.80 

4.86 

31-75 

7-56 

27-54 

34-73 

5-91 

26.69 

1.81 

80.40 

1-55 

1.22 

14.14 

3-3« 

82.03 

2.25 

1.62 

12.00 

.69 

86.09 

.65 

1. 21 

10.69 

1.94 

*  The  sum  of  insoluble  and  coagulable  proteids,  proteoses,  and  peptones. 


NATURE   OF    THE   DISEASE. 


567 


Miscellaneous  Preparations  (Meat  Extracts,  Juices,  and  Powders). — (Continued.) 

Class  III. 


u 

» • 

6 
5S 

u 

M 

H 

en 

u  « 

< 

t: 

^ 

Q 

°  ^ 

n 

Name  of  Preparation. 

h-1 

1 

P 

< 

< 

>< 

£ 

^2 

% 

1 

z 

1 

ll 

% 

% 

% 

% 

% 

% 

M^aggi's  Bouillon, 

56.56 

45-13 

21.94 
3-52 

4.10 

-3 

22.20 

•13 
1.38 

5-83 

9.89 

Peptonized  Beef,  Rose, 

2.08 

Class  IV. 


Beef  Extract  and  Vegetable  Tablets, {  22.29 

X-eube-Rosenthal's  Beef  Solution, i  72.68 

Malted  Meat  Extract  of  Beef, j  8.61 

Beef  Peptonoids, |  5.72 


23.66 

4.76 

'18.87 

i 

10.56  ; 

3-91 

2.54 

16.13 

9.88  ; 

7.87 

.84 

9.82 

7.69 ! 

5.63 

•35 

23.32 

20.19  i 

3-15 
1.34 

1.40 

1.22 


Unclassified. 


Name  of  Preparation. 

i 

5 

< 

1 
1 

i 

§ 

g 

M 
0 
>• 
■-) 

0 

Carnine  Co.,  Lefranco,  Paris,  France;   Imported 
by  Fougera  &  Co.,  Agts.,  New  York, 

% 
24.80 

% 

.86 

.09 

% 

'3,3, 

% 
47-50 

% 
14.2 

DIET  IN  DIABETES. 
Nature  of  the  Disease. — There  is  one  disease  of  quite  common  occurrence 
concerning  which  there  is  practically  a  unanimity  of  opinion  among  medical 
men  respecting  the  character  of  the  diet  which  should  be  observed  by  the  pa- 
tient, namely,  diabetes.  In  this  disease  the  metabolism  of  the  system  is  so 
changed  that  the  urine  contains  a  greater  or  less  quantity  of  sugar.  The  sugar 
which  is  found  in  the  urine  is  not  the  ordinary  one,  but  is  dextrose,  the  prod- 
uct which  arises  from  the  complete  inversion  of  starch  by  means  of  an  acid. 
Dextrose  also  constitutes  half  of  the  product  produced  by  inverting  cane 
sugar  with  an  acid  or  a  ferment.  Occasionally  levulose,  a  sugar  identical 
with  dextrose  chemically,  but  different  as  to  structure  (turning  the  plane  of 
*  The  sum  of  insoluble  and  coagulable  proteids,  proteoses,  and  peptones. 


568  infants'  and  invalids'  foods. 

polarized  light  to  the  left  instead  of  the  right),  is  found  in  the  urine  instead  of 
dextrose.  Diabetes  is  regarded  by  most  diagnosticians  as  peculiarly  a  disease 
of  disordered  metabolism,  more  so  even  than  rheumatism  or  gout.  The  pres- 
ence of  sugar  in  the  urine  is  in  itself  a  matter  of  consequence,  inasmuch  as  it 
implies  a  disturbed  metabolism,  since  normal  urine  does  not  usually  contain 
even  a  trace  of  sugar.  Hence  the  presence  of  any  amount  of  this  substance 
indicates  a  very  serious  disorder  of  nutrition  or  disease  of  the  kidneys.  In 
other  words,  the  body  has  lost  the  power  of  oxidizing  sugar.  Inasmuch  as 
the  sugar  secreted  is  dextrose,  it  has  been  thought  by  physicians  generally 
that  to  control  the  food  in  such  a  way  as  to  diminish  the  quantity  of  material 
capable  of  forming  dextrose  would  be  a  rational  treatment.  A  moment's 
thought  will  show  that  the  exclusion  of  food  containing  dextrose  or  dextrose- 
forming  material  may  not  at  all  be  a  remedy  for  the  disease,  although  it  may 
offer  a  probable  way  of  controlling  to  some  extent  the  principal  symptoms  by 
very  considerably  diminishing  the  quantity  of  sugar  excreted. 

Sources  of  Sugar. — Von  Noorden  has  noted  that  sometimes  beer-drinking 
produces  sugar  in  urine,  but  he  was  not  sure  whether  it  was  maltose  or  grape 
sugar.  He  has  also  noted  that  there  is  often  an  approximately  proportional 
relation  between  glycosuria  on  the  one  hand  and  decomposition  of  protein  en 
the  other.  That  sugar  can  be  formed  from  protein  is  shown  by  the  following 
experiment : 

(a)  Three  days'  diet  with  much  meat  and  no  carbohydrates  gave  48.2,  56.7, 
57.1  grams  of  sugar  in  the  urine. 

(b)  Three  days  with  vegetables  gave  30.2,  11. 9,  2.1  grams. 

(c)  Five  days  of  vegetables  with  300  grams  of  meat  per  day  gave  7.8, 
22.8,  33.5,  36.7,  48.3  grams  sugar. 

(d)  Two  days'  diet  of  vegetables  alone  gave  8.  i  grams  and  a  trace  of  sugar. 

Proteins  may  yield  from  40  to  50  percent  of  their  own  weight  of  glucose. 

Those  which  are  made  up  of  amino  acids,  e.  g.,  casein,  are  the  ones  to  pro- 
duce sugar  in  the  body.  The  transformation  into  sugar  occurs  when  the  organ- 
ism is  in  need  of  carbohydrates.  Feeding  alanin  to  a  diabetic  patient  caused  a 
large  percentage  of  sugar  to  appear  in  urine.  Feeding  with  casein  is  accom- 
panied with  the  most  marked  degree  of  glycosuria,  legumes  (peas,  lentils, 
beans)  standing  next  in  this  particular,  while  egg-albumen  and  the  protein 
of  cereals  have  the  least  power  of  producing  glycosuria. 

In  severe  cases  of  diabetes  it  is  suggested  to  forbid  casein  and  limit  the 
amount  of  meat  to  be  eaten.  There  are  even  a  few  cases  of  diabetes  in  which 
more  sugar  is  excreted  than  can  be  accounted  for  by  the  decomposition  of 
carbohydrates  and  meat,  and  therefore  it  is  thought  probable  that  the  sugar 
^  comes  from  the  fat.  Since  by  far  the  larger  part  of  man's  food  is  of  carbo- 
hydrate nature,  it  is  difficult  to  entirely  eliminate  that  class  of  foods  from  the 
diet.    The  greater  the  intensity  of  diabetic  disturbance,  the  greater  the  amount 


GLUTEN  FLOUR  AND  GLUTEN  BREAD.  569 

of  carbohydrate  that  is  excreted  unused  in  the  urine.  Nevertheless  nearly  all 
authorities  agree  that  it  is  advisable  in  the  treatment  of  diabetes  to  exclude, 
in  so  far  as  possible,  starch  and  sugar  from  the  diet. 

Duering  has  proposed  a  "rice"  cure.  The  theory  of  using  this  very  rich 
carbohydrate  is  based  on  the  principle  that  to  limit  the  diet  of  carbohydrates 
to  one  particular  kind  is  of  as  much  importance  as  to  exclude  carbohydrates 
completely.    This  idea,  however,  has  not  been  generally  accepted. 

In  Lusk's  "Science  of  Nutrition"  it  is  stated  that  sugar  must  arise  from 
either  protein  or  fat.  Pfluger  claims  that  fat  metabolism  is  the  principal 
source  of  sugar  in  diabetes.  It  has  also  been  shown  that  protein  breaks  up 
into  amino  acids  in  the  intestines,  and  that  such  acids  when  ingested  are 
equivalent  in  metabolism  to  protein  itself,  and  may  be  converted  into  dextrose. 

Cause  of  Diabetes. — It  is  not  to  be  inferred  that  the  use  of  foods  con- 
taining starch  and  sugar,  from  which  dextrose  is  usually  formed,  is  in  any 
sense  the  cause  of  the  disease.  This  cannot  be  the  case,  because  were  it  so, 
every  individual  would  suffer  from  this  trouble,  since  starch  and  sugar  con- 
stitute the  principal  weight  of  the  dry  foods  of  man.  Furthermore,  Von 
Noorden  shows  that  whole  races,  e.  g.,  those  in  northern  climes  and  also  numer- 
ous groups  of  animals,  which  use  hardly  any  carbohydrates  for  food,  excrete 
sugar  in  their  urine.  These  people  and  animals  subsist  almost  entirely  on 
animal  food,  and  yet  sugar  is  being  continually  produced  and  conducted  to 
the  tissues.  Nevertheless,  the  common  treatment  of  diabetes  is  generally 
accompanied  by  the  administration  of  a  diet  in  which  starch  and  sugar  .are 
excluded  as  completely  as  possible.  The  principal  starchy  foods  are  well 
known,  namely,  rice,  potatoes,  and  the  cereals.  The  non-starchy  foods  are 
represented  principally  by  meat  or  plant  products  in  which  the  nitrogenous 
element  is  largely  developed,  such  as  certain  parts  of  wheat,  peas,  and  beans. 
But  even  the  wheats  which  are  richest  in  gluten  contain  always  much  larger 
quantities  of  starch  than  they  do  of  nitrogenous  elements.  If  patients  crave 
a  sweetened  food,  ievulose  may  be  used,  or  even  saccharin,  which,  as  has  been 
already  stated,  is  not  food  at  all. 

Gluten  Flour  and  Gluten  Bread.— To  increase  the  quantity  of  gluten  in 
bread  and  diminish  the  amount  of  starch,  for  use  of  diabetic  patients,  a  gluten 
flour  is  manufactured,  which  is  produced  by  washing  or  removing  in  some  way 
from  ordinary  flour  a  very  considerable  percentage  of  its  starch.  In  this  way 
tne  percentage,  of  the  nitrogenous  matter  is  increased,  and  for  practical  dietetic 
purposes  in  the  treatment  of  diabetes  should  not  be  less  than  35  or  40  percent. 

Standard  for  Gluten  Flour. — The  standard  for  gluten  flour  has  been  fixed 
by  the  Secretary  of  Agriculture  as  follows:  "Gluten  flour  is  the  clean, 
sound  product  made  from  flour  by  the  removal  of  starch  and  contains  not  less 
than  five  and  six  tenths  (5.6)  percent  of  nitrogen  and  not  more  than  ten  (10) 
percent  of  moisture." 


570 


infants'  and  invalids'  foods. 


Many  advertisements  have  been  published  of  gluten  flour  and  gluten  bread 
which  are  extremely  false  and  misleading.  The  examination  of  many  samples 
of  so-called  gluten  flour  has  shown  that  the  quantity  of  gluten  therein  con- 
tained was  no  greater  than  that  of  an  ordinary  rich  glutinous  wheat.  It  is 
evident  that  the  buyer  is  wholly  misled  in  such  cases,  and  if  a  gluten  bread  is 
really  advantageous  to  a  diabetic  patient,  the  benefits  expected  would  certainly 
not  be  realized.  Examples  of  the  composition  of  real  gluten  flour  and  so- 
called  gluten  flour  which  is  nothing  more  than  good  rich  wheat  flour  are  given 
in  the  following  tables: 

PERCENTAGE  COMPOSITION   OF  TRUE  AND   OF  SO-CAL1.ED  GLUTEN 

FLOURS. 
Gluten  and  Diabetic  Flour. 


Name. 


Gum  gluten  (Hoyt's), 

Educator  standard  gluten  flour, 

Gluten  flour,  40  percent, 

Self-raising  gluten  flour,  40  percent, 

Pure  gluten  flour,* 

20  per  cent,  gluten  flour, 

Pure  gluten  flour,  glutosac, 

Gluten  food, 

Protosac, 

Washed  gluten  flour, 

Glutosac, 

Diabetic  biscuit  flour, 

Plasmon  meal, 

AHeuronat, 

Roborat, 

"Wheat  protein, 

Energin  from  rice, 

Vegetable  gluten, 

Casoid  flour, 

Sanitas  nut  meal, 

Soy  bean  meal, 

Almond  meal, 

Gluten  flour, 

Gluten  flour, 

Diabetic  flour, 

Jireh  diabetic  flour, 

Special  diabetic  food, 

Gluten  flour, 

Gluten  flour, 


M 
H 
< 

S 

^ 

pi 

is 

< 

(X 

t. 

•33 

u 

*II.2 

0.96 

31.8 

1-55 

54.15 

*ii.3 

•95 

26.4 

1.67 

•37 

59.38 

/  *io.5 

0.51 

40.25 

1. 18 

0.15 

47.42  \ 

I  t  7-8 

1.2 

41. 1 

I.I 

47-9     / 

t  8.8 

1-3 

38.7 

1-3 

50.1 

t  7-2 

.6 

78.8 

.9 

12.6 

t  8.9 

I.I 

21.0 

•7 

68.2 

t  8.0 

I.I 

35-2 

.60 

55 -o 

*IO.I 

.22 

85-4 

•56 

•03 

3.69 

*io.6 

.66 

36.6 

.86 

•25 

51.03 

*  6.2 

.80 

62.40 

.91 

.16 

29.51 

*IO.I 

1. 14 

34.06 

1-57 

•97 

52.13 

t  7-9 

2.04 

75-25 

8.96 

5.89 

Tio.o 

7.61 

78.65 

2.72 

00 

/  t  8-5 

.89 

86.1 

•51 

4.00  \ 

\     IO-9 

.70 

73-^5 

.24 

14-55  / 

l9-5 

1-39 

82.2 

3.07 

3.00 

t8.6 

1. 10 

84.1 

1.40 

4.80 

t9.i 

1.03 

83.7 

4.54 

.27 

.67 

*  7-9 

.65 

61.37 

1-55 

•32 

28.23 

*IO.O 

2.46 

85.56 

•50 

00 

*  3-0 

2.17 

29.00 

51.66 

2.01 

12.13 

*  7-8 

4.4 

39.87 

19.06 

3.85 

25.09 

*8.5 

6.4 

50.62 

15.63 

2.86 

15.90 

J12.7 

•43 

11.37 

.90 

•25 

74.38 

t9-2 

1.90 

15.5 

2.6 

70.8 

tio.7 

.46 

12.0 

.46 

•25 

76.45 

*9.3 

1.30 

14.3 

2.21 

1*03 

71.95 

*I2.0 

1-93 

14.25 

2.96 

1.37 

67.47 

iTe 

•55 

13.3 

1.05 

.. 

72.11 

1.29 

16.4 

3-15 

•• 

70.60 

> 


|s 


Calo- 
ries. 


1732 

1695 
2078 
1692 
1705 


1877 
1576 


1714 
1663 


It  is  evident  from  the  analytical  data  that  the  last  seven  products  are  only  common 
wheat  flours. 

*  Rep't  Conn.  Agr.  Exp't  Station,  1906. 

t  Fetteroff,  Examination  of  Some  of  the  Diabetic  Foods  of  Commerce, 
j  Konig,  page  535.  jj  Blyth,  Foods  and  their  Analysis. 

§  Bull.  13,  Part  IX,  Bureau  of  Chemistry,  U.  S.  Dep't  Agr. 


A    DIET    FREE    FROM    STARCH    AND    SUGAR    NOT    PRACTICABLE.  571 

Gluten  Bread. — The  separation  of  starch  from  flour  and  the  making  of 
bread  from  the  residue  was  first  introduced  by  Bouchardat  in  1841.  Many 
cook  books  give  I'ecipes  for  making  bread  from  flour  of  this  kind.  The  gluten 
flour  may  be  prepared  in  the  home,  and  it  is,  as  a  rule,  much  safer  to  prepare 
it  in  this  way  than  to  buy  it  on  the  market,  because  it  can  be  used  in  the  moist 
state  as  soon  as  made.  The  starch  can  be  washed  from  wheat  flour  by  a 
simple  process  of  kneading,  using  pure  cold  water  for  a  wash.  After  the  dough 
is  made  it  is  worked  with  the  fingers,  or  with  proper  machinery,  and  water 
added  from  time  to  time,  thus  w^ashing  out  the  starch.  It  is  better  to  do  the 
kneading  in  a  vessel  the  bottom  of  which  consists  of  a  fine  gauze  which  will 
permit  the  particles  of  starch  to  pass  through  but  will  retain  the  gluten.  The 
washing  may  be  continued  until  the  wash  water  ceases  to  be  white  and  prac- 
tically all  the  starch  is  removed.  The  residual  dough  can  then  be  baked  into 
bread.  Usually,  however,  gluten  flour  is  not  entirely  free  from  starch,  and 
perhaps  it  is  not  advisable,  for  the  reason  which  has  already  been  stated, 
namely,  that  starch  is  a  normal  constituent  of  the  food  and  its  complete  with- 
drawal produces  an  abnormal  state  of  nutrition  which  may  do  more  damage 
than  a  small  amount  of  starch.  There  is  a  simple  test  for  the  presence  of 
starch  in  a  gluten  flour  known  as  the  iodin  reaction,  and  due  to  the  fact  that 
a  solution  of  iodin  mixed  with  a  starch  produces  a  deep  blue  color.  This  is  an 
extremely  delicate  test,  however,  so  that  a  very  small  amount  of  starch  might 
appear,  to  be  very  large  when  tested  with  this  reaction  alone. 

Instead  of  using  the  gluten  obtained  from  wheat  flour,  other  albuminous 
substitutes  have  been  proposed,  such  as  the  soy  bean,  almonds,  cocoanuts, 
and  Iceland  moss.  Experience  has  shown,  however,  that  patients  soon  tire 
of  bread  m^de  from  gluten  flour  or  any  of  its  substitutes.  Many  physicians 
have  therefore  given  up  its  use  altogether,  prescribing  a  standard  diet  free 
from  carbohydrates,  and  allowing  a  small  amount  of  good  ordinary  bread, 
which  is  much  more  palatable  and  of  which  the  patient  dees  not  tire.  It  is 
usually  advised  that  the  bread  be  well  toasted.  Some  physicians,  instead  of 
prescribing  the  white  bread,  use  the  various  forms  of  Graham  bread  or  brown 
bread,  made  from  either  the  whole  grain  or  that  from  which  only  a  portion  of 
the  bran  has  been  removed. 

Impracticability  of  Securing  a  Diet  Entirely  Free  from  Starch 
and  Sugar. — It  would  be  practically  impossible  to  secure  for  man  a  diet 
entirely  free  from  starch  and  sugar.  Even  lean  meats  contain  sometimes  as 
much  as  i  percent  of  a  sugar-producing  substance,  and  the  best  of  the  glu- 
ten flours  and  gluten  breads  contain  very  notable  quantities  of  starch.  Soy 
beans,  when  ripe,  are  supposed  to  contain  no  starch,  and  would  prove  a  val- 
uable food  for  diabetics  if  sugar  w^re  not  formed  from  their  protein.  Most 
of  the  nuts  are  also  very  low  in  carbohydrates,  as  shown  in  the  following 
table: 


572 


infants'  and  invalids'  foods. 

PERCENTAGE  COMPOSITION  OF  NUTS.* 


Kind  of  Nut. 


Butternut, 4.5 

Brazil  nut, 4.7 

Pecan, 3.4 

Hickory, 3.7 

Filbert, t  5-4 

Cocoanut, 13.0 

Almonds, ]  4.9 


Water. 


Pistachio,. 
Walnut,.. 
Chestnut. 


4.2 

3-4 

43-4 


Protein. 


27.9 
17.4 

12. 1 

15-4 
16.5 

6.6 
21.4 
22.6 
18.2 

6.4 


Fat. 


61.2 
65.0 

70.7 
67.4 
64.0 
56.2 
54-4 
54.5 
60.7 
6.0 


Carbohydrates. 


Starch 

AND 

Sugar. 


Fiber. 


3-4 
5-7    j    3-9 
8-5     I    3-7 

11.4 

II. 7 

13.7  I    8.9 

13.8  I    3.0 
15.6 

13-7    1    2.3 
41.3    I     1-5 


Ash. 


3-0 
3-3 
1.6 
2.1 
2.4 
1.6 

2-5 

3-1 
1-7 
1.4 


Fuel 
Value 

PER 

Pound. 


Calories. 

3370 
3120 
33CO 

3345 
3100 
2805 
2895 
3250 
3075 
I140 


The  chestnut  contains  considerable  amounts  of  starch,  and  is  therefore  not 
adapted  for  this  purpose.  Peas  and  beans  also  contain  large  quantities  of 
starchy  matter,  and  various  vegetables,  which  contain  little  starch,  are  found 
to  carry  a  considerable  percentage  of  sugar.  It  is  impracticable,  therefore, 
and  perhaps  undesirable,  to  secure  a  diet  for  diabetic  subjects  which  is  entirely 
devoid  of  sugar  and  starch,  for  it  is  the  total  carbohydrates  which  must  be 
considered  and  not  wholly  the  starch.  Moreover,  an  extraordinary  change  in 
the  character  of  the  diet,  which  would  be  represented  by  a  nonsugar-non- 
starch  ration,  would  probably  be  of  more  injury  to  the  digestive  system  by 
far,  even  of  a  diabetic  patient,  than  a  ration  containing  a  normal  amount  of 
these  substances.  For  this  reason  it  is  not  only  impracticable,  but  also  unde- 
sirable, to  secure  a  ration  which  is  devoid  of  the  sugars  and  starches. 

Professor  Osborne,  of  Yale  Medical  School,  says:  ''I  have  not  a  doubt  that 
many  a  patient  with  diabetes  mellitus  has  been  hurried  to  his  grave  by  rigid 
starch-free  diets.  I  also  beheve  that  the  fact  that  most  so-called  starch-free 
gluten  foods  contain  starch  has  allowed  many  a  diabetic  to  live  months  longer 
than  a  starch-free  diet  would  have  allowed.  An  absolute  withdrawal  of  car- 
bohydrates from  the  food  of  patients  having  true  diabetes  mellitus  will  always 
increase  the  acetone  and  diacetic  acid,  and  often  the  ammonia  and  )S-oxy- 
butyric  acid,  and  toxic  acidemia  and  coma  become  imminent.  Hence,  it  is 
unjustifiable,  sugar  having  become  discovered  in  the  urine",  to  withdraw  the 
starches  absolutely  or  too  rapidly  from  the  diet." 

Test  Diet  for  Determining  Toleration  of  Carbohydrates. — In  Osier's 
''Practice  of  Medicine"  f  attention  is  called  to  the  fact  that  in  the  case  of  a 
diabetic  patient  the  first  duty  of  the  physician  is  to  ascertain  the  capacity  for 
tolerating  carbohydrates,  meaning  thereby  particularly  sugar  and  starch.  This 
should  be  determined  by  placing  the  subject  for  at  least  five  days  on  a  diet 

*  Jaffa,  Farmers'  Bulletins  Nos.  28  and  332,  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture, 
t  Reprinted  from  Osier's  The  Principles  and  Practice  of  Medicine,  copyright,  1909,  by 
D.  Appleton  &  Co. 


TEST    DIET    FOR    DETERMESTING    TOLERATION    OF    CARBOHYDRATES.       573 

from  which  starch  and  sugar  are  rigidly  excluded,  that  is,  a  diet  consisting 
exclusively  of  protein  and  fat.  The  quantity  of  food  given,  in  case  it  can  be 
tolerated,  should  be  a  generous  one,  that  is,  approximately  40  calories  for 
each  kilogram  of  body-weight.  A  diet  based  on  the  recommendations  of 
Von  Noorden  which  would  secure  the  desired  result  is  as  follows: 

Breakfast:  7.30  a.m.     150  grams  of  beefsteak  or  mutton-chops  without  bone; 

two  boiled  or  poached  eggs;   200  c.c.  of  tea  or  coffee. 
Lutich:   12:30  p.m.     200    grams    cold    roast-beef,    mutton,    or    chicken;    60 

grams  celery,  fresh  cucumbers,  or  tomatoes,  with  5  c.c.  vinegar,  10  c.c. 

oil,  pepper  and  salt  to  taste;    20  c.c.  whisky  (if  desired);    400  c.c.  of 

water  or  Apollinaris  water;   60  c.c.  coffee. 
Dinner:  6  p.m.     200  c.c.   clear   bouillon;    200  grams  roast  beef;    60   grams 

lettuce  with  10  c.c.  vinegar;    20  c.c.  ohve  oil,  or  three  tablespoonfuls 

of  some  well-cooked  green  vegetable,  as  spinach;    three  sardines  a 

Phuile;    20  c.c.  cognac  or  whisky  (if  desired),  with  400  c.c.  Apollinaris 

water. 
Supper:   9  p.m.    Two  eggs,  raw  or  cooked;   400  c.c.  ApoUinaris  or  Seltzer 

water. 

It  is  further  advised  that  "with  the  four  meals  at  least  15  grams  of  butter 
should  be  used  in  making  the  gravies  and  with  the  eggs.  No  milk  or  sugar 
is  permitted  with  the  tea  or  coffee,  but  saccharin  may  be  used  to  sweeten  them. 
The  time  of  taking  lunch  and  dinner,  of  course,  may  be  reversed.  This  daily 
diet  should  provide  a  person  of  60  kilos  (132  pounds)  with  a  httle  over  the  req- 
uisite 2400  calories  for  an  individual  of  that  weight.  One  precaution  must 
be  emphasized  here.  If  the  patient  has  been  eating  freely  of  starches,  these 
must  be  cut  down  slowly  for  two  or  three  days  before  he  is  placed  on  the 
standard  diet.  Any  sudden  and  radical  change  from  one  diet  to  another  is 
liable  to  induce  coma.  As  it  has  been  found  that  a  dog  must  fast  five  days 
before  the  glycogen  of  his  liver  has  been  all  used  up,  it  is  well  to  keep  the  dia- 
betic on  the  above  diet  for  at  least  five  days;  by  so  doing  it  practically  elimi- 
nates the  possibility  that  any  sugar  excretion  at  the  end  of  that  time  is  de- 
rived from  the  stored-up  glycogen  of  the  liver." 

Inasmuch  as  a  diet  entirely  free  of  starch  and  sugar  is  not  a  normal  diet,  and 
hence  should  only  be  used  in  case  of  necessity,  it  is  advisable  to  find  out  how 
much  carbohydrate  a  diabetic  patient  can  tolerate  without  unduly  increasing 
the  quantity  of  sugar  in  the  urine.  For  this  purpose,  after  the  treatment  above 
mentioned,  small  quantities  of  bread,  preferably  bread  made  from  white 
flour,  may  be  used.  A  well  baked  loaf  of  white  bread  contains  approximatelv 
55  percent  of  starch.  Only  25  grams  should  be  given  for  the  first  few  days, 
and  if  the  sugar  does  not  reappear  in  the  urine,  or  is  not  increased  in  quantity, 
another  25  grams  may  be  added,  and  so  on  until  the  symptoms  of  glycosuria 
develop.  The  degree  of  tolerance,  therefore,  may  be  expressed  in  the  form  of  a 
formula  as  follows:    Tolerance  equals  standard  diet  plus  x  grams  of  starch, 


574 


infants'  and  invalids'  foods. 


X  representing  the  number  of  grams  of  starch  the  patient  can  take  as  deter- 
mined experimentally,  without  sugar  appearing  in  the  urine. 

Dietaries  Recommended  by  Von  Noorden. — Von  Noorden,  one  of  the 
most  eminent  authorities  en  diabetes,  in  his  work  entitled  "  Disorders  of  Meta- 
bolism and  Nutrition,"*  divides  foods  intended  for  diabetic  patients  into 
two  classes:  (i)  Those  food  products  which  are  practically  free  from  carbo- 
hydrates, and  which  should  form  the  base  of  the  daily  diet.  (2)  Certain  ac- 
cessory articles  of  diet  which  include  substances  containing  more  or  less  car- 
bohydrates. The  use  of  these  accessory  articles  is  based  on  the  fact  that  it  is 
necessary  not  only  to  prescribe  a  diet  which  has  some  specific  relation  to  the 
disturbance,  but  which  will  also  conserve,  or  tend  to  conserve,  the  general 
health.  As  carbohydrates  are  such  an  important  part  of  a  normal  diet,  it  is 
not  a  safe  plan  to  continue  too  long  a  diet  from  which  they  are  entirely  excluded. 
*  Standard  Test  Diet. — The  standard  test  diet  is  prescribed  by  Von  Noorden 
as  follows: 

Breakfast:  200  grams  coffee  or  tea  with  one  to  two  tablespocnfuls  of  thick 
cream.  100  grams  of  hot  or  cold  meat  (weighed  after  cooking).  Butter. 
Two  eggs,  with  bacon.    50  grams  of  white  bread. 

Lunch:  Two  eggs  cooked  as  desired,  but  without  flour,  or  any  other  hors 
d'oeuvre  free  from  flour.  Meat  (boiled  or  roasted),  fish,  venison,  or 
fowl,  according  to  taste,  about  200  to  250  grams  altogether  (weighed 
when  cooked).  Vegetables,  such  as  spinach,  cabbage,  cauliflower,  or 
asparagus;  prepared  with  broth,  butter,  or  other  fat,  eggs  or  thick  sour 
cream,  but  without  any  flour.  20  to  25  grams  creamy  cheese  (such  as 
Camembert,  Brie,  etc.);  plenty  of  butter.  Two  glasses  of  light  white 
or  red  wine,  if  desired.  One  small  cup  of  coffee,  with  one  to  two  table- 
spoonfuls  of  thick  cream.    50  grams  of  white  bread. 

Dinner:  Clear  meat  soup,  with  egg  or  green  vegetable  in  it.  One  to  two  meat 
dishes,  as  at  lunch.  Vegetable  dishes,  as  at  lunch.  Salad  of  lettuce, 
cucumber,  or  tomatoes.  Wine.  No  bread.  Drinks  during  the  day 
(exclusive  of  wine),  one  to  two  bottles  of  aerated  water. 

This  test  diet  is  intended  to  reduce  the  sugar  excretion-  to  a  minimum  and  is 
preliminary  to  a  more  generous  diet  in  which  bread  is  included  if  the  sugar 
excretion  is  not  too  greatly  increased 

Oatmeal  as  a  Diabetic  Food. — Von  Noorden  has  recommended  as  a  food 
for  diabetic  patients  in  certain  cases  oatmeal,  or  rather  a  gruel  made  from 
oatmeal.  The  use  of  this  substance  was  the  result  of  an  accidental  obser- 
vation. A  number  of  patients,  in  addition  to  diabetes,  were  suffering  with 
severe  disturbances  of  the  stomach  and  the  lower  intestine.  For  this  trouble 
they  were  confined  to  a  diet  consisting  exclusively  of  oatmeal  gruel.  The 
observations  in  these  cases  showed  that  the  amount  of  sugar  in  the  urine  was 
diminished  during  the  continuance  of  this  diet.  The  oatmeal,  of  course,  is 
not  used  alone;  as  prescribed  by  Von  Noorden,  it  consists  in  the  daily  admin- 
istration of  from  200  to  250  grams  of  oatmeal,  best  given  in  the  form  of  gruel, 
*  Published  by  E.  B.  Treat  &  Co.,  New  York. 


USE   OF    THE    SOY    BEAN.  575 

every  two  hours.  In  addition  to  this,  200  to  300  grams  of  butter  are  prescribed, 
and  about  100  grams  of  a  vegetable  proteid,  or  for  this  a  few  eggs  may  be  sub- 
stituted. No  other  food  is  allowed  except  black  coflFee  or  tea,  lemon  juice,  good 
old  wine,  or  a  httle  brandy  or  whisky.  This  diet  has  not  been  found  entirely 
satisfactory  by  many  other  authorities,  nor  does  Von  Noorden  urge  it  for  all  cases. 
The  oatmeal,  of  course,  contains  considerable  quantities  of  starch,  but  it  is  starch 
of  an  entirely  different  kind  from  that  of  wheat  or  rye,  the  usual  bread 
diet  of  civilized  nations.  The  inference  is  that  the  starch  9f  the  oatmeal  does 
not  act  so  injuriously  as  that  of  wheat  or  rye.  Von  Noorden  makes  the  follow- 
ing statement  in  regard  to  the  oatmeal  diet:  "Unfortunately,  however,  there 
are  only  relatively  few  cases  in  which  the  result  is  quite  so  surprisingly  bene- 
ficial; in  many  others  it  is  incomplete,  although  still  satisfactory;  in  others, 
again,  no  result  at  all  is  obtained."  The  best  results  were  found  in  very 
severe  cases  when  there  was  a  large  excess  of  sugar  in  the  urine.  On  the  other 
hand,  the  treatment  was  almost  always  a  failure  where  only  a  slight  amount 
of  sugar  was  found  in  the  urine. 

Other  starchy  foods  which  have  been  recommended  are  the  potato  and  rice, 
each  having  its  protagonist  among  reputable  authorities,  based  upon  the  sup- 
position that  both  the  potato  starch  and  the  rice  starch  are  far  less  injurious 
than  rye  starch  or  the  wheat  starch  found  in  ordinary  breads. 

Water  and  Other  Beverages. — It  is  the  general  consensus  of  opinion  that 
it  is  injurious  to  restrict  the  quantity  of  water  which  a  diabetic  patient  is  al- 
lowed to  use.  The  fact  that  the  drinking  of  a  considerable  amount  of  w^ater 
increases  the  volume  of  the  urine  is  perhaps  a  favorable,  rather  than  an  un- 
favorable, symptom.  Thirst  is  a  very  common  symptom  in  diabetes,  and  it 
should  be  allayed  by  plenty  of  pure  water.  Many  physicians  recommend 
mineral,  or  bottled,  waters.  An  occasional  change  from  a  pure  spring- water 
to  a  bottled  water  may  be  advisable,  but  on  account  of  the  cost,  which  is  often 
a  matter  of  importance,  it  may  be  said  that  pure  spring-water,  as  fresh  as  can 
be  had,  will  serve  all  purposes.  Lemonade  may  also  be  used,  but  if  a  sweet 
taste  is  craved  it  must  be  produced  by  the  addition  of  saccharin  and  not  by 
sugar.  It  is  better  by  far  to  ignore  the  craving  for  sweets  than  to  gratify  it  with 
such  a  questionable  substance  as  so-called  ''saccharin." 

Osier  recommends  the  use  of  whisky,  brandy,  and  rum  on  the  ground  that 
it  aids  in  the  digestion  of  fat  and  tends  to  make  up  for  the  loss  in  heat- units 
resulting  from  the  cutting  off  of  carbohydrates. 

Use  of  the  Soy  Bean. — Dr.  Julius  Friedenwald  and  Dr.  Ruhrah,  in  the 
Proceedings  of  the  One  Hundred  and  Twelfth  Annual  Meeting  of  the  Medical 
and  Chirurgical  Faculty  of  Maryland,  held  at  Baltimore  on  April  26,  19 10, 
recommend  the  soy  bean  also  as  a  diet  in  diabetes.  Eight  cases  of  diabetes  were 
treated  with  this  food,  and  the  conclusions  which  were  reached  were  as  follows: 

I.  The  soy  bean  is  a  valuable  addition  to  the  dietary  of  the  diabetic  on  ac- 
count of  its  palatability  and  the  numerous  ways  in  which  it  can  be  prepared. 


57^ 


infants'  and  invalids'  foods. 


2.  The  soy  bean  in  some  ways  causes  a  reduction  in  percentage  and  total 
quantity  of  sugar  passed  in  diabetic  subjects  on  the  usual  dietary  restrictions. 

The  following  recipes  for  broths  and  mufhns  made  from  the  soy  bean  are  of 
interest  in  this  connection: 

Broths. — Add  from  i  to  8  ounces  of  the  flour  to  one  quart  of  beef,  mutton, 
veal,  or  chicken  broth  and  boil  for  fifteen  minutes,  adding  water  to  make  up 
for  loss  by  evaporation;  or,  boil  the  same  quantity  of  the  soy  flour  for  one- 
half  hour  with  one  quart  of  water,  to  which  has  been  added  a  piece  of  ham, 
bacon,  or  salt  pork  to  give  flavor.  Each  ounce  of  the  flour  will  add  to  the 
broth  about  13  grams  of  protein  and  120  calories,  or,  in  percentages,  add  1.4 
percent  protein,  0.60  percent  fat,  and  0.30  percent  carbohydrates.  A  broth 
made  with  6  ounces  of  the  soy  flour  to  the  quart  would  be  half  as  rich  in  protein 
and  fat  as  steak. 

Muffins. — To  make  muffins  from  the  soy  flour,  take  1}  teacupfuls  of  the 
soy  flour,  \  teacupful  of  wheat  flour,  J  teaspoonful  of  salt,  2  eggs,  i  teacupful 
of  sweet  milk,  2  rounded  teaspoonfuls  of  baking  powder,  and  ij  tablespoon- 
fuls  of  melted  but  not  hot  butter.  Beat  well  together,  adding  the  melted  butter 
last,  and  bake  in  gem  pans  in  a  hot  oven.  This  will  make  about  12  muffins, 
which  wiU  contain  about  150  grams  of  protein  and  which  will  yield  about  1800 
calories,  of  which  the  carbohydrates  produce  but  280. 

Foreign  Diabetic  Foods. — Tatterolf  has  collected  a  number  of  foreign 
diabetic  foods,  the  composition  of  which  is  shown  in  the  subjoined  table. 


COMPOSITION  OF  FOREIGN  DIABETIC  FOODS. 


Material. 


Casoid  flour, ^ 

Casoid  dinner  rolls, 

Casoid  biscuit,  No.  i  (plain), 

Casoid  biscuit,  No.  2, 

Casoid  biscuit,  No.  3, 

Casoid  rusks, 

Casoid  lunch  biscuit, 

Prolactic  biscuit, 

Kalari  biscuit, 

Kalari  batons, 

Almond  biscuit  (plain), 

Almond  short  breads, 

Ginger  biscuit  +  saccharin  (trace), 

Cocoanut  biscuit  +  saccharin  (trace),. 

Gluten  bread  (French), 

Conalbin-Mehl  No.  i  (diabetic  flour), 


Water. 


10.25 

6.95 
7.20 
7.48 
7.90 
5-42 
4.20 

6.34 
6.31 
8.13 
3.66 
4.20 

2.45 
2.6^ 
7.78 
9.42 


Ash. 


% 
2.50 
1.84 
2-53 
3-59 
4-95 
4-47 
3-77 
3-95 
3-70 
4.40 
3.20 
3-Si 
3-69 

1.29 
0.52 


,  > 

^ 

j2  n 

H 

w  . 

8 

H  (^  H 

m 

»& 

Hvd 

§§§ 

«b 

SX 

«dQ 

w 

(L, 

0 

% 

% 

%        < 

I.6I 

82.50 

3-14 

11.08 

78.00 

2-13 

16.78 

64-75 

8.74 

25-51 

57-81 

5.61 

25.02 

54-31 

7.82 

32-33 

36.98 

20.80 

44.87 

25-53 

21.63 

27-51 

42 .9  T 

19.29 

31-43 

56.88 

1.68 

33-70 

52.88 

0.89 

28.02 

28.34 

36.78 

52.11 

19-54 

20.64 

58.62 

17.06 

18.18 

61.28 

16.61 

16.35 

2.36 

35-94 

.52.63 

0-39 

10.88 

78.79 

1-1 


Calories. 
1661 
1918 
2075 
2256 
2211 

2439 
2771 

2317 
2400 
2422 

2394 
2946 
3129 
3199 
1747 
1684 


GENERAL    DISCUSSION    ON   DIET   IN   OBESITY.  577 

The  casoid  preparations,  it  is  claimed,  are  made  from  milk,  vegetable  albu- 
min, and  eggs.  They  contain  only  small  quantities  of  carbohydrates.  Many 
of  the  products,  it  is  seen  from  the  table,  contain  such  large  quantities  of  carbo- 
hydrates as  to  render  them,  theoretically  at  least,  undesirable  for  diabetic 
patients. 

DIET  IN  NEPHRITIS. 
Importance  of  Diet. — The  various  forms  of  inflammation  of  the  kid- 
ney are  designated  by  the  general  term  nephritis.  The  diet  in  the  case  of 
nephritis  is  almost  as  important  as  in  the  case  of  diabetes.  Von  Noorden 
is  particularly  insistent  that  foods  which  tend  to  produce  increasing  quantities 
of  hippuric  acid  in  the  urine  should  be  excluded  in  all  cases  of  nephritis. 
He  says: 

Hippuric  acid,  as  is  well  known,  is  generated  from  benzoic  acid  and  glycocol 
by  a  synthetic  process  in  the  kidneys  themselves.  In  nephritis,  particularly 
in  the  more  acute  forms,  this  synthesis  is  rendered  more  difficult,  so  that  a 
proportionately  large  part  of  the  benzoic  acid  that  is  ingested,' or  that  is  formed 
within  the  body  and  enters  the  blood,  leaves  the  kidneys  unchanged,  or  in  the 
form  of  a  salt.  The  other  component,  glycocol,  under  these  circumstances 
is  also  in  small  part  excreted  unchanged.  The  greater  proportion  that  under 
normal  circumstances  would  have  been  converted  into  hippuric  acid,  is  con- 
verted into  urea,  and  is  excreted  as  such.  While  it  is  not  known  that  the  ex- 
cretion of  benzoic  acid  is  a  particularly  difficult  task  when  the  kidneys  are 
diseased,  or  that  benzoic  acid  can  directly  damage  the  kidneys,  we  should 
nevertheless,  from  the  standpoint  of  protective  therapy,  prevent  the  entrance 
of  benzoic  acid  into  the  blood-stream  circulating  through  the  diseased  kidneys, 
for  when  we  overload  the  blood  with  benzoic  acid  we  impose  a  task  on  the 
sick  kidneys  that  they  are  not  capable  of  performing.  We  can  easily  avoid  this 
irritation  and  this  stimulation  of  the  organ  if  we  regulate  the  diet  in  such  a 
manner  that  as  little  benzoic  acid  as  possible  circulates  in  the  blood.  From 
this  point  of  view  green  vegetables,  fruit  containing  kernels,  and  cranberries 
that  contain  large  quantities  of  benzoic  esters,  should  not  be  permitted  in 
acute  inflammation  of  the  kidneys.  In  such  fruit  as  pears  and  apples,  and  in 
many  berries  (particularly  raspberries  and  grapes),  on  the  other  hand,  we 
find  traces  only  of  benzoic  acid ;  those  fruits,  therefore,  and  s>Tups  made  from 
them,  constitute  an  excellent  addition  to  the  diet  of  nephritic  cases,  for  they 
are  borne  very  well,  they  stimulate  digestive  processes,  and  offer  some  variety. 


DIET  IN  OBESITY. 
General  Discussion. — It  should  be  understood  that  obesity  is  not  a  disease 
or  a  disturbance  of  the  digestive  system.  It  is  rather  a  disturbance  of  the  gen- 
eral metabolism  in  which  the  fats  formed  from  the  food  consumed  are  not 
properly  oxidized  or  burned  in  the  tissues,  but  are  deposited  as  such.  The 
disease  which  causes  obesity  may,  however,  originate  in  the  over-stimulation 
of  the  digestive  organs  through  excessive  eating.  In  many  instances  this 
38 


cjS  infants'  and  invalids'  foods. 

over-stimulation  does  not  result  in  the  taking  on  of  an  undue  amount  of  fat, 
while  in  others  the  fat-forming  habit  develops  as  any  other  disease  would 
develop  in  similar  circumstances. 

A  diet  which  is  properly  consumed  and  expended  by  one  individual,  and 
which  would  keep  that  person  in  a  lean  condition,  would  in  another  produce 
the  opposite  effect,  namely,  obesity,  which  tendency  may  be  transmitted  by 
heredity,  and  might  be  characterized  as  an  inborn  error  of  metaboHsm. 

The  capacity  of  the  body  to  utilize  food  materials  in  its  economy  differs 
in  each  individual,  depending  on  numerous  factors  (worry,  excitement, 
climate,  occupation,  habits,  etc.).  When  food  is  supplied  in  excess  of  this 
capacity,  it  is  stored  in  the  body  chiefly  as  fat. 

The  literature  on  patent  and  secret  remedies  is  full  of  so-called  cures  for 
excessive  fat.  I  do  not  believe  that  any  of  these  claims  are  founded  on  a  scien- 
tific basis.  If  the  patient  loses  in  weight  under  the  influence  of  these  drugs, 
it  is  due  to  a  disturbance  of  the  digestion  caused  by  the  action  of  the  drug. 

Hare*s  Dietary. — Hare,  in  his  work  on  "Practical  Therapeutics,"*  recom- 
mends the  following  dietary  in  cases  of  obesity: 

The  food  of  the  patient  suffering  from  obesity  is  to  be  cut  down  gradually, 
and  the  character  of  it  arranged  so  that,  though  its  bulk  be  great,  its  nutritive 
properties  are  small.  Beef  and  other  meats  are  concentrated  foods  containing 
much  nourishment  in  a  small  bulk,  while  lettuce,  spinach,  cabbage,  and  nearly 
all  vegetables,  except  roots  or  tubers,  contain  a  large  amount  of  fiber  useless 
to  the  body.  By  the  use  of  a  carefully  arranged  vegetable  diet  in  obesity  we 
cut  down  the  actual  amount  of  food  absorbed,  and  by  its  bulk  keep  the  stomach 
so  busy  at  sifting  the  nutritious  from  the  non-nutritious  materials  that  hunger 
is  not  felt,  because  another  meal-time  is  reached  almost  before  the  food  of  the 
first  is  assimilated.  We  find,  therefore,  that  the  diet  for  the  reduction  of  cor- 
pulence should  consist  chiefly  of  bulky  vegetables,  but  not  too  exclusively 
of  any  one  article  or  set  of  articles.  Heretofore  it  has  been  thought  that  pro- 
teids  (meats,  eggs,  etc.)  should  be  used  to  take  the  place  of  all  hydrocarbons, 
or  carbohydrates  (fats,  starches,  and  sugars),  but  this  is  not  physiologically 
correct,  as  both  forms  of  food  are  always  needed  for  health,  and  it  has  been 
found  that  proteids  may  be  converted  into  fats  in  the  body.  The  following  bill 
of  fare  will  be  found  of  service  in  the  treatment  of  obesity. 

Breakfast:  One  or  two  cups  of  coffee  or  tea,  without  milk  or  sugar,  but 
sweetened  with  a  fraction  of  a  grain  of  saccharin.  Three  ounces  of  toasted 
or  ordinary  white  bread  or  6  ounces  of  bran  bread.  Enough  butter  may  be 
used  to  make  the  bread  palatable — not  more  than  one  ounce.  Sliced  raw 
tomatoes  with  vinegar  or  cooked  tomatoes  without  any  sugar  or  fats.  This  diet 
may  be  varied  by  the  use  of  salted  or  fresh  fish  either  at  breakfast  or  at  dinner. 
This  fish  must  not  be  rich  like  salmon  or  sword-fish,  but  rather  like  perch  or 
other  small  fish. 

Noon  meal  (dinner) :  One  soup-plate  of  bouillon,  consomm^,  Julienne,  or 
other  thin  soup,  or  Mosquera's  beef-jelly,  followed  by  one  piece  of  the  white 
meat  of  any  form  of  fowl  or  a  small  bird.  Sometimes  a  small  piece,  the  size 
of  one's  hand,  of  rare  beef  or  mutton,  but  no  fat,  may  be  allowed,  and  this 

*  Published  by  Lea  &  Febiger,  Philadelphia. 


QUANTITY    OF    FOOD.  579 

should  be  accompanied  by  string-beans,  celery  (stewed  or  raw),  spinach,  kale, 
cabbage,  beans,  asparagus,  leeks,  and  young  onions.  Following  this,  lettuce 
with  vinegar  and  a  Httle  olive  oil  (to  make  a  French  dressing),  a  cup  of  black 
coffee  or  one  of  tea,  and  a  little  acid  fruit,  such  as  sour  grapes,  tamarinds,  and 
sour  oranges  or  lemons,  may  be  taken,  and  followed  by  a  cigar  or  cigarette. 

Supper  should  consist  of  one  or  two  soft-boiled  eggs,  which  may  also  be 
poached,  but  not  fried,  a  few  ounces  of  bran  bread,  some  salad  and  fruit,  and 
perhaps  a  glass  or  two  of  hght,  dry  (not  sweet)  wine,  if  the  patient  is  accustomed 
to  its  use. 

Before  going  to  bed,  to  avoid  discomfort  from  a  sensation  of  hunger  during 
the  night,  the  patient  may  take  a  meal  of  panada,  or  he  may  soak  Graham  or 
bran  crackers  or  biscuits  in  water  and  flavor  the  mass  with  salt  and  pepper. 

The  reduction  of  diet  is  generally  best  accomplished  slowly,  and  should  be 
accompanied  by  measures  devoted  to  the  utihzation  of  the  fat  present  for  the 
support  of  the  body.  Thus  the  patient  should  not  be  too  heavily  clad,  either 
day  or  night,  should  resort  to  exercise,  daily  becoming  more  severe,  and  should 
not  drink  freely  of  water,  unless  sweating  is  established  sufficiently  freely  to 
prevent  the  accumulation  of  hquid  in  vessels  and  tissues." 

Fats  in  the  Diet  for  Obesity. — The  fats  of  the  food  are  more  readily 
oxidized  and  are  a  more  immediate  source  of  energy  than  carbohydrates  and 
proteins,  both  of  which  are  sources  of  fats  in  the  body.  I  believe, in  spite  of  this 
capacity  for  utilizing  energy  which  is  readily  supplied  by  fats,  that  it  would 
be  harder  to  retard  the  development  of  corpulency  if  the  diet  contained  a 
great  amount  of  this  constituent.  Therefore,  fats  as  well  as  carbohydrates 
should  be  excluded  as  far  as  possible  from  the  diet  in  cases  of  obesity. 

Effect  of  Sugars  and  Starches. — It  is  generally  held  among  physiologists 
that  the  sugars  and  starches  are  more  disposed  to  produce  corpulency  than  the 
fats,  and  lean  meats,  and  vegetables  poor  in  sugar  and  starch.  In  selecting  a 
diet  to  correct  overweight,  it  is  advisable  to  exclude  therefrom  all  bodies  which 
are  excessively  rich  in  starch  and  sugar.  It  is  manifestly  impossible  and  un- 
desirable, under  ordinary  circumstances,  to  secure  a  diet  in  which  neither 
sugar  nor  starch  is  found;  but  it  is  possible  to  so  modify  a  diet  that  it  may 
contain  less  starch  and  sugar,  and  be  richer  in  nitrogenous  matters,  such  as 
are  represented  by  peas,  beans,  lean  meats,  etc. 

Quantity  of  Food. — Having  so  modified  the  diet  the  next  step  is  to  limit 
it  to  the  smallest  quantity  that  will  preserve  heahh.  The  best  remedy  for 
obesity  is  hunger,  but  the  use  of  this  remedy  requires  great  force  of  will  and 
strength  of  character,  so  that  it  is  not  easy  to  secure  volunteers  for  this  kind  of 
treatment.  If  the  patient  is  really  in  earnest  about  reducing  his  weight,  and 
every  one  who  is  overweight  should  be,  there  is  no  method  which  can  be  recom- 
mended, not  injurious  to  health,  that  is  so  effective  as  the  limitation  of  the 
diet.  Having  chosen  a  diet  poor  in  starch  and  sugar,  it  should  be  limited  to  a 
small  number  of  calories  per  day,  not  exceeding,  for  the  average  man,  2000 
to  2500. 


580  infants'  and  invalids'  foods.     " 

Utility  of  Exercise. — A  very  efficient  method  of  aiding  in  the  reduction 
of  weight,  as  noted  in  Hare's  dietary,  is  by  judicious  exercise.  It  has  been 
urged  as  an  objection  to  exercise  that  this  itself  increases  the  desire  for  food. 
Of  this  there  is  no  question,  but  we  are  assuming  in  this  instance  that  the 
patient  has  will  power  enough  to  limit  his  food  to  the  small  quantities  men- 
tioned. If  this  be  the  case,  the  conjunction  of  proper  exercise  with  a  limited 
diet  will  hasten  the  cure.  I  have  nothing  to  say  here  respecting  the  character 
of  the  exercise,  except  that  it  should  be  such  as  to  bring  into  action  as  many 
muscles  of  the  body  as  possible,  but  not  be  too  violent  nor  too  long  continued. 
Exercise  increases  the  katabolic  activities  of  the  body;  in  other  words,  it 
implies  the  consumption  of  a  greater  amount  of  heat  and  energy.  This  heat 
and  energy  must  either  come  from  the  food  itself,  or  from  the  tissues  of  the 
body.  The  object  of  the  exercise,  conjoined  with  the  limited  diet,  is  to  oxidize 
and  thus  remove  the  excessive  quantities  of  tissue. 

Gradual  Loss  of  Weight. — Attention  should  be  called,  of  course,  to  the 
danger  of  extreme  depletion.  The  limitation  of  the  diet  and  the  vigor  of  the 
exercise  should  not  be  carried  to  such  an  extreme  as  to  actually  induce  the 
perils  of  starvation.  In  all  cases  it  is  better  to  lose  flesh  slowly  than  suddenly. 
A  gradual  loss  of  overweight  will  leave  the  body  still  in  excellent  condition, 
with  all  the  organs  gradually  becoming  accustomed  to  the  diminishing  weight. 
The  result  will  be  that  when  the  normal  weight  is  finally  reached,  all  the 
organs  of  the  body  will  be  in  a  healthy  state,  the  appetite  will  be  under  control, 
and  the  patient  will  be  able  to  maintain  the  condition  of  equilibrium.  This 
will  assist  in  preventing  a  recurrence  of  the  deposition  of  fat,  which  otherwise 
will  readily  take  place  if  the  diet  be  again  increased  and  the  exercise  dimin- 
ished. The  normal  weight  for  a  man  six  feet  high  may  be  assumed  as  190 
to  200  pounds,  and  the  body  will  be  more  effective  for  both  mental  and  physi- 
cal work  if  it  is  not  saddled  with  a  handicap  of  excessive  fat.  The  most  im- 
portant point,  aside  from  the  general  directions  given,  is  to  avoid  the  antifat 
nostrums  and  the  theories  of  unscientific  enthusiasts.  We  are  Already  a  nation 
largely  addicted  to  the  taking  of  drugs,  and  the  amazing  virtues  of  remedies 
for  all  physical  and  mental  ills  are  heralded  by  one's  friends  and  by  adver- 
tisements ad  finitum.  As  before  stated,  these  remedies  rarely,  if  ever,  are 
efficacious  in  reducing  weight  and  they  may  be  harmful. 


DIET  IN  TUBERCULOSIS. 
Nature  of  the  Disease  and  Importance  of  Diet. — Tuberculosis  is  a 
disease  which  in  its  most  common  form  attacks  the  tissues  of  the  lungs,  but 
there  is  scarcely  any  part  of  the  body,  not  even  the  bones,  that  is  exempt  from 
its  ravages.  Modern  investigations  have  placed  it  among  the  infectious  dis- 
eases, the  specific  cause  of  the  disease  being  the  tubercular  bacillus,  which 


DIFFERING    OPINIONS    AS    TO    CHARACTER    AND   AMOUNT    OF    FOOD.       58 1 

is  introduced  into  the  system  through  either  the  lungs  or  the  digestive  organs. 
The  vigorous  and  well-nourished  body  is  able  to  withstand  an  infection  of  this 
kind  and  to  destroy  the  infecting  germ  before  it  succeeds  in  effecting  lodg- 
ment. If,  on  the  contrary,  the  infecting  organism  is  introduced  into  a  system 
of  low  vitality  and  small  resistance,  it  finds  an  easy  lodgment  and  develops 
rapidly.  In  all  cases  of  tuberculosis  one  of  the  first  symptoms,  after  the  disease 
has  become  established,  is  the  progressive  loss  of  weight,  due  to  disturbed 
metabolism  or  inabihty  to  digest  or  assimilate  food  products.  Accompanying 
the  loss  of  weight  there  is  nearly  always  a  distinct  rise  of  temperature  amounting 
to  as  much  as  2  degrees  during  the  day,  in  the  early  stages  of  the  disease,  and 
returning  to  normal  by  morning.  Hence  the  ''hectic  flush"  often  observed 
in  the  case  of  consumptives.  The  daily  rise  of  temperature  is  an  important 
index  as  regards  both  diagnosis  and  treatment. 

Exercise  is  strictly  controlled  in  certain  sanitoria.  Sometimes  when  the 
patient  is  first  admitted  he  is  put  to  bed  or  compelled  to  sit  absolutely  quiet 
the  whole  time.  Later  he  is  allowed  a  prescribed  number  of  turns  on  the  porch, 
and  the  amount  of  exercise  is  gradually  increased  or  decreased,  and  the  diet 
modified  as  the  indices  of  improvement,  namely,  weight  and  temperature, 
change  for  better  or  worse. 

It  has  for  many  years  been  one  of  the  most  important  studies  of  the  medical 
fraternity  to  establish  a  system  of  diet  in  tuberculosis  which  would  add  addi- 
tional power  to  the  system  for  overcoming,  through  its  own  efforts,  the  ravages 
of  the  disease,  locahzing  the  infection  to  particular  tissues,  and  preventing 
its  spread.  While  it  is  probably  impossible  to  effect  a  complete  cure  of  tuber- 
culosis unless  treatment  is  begun  in  its  earliest  stages,  it  is  undoubtedly 
possible  to  check  its  advance  and  so  nourish  and  support  the  system  as  to 
prolong  life  for  an  indefinite  period.  Among  the  sanitary  aids  which  are 
employed  for  this  purpose  living  in  the  open  air  and  a  proper  diet  are  the  most 
important. 

Differing  Opinions  as  to  Character  and  Amount  of  Food. — The  greatest 
difference  of  opinion  is  found  among  the  medical  fraternity  in  regard  to  the 
diet  to  be  recommended.  In  some  instances  a  strictly  vegetable  diet  has 
been  prescribed,  and  in  others  an  exclusive  meat  diet.  Milk,  and  also  milk 
and  eggs,  have  been  highly  recommended.  Formerly,  alcohol  was  supposed 
to  be  a  means  of  limiting  or  restricting  the  disease,  but  this  view  is  no  longer 
held  by  most  competent  authorities  on  the  subject.  A  deficiency  of  lime  in 
the  food  has  also  been  mentioned  as  a  possible  factor  in  causing  tuber- 
culosis. 

Lately  a  theory  of  treatment  has  gained  much  vogue  which  is  based  on  the 
overfeeding  idea.  The  principle  involved  is  that  if  the  appetite  alone  be  con- 
sulted, the  patient  will  not  eat  a  sufficient  amount  of  nourishing  food  to  secure 
the  desired  result.    As  long,  therefore,  as  the  digestive  organs  remain  capable 


582 


INFANTS'   AND   INVALIDS'   FOODS 


of  discharging  their  functions,  the  utilization  of  the  extra  energy  of  these 
organs  has  been  applied  to  a  restoration  of  a  state  of  health  in  the  diseased 
organs.  Very  good  results  have  been  secured  in  many  cases  by  overfeeding, 
that  is,  by  forced  feeding,  so  to  speak,  the  patient  being  required  to  swallow 
more  food  than  his  appetite  demands.  Naturally,  the  foods  selected  for  this 
purpose  are  those  which  are  most  digestible  and  best  suited  to  secure  the  end 
in  view.  Milk,  eggs,  bread,  fruit  juices,  sour  milk,  fermented  milk,  meats 
of  healthy  animals,  butter  and  other  edible  fats,  including  oils,  have  all  been 
recommended  to  a  greater  or  less  extent. 

Forced  Feeding  in  Normal  Individuals. — It  is  of  interest  to  compare 
the  effects  of  forced  feeding  on  individuals  in  normal  health  with  those  of 
similar  methods  in  cases  of  impaired  metabolism,  a  condition  which  usually 
attends  tuberculosis.  Enghsh  scientists  connected  with  the  Brompton  Hos- 
pital have  made  a  study  of  the  effects  of  forced  feeding  on  normal  individuals, 
and  the  following  results  are  recorded  by  Bardswell,  Goodbody,  and  Chapman, 
in  the  ''Journal  of  Physiology"  for  1902: 

1.  A  marked  increase  in  the  amount  of  nitrogen  excreted. 

2.  A  diminution  in  the  absorption  of  fat. 

3.  No  diminution  in  the  absorption  of  nitrogen. 

4.  A  rapid  and  large  gain  in  weight,  which  was  in  every  case  associated 
with  marked  impairment  of  general  health.  The  chief  symptoms  resulting 
from  the  overfeeding  were  loss  of  appetite,  nausea,  dyspepsia,  drowsiness, 
abdominal  discomfort,  and  diarrhea. 

5.  The  weight  gained  was  rapidly  lost  on  return  to  ordinary  feeding. 

Results  of  Experiments  on  Tubercular  Patients. — Many  investiga- 
tions have  been  made  in  England  respecting  the  effect  of  diet  on  tubercu- 
losis, both  as  a  means  of  amelioration  and  arrest.  Important  studies  have  been 
carried  out  at  the  Brompton  Hospital  of  diets  of  different  types  and  magni- 
tudes. The  typical  diets  employed  are  shown  in  the  following  tabular  state- 
ment: 

ORDINARY  DIET. 
(Per  Day.     P.  =  Protein;   F.  =  Fat;    C.  H.  =  Carbohydrates.) 

Milk  (pints), 3 

Cooked  meat, oz 3 

Cooked  bacon, " i 

Butter, " I 

Bread, " 8 

Sugar , " I 

Cooked  vegetables, . . " 4 

Rice  pudding, " 5 

Nutritive  value  (approximately): 
P.  F.  C.  H.       Cals. 

115         121         240         2590 


RESULTS    OF    EXPERIMENTS    ON   TUBERCULAR    PATIENTS.  583 

MODERATELY  LARGE  DIET. 

Milk  (pints), 4 

Bread, oz 6 

Cooked  meat, " 7 

Cooked  vegetables,. . " 4 

Butter, " 2 

Cooked  egg, " i 

Cooked  bacon, " 1.5 

Sugar, " - 2 

Rice  pudding, " 5 

Grapes, " 4 

Nutritive  value  (approximately) :  y 

P.  F.  C.  H.        Cals. 

160         179         271         3442 

VERY  LARGE  DIET. 

Milk  (pints), 5 

Cooked  chicken, oz 4 

Cooked  bacon, " 2 

Eggs, " 2 

Butter, " 2\ 

Bread, " 11 

Sugar ,. " 3 

Rice  pudding, " 5 

Cooked  vegetables, " 6 

Fruit  (grapes  and  figs), . . " 8 

Somatose,    " 3 

Lactose, " i 

Nutritive  value  (approximately) : 
P.  F.  C.  H.        Cals. 

271  231  390       5026 

The  conclusions  which  were  drawn  from  the  experiments  in  the  Brompton 
Hospital  are  as  follows: 

1.  The  patients  made  very  satisfactory  progress  both  clinically  and  experi- 
mentally when  the  ordinary  diets  first  prescribed  to  them  were  somewhat  in- 
creased;  in  short,  when  treated  with  moderately  large  diets. 

2.  These  comparatively  large  diets  were  especially  well  borne  by  patients 
much  below  their  weights.  They  did  not  give  such  satisfactory  results  in 
patients  up  to  weight  and  with  arrested  disease.  The  patients  made  much 
less  satisfactory  all-around  progress  on  the  very  large  diets  than  on  the  diets 
of  considerably  smaller  nutritive  value. 

3.  Weight  was  gained  in  nearly  every  case,  in  some  to  a  very  large  extent 
and  very  rapidly,  but  this  gain  of  body-weight  was  not  associated  with  any 
more  satisfactory  progress  in  the  tubercular  lesion  than  was  obtained  with  the 
smaller  diets;  on  the  other  hand,  general  health  suffered  considerably,  as  in- 
dicated by  failure  of  appetite,  marked  digestive  and  intestinal  derangements, 
and  in  one  case  vomiting. 

4.  In  spite  of  the  fact  that  the  clinical  conditions  of  the  patients  observed 
were  widely  different,  and  that  the  digestive  system  in  at  least  two  of  the  pa- 
tients was  obviously  impaired,  the  digestion  and  absorption  of  both  nitrogen 
and  fat  were  uniformly  good.  This  was  so  even  in  the  case  of  patients  with 
high  fever.     The  absorption  of  fats  was  excellent,  although  very  large  quan- 


584  infants'  and  invalids'  foods. 

titles  were  sometimes  given;  e.  g.,  with  an  intake  of  231.3  grams,  96.4  percent 
was  absorbed. 

5.  It  was  noticeable  that  the  patients  complained  least  of  digestive  discom- 
fort on  the  diets  that  gave  the  best  resuUs  experimentally. 

6.  With  regard  to  the  nitrogen:  When  the  amount  of  proteid  in  the  diet  was 
much  increased,  it  resulted  in: 

(a)  An  increased  excretion  of  nitrogen  out  of  all  proportion  to  the  increased 
amount  retained  in  the  body. 

(b)  A  diminution  in  the  percentage  of  nitrogen  excreted  as  urea,  and  con- 
sequently an  increase  in  the  percentage  amount  excreted  in  a  less  oxidized 
form,  indicating  diminished  nitrogen  elaboration. 

(c)  Diminution  in  the  percentage  of  nitrogen  absorbed. 

(d)  An  increase  in  the  amount  of  aromatic  sulphates  excreted,  indicating 
increased  intestinal  putrefaction. 

Economy  of  Feeding. — It  is  evident  that  if  cheaper  foods  are  found  to  be 
just  as  nutritious  and  just  as  efficacious  in  cases  of  tuberculosis  and  other 
diseases,  it  is  highly  important,  for  the  sake  of  the  poor,  that  the  prescribed 
diet  should  cost  as  little  as  possible.  In  view  of  the  fact  that  meat  is  the  most 
expensive  article  of  diet,  studies  have  been  made  of  meat-free  diets  and  meat- 
rich  diets,  both  as  to  efficiency  and  as  therapeutic  agents,  and  also  as  regards 
comparative  merit  of  nutrition.  The  general  results  of  these  investigations 
show  that  there  is  much  to  be  said  on  both  sides.  The  weight  of  medical 
opinion,  however,  inclines  to  the  opinion  that  a  diet  reasonably  rich  in  meat 
is  to  be  generally  preferred.  In  such  matters  the  same  instructions  should 
govern  as  those  relating  to  the  removal  of  the  patient  to  a  different  locality. 
As  is  well  known,  one  of  the  most  frequent  remedial  agents  suggested  to  the 
patient  is  a  change  of  climate,  and  also,  incidentally,  a  change  of  surroundings, 
of  friends,  and  of  physicians.  Such  advice  may  be  valuable  to  those  who  are 
able  to  follow  it,  but  in  very  many  cases  it  is  utterly  impossible,  for  financial 
reasons,  for  the  patient  to  be  removed  to  a  different  locality.  Often  very  good 
results  are  obtained  by  changing  one's  habits  of  Hfe,  sleeping  out  of  doors, etc., 
without  leaving  one's  home.  In  the  same  way,  when  the  patient  can  afford  it, 
the  best  possible  diet,  irrespective  of  its  cost,  should  be  provided.  But  if  this 
is  not  practicable,  the  very  best  diet  within  reach  of  his  means  should  be  se- 
cured, and  a  practically  meat-free  diet  may  yield  very  satisfactory  results 
at  much  less  cost. 

Advantages  and  Disadvantages  of  a  Meat-free  Diet. — Comparative 
statistics  have  been  compiled  by  English  scientists  on  the  economy  of  different 
methods  of  feeding  in  cases  of  tuberculosis,  and  the  advantages  and  disad- 
vantages of  each. 

The  advantages  of  a  meat-free  diet  observed  by  the  English  authorities 
are  as  follows:  "The  great  advantage  of  a  meat-free  diet  is  its  small  cost.  For 
example:   The  meat-free  diet  taken  by  patient  i,  which  had  a  nutritive  value 


ADVANTAGES    AND    DISADVANTAGES    OF    A   MEAT-FREE  DIET.  585 

of  proteid  175,  fat  146,  carbohydrate  550,  cost  27.5  cents  a  day.  If  all  the  pro- 
teid  given  in  the  form  of  pulse  in  this  diet  had  been  replaced  by  proteid  in  the 
shape  of  meat,  the  cost  of  the  diet  would  have  been  increased  to  42.5  cents  a 
day,  an  extra  cost  of  55  percent." 

The  same  authorities  have  studied  particularly  the  disadvantages  of  a 
meat-free  diet,  and  their  conclusions  are  as  follows: 

There  are  certain  serious  disadvantages  in  an  entirely  meat-free  diet.  In 
the  first  place,  a  diet  such  as  we  used,  namely,  one  in  which  the  proteid  is 
given  chiefly  in  the  form  of  pulse,  is,  of  necessity,  of  a  bulky'character. 

The  large  bulk  of  these  meat-free  diets,  as  compared  with  a  diet  containing  a 
similar  amount  of  proteid  from  animal  sources,  is  due  to  the  fact  that  although 
uncooked  meat  and  pulses  have  approximately  the  same  proteid  value,  meat, 
in  the  process  of  cooking,  loses  water,  whereas  the  pulses,  by  the  time  they  are 
fit  for  eating,  have  taken  up  water  to  the  extent  of  twice  their  own  weight.  For 
example,  a  sirloin  contains  in  its  uncooked  condition  roughly  20  percent  of 
proteid,  but  when  cooked,  owing  to  the  loss  of  water,  its  proteid  value  rises 
to  28  percent.  On  the  other  hand,  the  average  percentage  composition  of 
pulses,  as  regards  proteid,  is  about  23  percent  in  the  uncooked  condition,  but 
after  the  absorption  of  water  during  cooking,  the  percentage  composition  only 
amounts  to  a  little  over  8.  To  secure  any  given  amount  of  proteid,  a  bulk 
of  vegetable  food  is  required  some  four  times  as  great  as  would  be  necessary 
if  animal  food  were  used.  This  fact  is  a  great  practical  obstacle  to  the 
more  general  use  of  vegetable  proteid  in  dietaries  for  consumptives.  It  is 
sometimes  found  a  difficult  matter  to  get  patients  with  normal  appetites  and 
digestions  to  take  a  sufficiently  large  diet  when  the  pulses  are  relied  upon  as 
the  source  of  proteid.  This  difficulty  experienced  in  the  case  of  patients  with 
good  appetites,  etc.,  becomes  a  matter  of  impossibility  when  dealing  with 
patients  with  marked  anorexia. 

Another  disadvantage  of  these  meat-free  diets  is  the  difficulty  of  making 
them  sufficiently  appetizing.  To  make  a  diet  of  pulses  really  palatable  re- 
quires considerable  skill  in  cooking,  a  skill  which  the  average  working-class 
housewife  does  not  possess.  Unless  handled  and  varied  with  considerable 
care,  a  diet  made  up  largely  of  pulses  is  somewhat  insipid,  and  lacks  the  flavor 
and  variety  of  the  ordinary  meat  diet.  Further,  prejudice  and  custom,  espe- 
cially amongst  the  lower  classes,  are  opposed  to  the  adoption  of  a  largely  vege- 
table diet,  but  the  feeling  in  favor  of  a  meat  diet  is  perhaps  not  so  strong  as  it 
used  to  be. 

Another  objection  to  the  use  of  a  large  quantity  of  pulses  in  a  diet  is  the  rela- 
tively low  proportion  of  it  which  is  absorbed  in  the  alimentary  canal  as  com- 
pared with  the  proportion  of  meat  which  is  absorbed. 

We  were  unfortunately  unable  to  ascertain  the  exact  amounts  of  the  pulses 
absorbed  in  the  case  of  our  patients,  but  such  evidence  as  we  possess,  viz., 
the  gain  in  weight,  which  was  rapid,  the  fact  that  the  amount  of  nitrogen  in  the 
urine  did  not  decrease  compared  with  its  excretion  on  an  ordinary  mixed  diet, 
and  the  excellent  chnical  results  obtained,  indicate  that  at  all  events  intestinal 
absorption  was  quite  satisfactory. 

Metabolic  observations  of  a  somewhat  limited  nature  showed  that  in  the 
case  of  patients  with  normal  alimentary  canals,  these  large  meat-free  diets 


586  infants'  and  invalids'  foods. 

did  not  give  rise  to  any  intestinal  troubles;    for  instance,  regular  observation 
showed  that  at  no  time  was  there  increased  intestinal  putrefaction. 
To  summarize,  then,  the  results  of  our  observations  show  that — 

1.  Vegetable  proteid,  as  the  main  source  of  the  daily  intake  of  proteid  in  a 
diet  for  the  tuberculous,  is  thoroughly  satisfactory  so  long  as  a  sufficient  amount 
of  it  is  taken. 

2.  The  clinical  resuks  obtained,  when  treating  consumptives  upon  meat-free 
diets  of  an  adequate  nutritive  value,  are  often  quite  as  good  as  the  results 
that  are  obtained  when  ordinary  meat  diets  of  similar  nutritive  value  are  used. 

3.  Owing  to  the  bulky  nature  of  a  meat- free  diet,  its  use  is  restricted  to 
patients  with  normal,  or  approximately  normal,  appetites  and  digestions,  and 
is  unsuitable  for  the  treatment  of  those  with  marked  impairment  of  the  ali- 
mentary tract. 

4.  The  use  of  vegetable  proteid  in  the  place  of  all  the  meat  usually  prescribed 
in  an  ordinary  meat  diet  effects  an  economy  of  some  ^^  percent. 

5.  When  economy  is  an  object,  the  necessary  proteid  in  a  dietary  should  be 
given  at  least  in  part  in  the  form  of  vegetable  proteid.  In  the  case  of  individuals 
with  normal  appetites  and  digestions,  the  meat  of  an  ordinary  mixed  diet  can 
be  altogether  replaced  by  pulses,  but  such  an  entirely  meat-free  diet  is,  on 
several  grounds,  not  entirely  satisfactory,  and  should  not  be  used  unless  very 
strict  economy  is  essential. 

Views  of  the  Illinois  State  Board  of  Health. — The  following  sugges- 
tions made  by  the  Illinois  State  Board  of  Health  concerning  diet  in  tuberculosis 
illustrate  the  consensus  of  medical  opinion  on  this  subject  at  the  present  time : 

There  is  no  question  but  that  the  consumptive  needs  an  abundance  of  prop- 
erly cooked,  wholesome,  digestible  food,  at  suitable  intervals.  But  consump- 
tives are  often  advised  to  eat  more  than  they  should  and  to  eat  at  too  frequent 
intervals,  and  consumptives  are  too  often  "stuffed"  with  food.  It  is  difficult 
to  say  how  much  a  consumptive  should  eat,  or  how  often  he  should  be  fed. 
Proper  advice  cannot  well  be  given  in  an  individual  case  without  due  regard 
to  the  patient's  digestive  powers,  and  the  adequacy  of  his  kidneys. 

Many  a  patient  who  is  losing  weight  on  seven  meals  a  day,  will  gain  if  the 
number  be  reduced  to  three  or  four. 

Food  should  not  be  given  to  a  consumptive,  or  to  any  one  for  that  matter, 
while  undigested  food  remains  in  the  stomach. 

The  diet  must  be  varied,  and  it  must  be  borne  in  mind  that  a  diet  suitable 
for  one  consumptive  may  prove  decidedly  unsuitable  for  another.  Individual 
tastes  must  be  consulted.  It  is  essential,  however,  that  the  patient  be  "made" 
to  like  certain  articles  of  food  to  which  he  has  formed  a  dislike,  or  concerning 
which  he  has  formed  wrong  notions, — milk  and  eggs,  for  instance, — but  too 
much  should  not  be  attempted  at  once. 

Many  patients  dislike  milk,  which  is  an  absolute  necessity  in  the  dietetic 
treatment  of  consumption.  They  say  that  it  makes  them  bilious  and  consti- 
pated. Milk  does  not  constipate,  except  possibly  in  small  "doses."  In  large 
quantities,  i.  e.,  one  to  three  quarts  a  day,  milk  is  a  laxative,  and  as  such  is 
much  appreciated  by  persons  who  have  a  tendency  to  constipation. 

Patients  will  better  appreciate  the  necessity  for  milk-drinking  if  it  is  ex- 
plained to  them  that  one  glass  of  good  milk  contains  as  much  nutritive  material 


VIEWS    OF   THE    ILLINOIS    STATE    BOARD    OF    HEALTH.  587 

as  two  eggs,  three  ounces  of  lean  meat,  sixteen  ounces  of  oysters,  one  ounce 
of  cocoa  or  cheese,  or  two  ounces  of  bread. 

If  a  patient  will  eat  three  good  meals  a  day — rare  beef  or  mutton  is  excellent 
for  a  consumptive — and  drink  a  few  glasses  of  milk,  say  three,  between  meals, 
there  need  be  no  great  anxiety  as  to  the  sufficiency  of  the  diet.  But  soHd  food 
cannot  be  given  with  safety  when  the  temperature  goes  above  101°  F. 

And  many  patients  will  not  eat  three  good  meals.  So  to  those  and  others 
in  the  advanced  stages  of  the  disease  who  are  losing  weight  rapidly,  easily 
assimilated  food  must  be  given  at  more  frequent  intervals.  Here  milk  and 
eggs  will  be  found  indispensable,  alone,  or  as  an  adjunct  to  other  food. 

But  while  milk  and  eggs  have  helped  many  consumptives  to  health,  neither 
of  these  nor  any  other  articles  of  diet  can  be  taken  alone,  for  any  continued 
period.    The  diet  must  be  varied. 

Sample  Dietary. — The  following  dietary,  subject,  of  course,  to  changes  to 
suit  the  individual  case,  will  give  some  idea  of  the  food  to  be  allowed  a  con- 
sumptive whose  digestion  is  good: 

7  :oo  A.  M.  Fruit,  cereal,  toast  and  butter.  Two  raw  or  soft  boiled  eggs, 
one  or  two  glasses  of  milk. 

10:00  A.  M.     Two  glasses  of  milk,  crackers,  bread  and  butter  or  toast. 

12 :3o  p.  M.  Soup,  rare  roast  beef,  or  lamb  or  mutton,  or  turkey,  or  steak,  or 
chicken,  sweetbreads,  one  or  two  vegetables,  hke  potatoes,  beets,  peas,  beans, 
corn,  spinach,  cauliflower,  asparagus,  turnips.  Bread  and  butter  and  choco- 
late, coffee  or  cocoa.  A  lettuce  salad,  with  olive  oil,  if  the  patient  likes  it. 
Baked  or  stewed  apples,  bread  pudding,  rice,  custard,  junket,  or  the  Hke. 
Almonds,  walnuts,  or  pecans,  form  a  valuable  addition  to  the  consumptive's 
diet. 

4:00  P.M.     Two  glasses  of  milk,  with  one  or  two  eggs.    Bread  and  butter. 

7  :oo  p.  M.  One  or  two  glasses  of  milk.  Two  eggs.  Bread  and  butter  with 
jelly  or  jam.  Meat  may  be  given  with  the  last  meal,  especially  if  the  mid-day 
meal  was  light.    Meat  should  never  be  cooked  twice. 

General  Rules  in  Regard  to  Eating. — Food  should  be  eaten  slowly,  and  be 
well  chewed.    The  consumptive  must  not  ''bolt"  his  meals. 

Milk  should  be  drunk  slowly.  It  will  be  still  better  if  it  be  sipped.  The 
common  way  of  drinking  milk,  in  great  swallows,  one  after  another,  is  the 
principal  cause  of  its  being  indigestible.  The  addition  of  a  pinch  of  salt  often 
makes  the  milk  more  palatable. 

Eggs  should  be  served  in  a  variety  of  w^ays:  raw,  hght  boiled,  poached, 
shirred,  baked  or  light  fried.  But  they  are  best  when  taken  raw.  If  the  pa- 
tient gets  a  dislike  to  the  taste  of  eggs,  he  should  swallow  them  whole.  This 
can  easily  be  done  by  breaking  the  eggs  in  a  glass,  and  covering  them  with 
milk  or  a  little  hght  wine  and  "tossing  it  off." 

Butter  is  very  fattening,  and  it  is  well  for  consumptive  patients  to  partake 
freely  of  bread  and  butter,  provided  always  that  it  does  not  upset  the  digestion. 

If  the  patient  is  run  down,  fats  should  be  given  him.  Butter  and  cream  are 
excellent.  So  are  fatty  fish,  eels,  salmon,  and  sardines,  also  vegetables  pre- 
pared with  a  great  deal  of  fats.    Give  plenty  of  vegetables. 

Horseradish,  vinegar,  mustard,  lemon  juice,  etc.,  tend  to  stimulate  the  appe- 
tite. 

Sometimes  the  digestive  system  becomes  clogged,  and  the  patient  shows 


rgg  infants'   and   INVALIDS'   FOODS. 

a  disgust  for  food.    Here  it  would  be  well  to  cut  out  eggs  and  milk  for  a  week, 
and  consult  a  physician,  who  may  prescribe  a  laxative  and  a  tonic. 

To  properly  digest  this  number  of  meals,  the  patient  must  remain  out  of 
doors  the  greater  part  of  the  time. 

Dr.  Alfred  L.  Lccmis  gives  the  following  good  general  rules  to  follow  in 
relation  to  eating: 

1.  Food  should  be  taken  at  least  six  times  in  the  twenty-four  hours;  light 
repasts  between  meals  and  on  retiring. 

2.  Never  eat  when  suffering  from  bodily  or  mental  fatigue  or  nervous 
excitement. 

3.  Take  a  nap,  or  at  least  lie  down,  for  twenty  minutes  before  the  mid-day 
and  evening  meals. 

4.  Take  only  a  small  amount  of  fluid  with  the  meals. 

5.  The  starches  and  sugars  should  be  avoided,  as  also  all  indigestible  ar- 
ticles of  diet. 

6.  As  far  as  possible,  each  meal  should  consist  of  articles  requiring  about 
the  same  time  to  digest. 

7.  Eat  only  as  much  as  can  be  easily  and  fully  digested  in  the  time  allowed. 

8.  As  long  as  possible  systematic  exercise  should  be  taken  to  favor  assimi- 
lation and  excretion;  when  this  is  impossible  massage  or  passive  exercise 
should  be  undergone. 

9.  The  food  must  be  nicely  prepared  and  daintily  served;  made  inviting 
in  every  way. 

Dietary  for  Those  Having  Large  Appetites. — Dr.  Albert  P.  Francine, 
in  his  recently  published  work  on  ''Pulmonary  Tuberculosis,"  suggests  the 
following  as  a  full  dietary  suitable  for  patients  with  large  appetites  and  good 
digestion.  Naturally  small  eaters  could  not  follow  this  without  modifica- 
tion, and  here  is  emphasized  the  necessity  for  individualization: 

7  A.  M.     One  pint  of  milk  and  two  raw  eggs,  taken  in  bed. 

8:30  A.M.  Breakfast.  Fresh  fruit,  cereal,  bacon,  salmon,  herring,  or 
tender  steak,  chop  or  chicken;  dry  toast,  wheat  bread  or  corn  bread;  a  pint 
of  milk  or  cup  of  coffee,  chocolate  or  cocoa. 

10  A.  M,     One  pint  of  milk  and  one  raw  egg. 

12:30-1  P.M.  Lunch  (heaviest  meal),  preceded  by  half  hour's  rest. 
Thick  soups — puree  of  vegetables,  especially  the  albuminous  legumen;  a 
roast  and  vegetables;  bread  with  plenty  of  fresh  butter;  simple  desserts 
with  sugar. 

4  p.  M.     One  pint  of  milk  and  one  raw  egg. 

6  P.M.  Supper,  preceded  by  half-hour's  rest.  Light,  simple  meal,  cold 
meats,  light  salads,  tongue,  sardines,  etc.  Pint  of  milk,  or  cup  of  weak  tea, 
or  cocoa. 

9  p.  M.     One  pint  of  milk  and  two  raw  eggs. 

9:30-10  p.  M.     Patient  goes  to  bed. 

The  patient  will  do  better  if  he  can  have  his  meals  at  a  table  where  others 
are  eating  and  enjoying  their  food.    But  a  consumptive  should  not  be  allowed 


NO   UNIVERSAL    DIET.  589 

to  sit  at  a  table  with  others,  unless  his  hands  and  face  have  been  carejully 
washed,  and  unless  he  is  able  to  suppress  his  cough  while  at  the  table. 

Pleasant  surroundings,  a  cheerful  dining-room,  an  inviting  table  with  a 
clean  cloth  and  napkins,  palatable,  well-cooked  food  attractively  served,  are 
all  essentials  in  the  dietetic  treatment  of  consumption.  ''  Lije  is  not  to  live,  hut 
to  he  welly 

Use  of  Alcohol. — A  few  words  in  conclusion  as  to  the  use  of  alcohol  (malt, 
beer,  whisky,  and  the  like)  in  consumption.  Alcohol  is  now  very  seldom  used 
in  the  treatment  of  consumption.  It  is  WTong;  it  is  fooHsh  to  imagine  that 
alcohol  has  any  specific  action  against  consumption.  Ordinarily  the  con- 
sumptive needs  no  alcohol.  Usually  he  is  better  off  without  it.  But  there  may 
be  cases  where  the  use  of  alcohol  is  permissible.  The  physician  is  the  best 
judge.  Alcohol  should  never  be  taken  by  a  consumptive  except  on  the  advice 
of  the  family  physician. 

While  many  competent  physicians  would  take  exception  to  some  of  these 
directions  and  physiologists  object  to  some  of  the  principles  of  nutrition  set 
forth,  the  statement  as  a  whole  well  represents  the  results  of  experience.  The 
supreme  importance  of  the  necessity  of  considering  each  patient  separately 
in  regard  to  his  diet  is  well  brought  out. 

No  Universal  Diet. — From  a  careful  review  of  all  the  material  which  has 
been  collected,  it  may  be  said  that  there  is  no  definite  system  of  diet  which 
can  be  prescribed  in  all  cases.  In  every  instance  the  peculiar  conditions  and 
environment  of  the  patient  must  be  studied,  and  if  a  generous  diet  is  decided 
upon,  it  must  be  selected  with  a  view  to  exciting  the  least  possible  disgust  or 
repugnance  on  the  part  of  the  patient.  To  this  end  the  various  nourishing 
foods  just  mentioned,  and  many  others  of  like  character,  may  be  tried  carefully 
for  the  purpose  of  seeing  which  is  tolerated  in  the  largest  quantity  by  the 
patient.  This  having  been  determined,  the  overfeeding  may  be  continued  as 
long  as  there  are  no  distinctly  unfavorable  symptoms  developed.  The  very 
moment,  however,  that  the  digestive  organs  become  so  overloaded  that  they 
themselves  become  diseased  by  reason  of  the  overfeeding,  it  is  impossible  to 
understand  how  its  continuance  could  result  in  any  benefit  to  the  patient.  This 
is  another  of  the  numerous  cases  in  which  it  is  apparent  that  general  theories 
of  diet  cannot  be  rigidly  appHed  in  all  cases  in  actual  practice.  That  the 
patient  should  be  nourished  goes  without  saying,  and  to  the  greatest  possible 
extent,  but  each  case  must  be  studied  carefully  by  a  competent  physician  in 
order  to  determine  the  character  and  quality  of  the  diet  best  suited  to  the 
condition  and  idiosyncrasies  of  the  patient. 


59© 


infants'  and  invalids'  foods. 


ANALYSIS  OF  INFANTS'  AND  INVALIDS'  FOODS. 
{Compiled  from  Various  Sources.) 


Carbo- 

Pro- 

FAT. 

hydrates. 

Ash. 

Name  of  Food. 

Water. 

tein. 

Solu- 
ble. 

Starch. 

Remarks. 

i 

i 

^ 

^ 

/» 

Albany  Food 

8.60 

9-50 

2.10 

79.40 

0.40 

Much     unchanged 
starch. 

Allenbury  No.  i  Food,    . 

1.82 

10.70 

16.79 

65-51 

1. 10 

4.08 

5-70 

9.70 

14.00 

66.85 

3-75 

83-30 

1.56 

2.30 

7.20 

0.60 

Ready  for  use. 

Allenbury  No.  2  Food,    . 

2.24 

10.23 

14.94 

67-54 

1.24 

3-81 

A    malted    meal    plus 

3-9f' 

9.20 

12.30 

72.10 

3-50 

No.  I  Food. 

Allenbury  No.  3  Food,    . 

3.00 

10.33 

1.05 

22.21 

62.91 

0.60 

Partly  malted  wheaten 

6.50 

9.20 

1.00 

82.80 

0.50 

flour. 

American-Swiss  Food,    . 

5-68 

10.54 

5-8i 

45-35        30.00 

1.21 

Much  cane  sugar. 

Anglo-Swiss  Food,  .   .   . 

6.50 

10.26 

4.91 

46.43        29.48 

2.02 

Much  cane  sugar. 

Bananina 

9.50 

4.10 

0.40 

84.00 

2.07 

A  banana  flour. 

Benger's  Food, 

11.29 

10.43 

1. 10 

9.90 

66.30 

0.96 

Much  digested  in  pre- 
paring. 

Much  unchanged 
starch. 

A  whole  meal  flour. 

Carnrick's  Soluble  Food, 

5-17 

16.69 

5-53 

28.11 

41.50 

3.00 

Chapman's  Whole  Flour, 
Cheltine  Infant's  Food,  . 

8.40 

9.40 

2.00 

79.30 

0.90 

7.20 

16.20 

3-92 

71.00  ' 

1.83 

Contains  much  starch. 

Cheltine  Maltose  Food,  . 

4.60 

5-30 

0.27 

87.60    1      .    . 

2.25 

Fully  malted 

Coomb's  Malted  Food,  . 

7.90 

12.10 

2.80 

76.80 

0.40 

Muchunalteredstarch. 

Cremalto, 

22.26 

6.40 

20.26 

44-67 

1-79 

Cream  and  malt. 

Diastased  Farina,     .   .   . 

8.30 

7.60 

1.30 

81.70 

l.IO 

Carbohydrates  said  to 
be  made  soluble    in 
preparation. 

Fairchild's  Milk  Powder, 

5-54 

1.19 

0.05 

92.00           .    . 

T.22 

Practically   milk 

Falona, 

7.00 

8.40 

3-50 

79-9 

1.20 

sugar. 
Cereals  and  a  fat-con- 

taining bean. 

Frame  Food, 

7.62 

13.69 

0.44 

22.33 

54.96 

0.96 

Not  so  rich  in  minerals 
as  claimed  to  be. 

Franco-Swiss  Food,     .   . 

4-43 

13.00 

3-70 
8.87 

46.09 

30.86 

1.42 

Much  cane  sugar. 

Horlick's  Malted  Milk,  . 

2-54 

15.40 

69.21 

0.18 

3-80 

Desiccated  milk,  50.0; 

(ready  for  use)    Chit- 
tenden,   

wheat    flour,    26.25 ; 

92.40 

I-I5 

0.60 

5-38 

0.29 

barley    malt,     23.00; 

and  sod.  bicarb.,  0.75. 

Horlick's  Malted  Food, . 

9.70 

10.43 

0.34 

76.83 

2.20 

Almost    completely 

malted. 
Fully  malted. 

Hovis  Babies'  Food,    .   . 

370 

7.70 

0.20 

86.60 

1.82 

Hovis  No.  2  Food,   .   .   . 

2.40 

5-70 

O.IO 

90.10 

1.70 

Starch  7.5  per  cent. 

Imperial  Granum,     .   .   . 

11.50 

10.91 

0.64 

5.73    1    70.22 

1. 00 

I.  and  I.  Food, 

5-50 

10.30 

11.87 

80.50 

1.40 

Mainly  starch. 

John  Bull  No.  1  Food,    . 

3.98 

21.00 

54-29 

5-32 

Maltose,  21.32;  lactose, 

29.42;  dextrin,  3.55. 
Maltose,    23.31 ;     dex- 

John Bull  No.  2  Food,    . 

1.68 

11.06 

0.68 

37-65 

43-30 

1-74 

trose,    1.32;   dextrin. 

5.38 ;  lactose,  7.65. 

Kufeke's  Infant  Food,     . 

8.37 

13-24 

1.69 

23.71 

50.76 

2.23 

Made  in  Germany, 

Lahmann's       Vegetable 

Milk 

24.40 

7-50 

24.60 

41.80 

1.50 

Made  from  nuts  and 

Loeflund's  Cream  Emul- 

can be  added  to  milk. 

sion,    ......... 

24.32 

8.23 

15-32 

49-43 

2.60 

A  thick  brown   paste 
made  from  milk  and 

■ 

malted      wheat     ex- 

tract. 

MalticoFood, 

2.36 

16.07 

11.80 

65.89 

3-88 

Composed  of  milk  and 
malted     cereals,    no 

1.63 

15-19 

17.19 

63.00 

2.99 

starch. 

Manhu  Infant  Food,    .   . 

8.80 

8.70 

5.60 

7590 

1.00 

Desiccated    milk  and 
malted  cereals,  much 
starch. 

Mellin's  Food, 

12.37 

10.07 

0.18 

68.18 

3-75 

It  is  a  desiccated  malt 

6.13 

7.81 

0.29 

75-65 

6-93 

3-17 

extract    from    wheat 

6.30 

7.90 

trace 

82.00 

3-80 

and  barley 
Desiccated  milk  with 

MiloFood, 

3.81 

14-34 

5-50 

58-93 

15-39 

2.03 

maltose  and  dextrins 

27.36,  and  cane  sugar 
25  percent. 
Complete    conversion 

Moseley's  Food,     .... 

10.84 

14.78 

1.84 

21.76 

49.06 

1.72 

dunng  mixing. 
Desiccated  milk,  pow- 

Muffler's Food, 

4.76 

15-19 

5.10 

72.42 

2.43 

5.63- 

14-34 

5-80 

27.41 

44-43 

2.39 

dered  white  of  ef^g;, 
wheat  flour  and  lac- 
tose. 

Neave's  Food 

5-03 

13.20 

1.70 

4.71 

74-27 

1.09 

Practically  all  starch. 

ANALYSIS    OF   INFANTS'   AND   INVALIDS'   FOODS. 


591 


Analysis  of  Infants'  and  Invalids'  Foods. — {Continued.) 


Name  of  Food. 


Nichol's  Food  of  Health, 
Nutroa  Food, 


Opmus  Food, 


Ovaltine, 

Phosphatine,  Fallidres, 


Ridge's  Food, 

Robinson's  Groats,   .   .   . 

Robinson's    Patent    Bar- 
ley,   

Savory  &  Moore's  Food. 


Scott's  Oat  Flour,     . 
Theinhart's  Hygiama, 


Triticumina  Food, 
Virol 


Well's    &    Richardson's 
Food 


Wheat  Flour,  .... 
Wheat  Flour,  baked, 
Worth's  Perfect  Food, 
Dried  Human  Milk,t 


Aylesbury    Dairy    Co.'s 

Humanized  Milks,  No. 

i,t 

Aylesbury    Dairy     Co.'s 

Humanized  Milks,  No. 

2,t 

Paget 's    Perfected    Milk 

Food,t 

Gaertner's  Fettmilch,t    • 
Condensed   Whole   Milk 

(sweetened) 

Condensed  Skim  Milk, 
Wells,  Richardson  &  Co. 

Lactated  Food.g    .   .    . 
Charles     Martin's     Car- 
dinal Food, 3 

Eskay's        Albumenized 

Food.g 

Lacto-Globulin.g    .   .   .    . 
Wampole's  Milk  Food,§ 

Wemalta.g 

Triangle  Food,§     .   .    .    . 
English       Milk       Food, 

Malted, 

Baby's  Own,§ 


Christie's  Food,§   . 

Wyeth's     Prep: 

Food.3 


red 


Water. 


i 
11.90 
6.80 

10.90 

3-30 

5-«5 


923 
10.40 


10.10 

5-34 
8.34 

5.80 
4-75 

8.60 
11.66 
24.04 

7.76 


9.02 
7.78 
2.40 


8943 

88.3 
88.04 

24.06 
29.23 

6.95 
8.18 

1.70 
9-85 
3-35 
8.85 
7-35 

5-75 
6.55 

3-70 
3.00 


Pro- 
tein. 

Fat. 

fo 

f> 

7.70 

1.70 

15-90 

10.30 

9.10 

1. 00 

12.01 

1.98 

2.35 

1.92 

9.24 
11.30 

0.63 
1.60 

5-13 
10.79 
9-63 

0.97 
1.06 
0.40 

9.70 

5.00 

21.22 

10.05 

12.50 

2.20 

::ti 

19.72 
10.75 

11.85 

1.64 

7-47 

l.OI 

0.41 

II. 10 

2.00 

12.2 

26.4 

1.3 

4.0 

2.2 

3.6 

1.08 

3.83 

9.36 
10.73 

3.2 
11.28 
.64 

9.56 

0.42 

10.50 

0.35 

7.25 
14.18 

4-95 
0.65 
7.10 

12.31 

1-35 

12.25 

1.70 

8.38 
9.63 

0.70 
1.05 

6.50 

3-05 

14.69 

1.30 

Carbo- 
hydrates. 


Solu- 
ble. 


Starch 


76.90 
66.00 


76.70 
56.68 


5.19 


4.11 
27.81 
44-i»3 


49.10 


78.60 


2.57 
31.98 


77.96 
75.00 

77.76 
54-09 
36.36 

78.20 
"•33 


61.61 
59-25 


75-7 


5-66 
14.29 


36.43 


83.50 
52.4 


Sugar. 


76.07 
67.60 


4.7 


5-2 


6.82 
6.0 

52.28 
5569 


29.65 

8.35 

58.65 
11.65 
71.30 
29.70 
3-75 


3565 
68.30 


51-38 
71.76 
26.47 

74.25 

53-95 
59-39 

50-10 
7.21 


Ash. 


1-75 
1.00 

0.40 

3-44 
1.22 


0.60 
1.70 


1-93 
0.91 


1.30 
3-55 

1.00 
0.58 
1.80 

2.61 


0.50 
2.1 


0.49 
0.57 

0.23 

0.35 
2.13 
2.63 

1.04 

0.86 


2.64 
0.78 
0.70 

0.92 
0.58 


3-50 


Remarks. 


Mainly  starch. 

Cereals  plus  peanut 
flour;  hence  the  fat. 

A  granulated  wheat 
flour. 

A  Swiss  product. 

Calcium  phosphate, 
cane  ,  sugar  and 
starch  of  potato,  rice, 
arrowroot,  sago,  co- 
coa. 

Mainly  s^rch. 

Ground  oats,  without 
husk. 

Ground  pearl  barley. 

Wheat  flour  and  malt ; 
much  grape  and  cane 
sugar. 

A  fine  oat  flour. 

The  fat  is  partly  cocoa 
butter. 

Mainly  starch. 

The  first  analysis  is 
the  one  given  by  the 
makers. 

Partly  malted.  Con- 
tains much  cane 
sugar  and  no  milk. 


The  standard  of  com- 
position to  which 
artificial  substitutes 
should  conform. 


Requires  addition  of 
varying  amounts  of 
milk. 


*  This  and  all  preceding  analyses  are  from  A  System  of  Diet  and  Dietetics,  by  G.  A.  Sutherland. 

t  From  Food  and  the  Principles  of  Dietetics,  by  Robert  Hutchison. 

g  From  Bulletin  No.  185,  Inland  Revenue  Department,  Ottawa,  Canada. 


592 


INFANTS'   AND   INVALIDS'   FOODS. 


MEDICINAL  FOODS. 

{From  The  Journal  of  Die  American  Medical  Association  jor    May  ii,    1907.) 


Name  of  Food. 


Carpanutrine, 

Carpanutrine, 

Liquid  Peptones, 

Liquid  Peptones  with  Creosote, 

Liquid  Peptonoids, 

Liquid  Peptonoids 

Predigested  Beef, 

Predigested  Beef, 

Nutrient  Wine  of  Beef  Peptone, 

Nutrient  Wine  of  Beef  Peptone, 

Nutritive  Liquid  Peptone, 

Nutritive  Liquid  Peptone, 

Panopepton, 

Panopepton, 

Peptonic  Elixir, j 

Tonic  Beef  S.  &  D., 

Tonic  Beef  S.  &  D., 

Liquid  Peptone, 

Cow's  Milk  (3.8  percent  fat), 


U 

^% 

$^ 

H 

<q. 

2§ 

0 

i 
< 

J5 

1 

I 

% 
U 

% 

% 

% 

% 

%         ' 

61.00 

28.45 

0-93 

4.28 

5-34 

65.60 

21.29 

1.09 

6.24 

5.78 

84.82 

3-63 

1. 00 

4-5° 

6.05 

77.60 

4-34 

0.75 

3-84 

13-47   i 

83-34 

0.23 

0-93 

4-93 

10.57   i 

81.02 

2.02 

0.90 

4.53 

11-53 

89.67 

3-40 

0.18 

2.38 

4-37 

88.30 

4-37 

0.19 

2.59 

4-55 

68.73 

14.97 

0.23 

0.64 

15-43 

69.90 

13.70 

0.40 

0.43 

15-57 

83-39 

1.02 

0.84 

1.86 

12.89 

82.90 

1-95 

0.80 

1. 16 

13-19 

78.00 

2.60 

1. 10 

6.38 

11.92 

77.60 

4.86 

1. 16 

6.33 

10.05 

81.24 

3.21 

1-55 

2.54 

T1.46 

79.72 

12.91 

1.61 

3-40 

2.36 

80.33 

12.63 

1-54 

3.28 

2.22 

96.33 

.44 

0.87 

1.81 

0-55 

87.00 

0.07 

3-50 

4.80 

i 

% 

15-5 
17-3 

22.0 
22.0 

17-5 
17.8 

19.7 

19.0 

21-5. 

20.9 

23.0 

21.8 

18.5 

20.9 

18.8 
14.9 
I6.I 

14.0 


PART  XI. 

SIMPLE  METHODS  FOR  DETECTING 
FOOD  ADULTERATIONS. 


GENERAL  CLASSES  OF  ADULTERATION. 
Simple  Tests. — Many  forms  of  adulteration  are  easily  determined  by 
simple  tests  that  anyone,  without  the  training  of  the  professional  chemist, 
may  practice,  using  the  ordinary  apparatus  found  in  the  household  and  reagents 
which  are  constantly  at  hand  or  may  be  readily  obtained  at  the  drug-store. 
This  subject  has  been  treated  in  Bulletin  No.  loo  of  the  Bureau  of  Chemistry, 
U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture,  by  W.  D.  Bigelow  and  Burton  J.  Howard, 
from  both  the  chemical  and  microscopical  points  of  view.  Whenever  these 
simple  tests  are  applied,  the  operator  should  have  at  hand  samples  of  the  same 
articles  of  known  purity,  and  apply  the  tests  also  to  them.  The  results  will 
serve  as  a  guide  in  interpreting  the  reactions  obtained  on  the  article  under  in- 
spection. 

SOME  FORMS  OF  FOOD  ADULTERATION. 
Gross  Physical  Adulterations. — Very  often  certain  of  the  grosser  adul- 
terations of  foods,  as  well  as  others  whose  detection  is  somewhat  more  difficult, 
may  be  detected  by  persons  who  are  not  trained  in  either  chemistry  or  mi- 
croscopy. If  the  adulteration  is  such  that  it  is  apparent  to  the  eye,  as,  for  in- 
stance, the  admixture  of  two  or  more  substances  in  sufficiently  large  particles 
to  be  identified,  the  detection  is  simply  a  question  of  ordinary  inspection. 
The  admixture  of  artificial  coffee  grains  resembling  generally  in  color  and 
shape  the  natural  coffee  grains  is  a  ca§e  of  this  kind,  yet  the  distinctions  are 
not  always  so  great  that  the  untrained  eye,  even  by  careful  attention,  can 
easily  distinguish  them.  Many  other  mixtures  of  this  kind  are,  or  have  been, 
on  the  market,  and  are  generally  capable  of  easy  detection.  WTien  the  state  of 
subdivision  is  finer,  it  is  still  not  beyond  the  power  of  the  untrained  eye  to  dis- 
tinguish the  difference,  if  an  ordinary  magnifying  glass,  which  almost  everyone 
may  get,  is  used.  Thus  coarsely  ground  shells  and  fruit  stones  mixed  with 
peppers  and  spices  may  be  detected  with  a  considerable  degree  of  accuracy, 
39  593 


594  SIMPLE   METHODS   FOR   DETECTING   FOOD   ADULTERATIONS. 

by  simple  magnification.  If,  however,  the  detection  of  the  adulteration  de- 
pends on  special  and  obscure  structural  relations,  then  even  the  magnifying 
glass  or  microscope  will  not  reveal  to  the  unpracticed  eye  the  sophistication 
which  has  taken  place.  Nevertheless,  some  adulterated  goods  have  certain 
physical  traits,  which,  while  not  wholly  convincing,  may  be  at  least  sufficiently 
marked  to  arouse  suspicion.  It  is  advisable,  therefore,  that  every  person  pur- 
chasing food  make  a  careful  study  of  its  appearance;  the  neatness  with  which 
it  has  been  put  up;  the  cleanliness  of  the  wrappers;  the  character  of  the  gen- 
eral surroundings;  the  physical  condition  of  the  food  itself;  and  the  label 
which  it  bears.  In  fact,  all  accessories  accompanying  the  food  product  are 
subjects  for  careful  and  patient  investigation. 

Chemical  vs.  Condimental  Preservatives. — There  are  certain  preserva- 
tives that  respond  to  simple  tests,  which,  while  not  absolutely  final  in  the 
hands  of  a  layman,  at  least  may  give  grounds  for  a  reasonable  doubt  as  to  the 
purity  of  the  goods  in  question. 

Certain  condimental  substances  commonly  exercise  preservative  effects  to 
a  limited  extent,  although  they  are  not  classified  in  the  list  of  chemical  pre- 
servatives. Among  these  may  be  mentioned  the  ordinary  substances  used 
to  give  flavor  and  character  to  food  products,  both  fresh  and  preserved,  such 
as  salt,  sugar,  vinegar,  spices  of  all  kinds,  essential  oils,  brandy,  and  smoke. 
These  substances  are  recognized  by  physiologists  and  experts  as  having  valu- 
able qualities  which  render  their  use  in  food  wholly  legitimate.  They  tend  es- 
pecially to  act  upon  the  nerves  of  taste  and  smell,  and  thus  to  excite  through 
these  nerves  the  activity  of  the  organs  of  the  body  that  secrete  the  digestive 
ferments,  without  which  the  digestion  and  absorption  of  the  food  are 
impossible.  While  these  substances  if  taken  in  very  large  quantities  may 
be  capable  of  exerting  a  deleterious  influence,  as  may  any  food  for  that  matter, 
they  belong  to  an  entirely  different  class  from  those  preservatives  which  have 
neither  taste  nor  smeU  and  which  cannot  possibly  be  of  any  value  in  the 
process  of  digestion.  The  argument  is  frequently  made  that  a  chemical 
preservative  which  has  neither  taste  nor  smell  is  no  more  harmful  than  one 
of  the  condimental  preservatives,  such  as  common  salt,  and,  therefore,  if 
common  salt  be  permitted,  which  is  known  sometimes  to  have  injurious  effects 
when  used  in  excessive  quantities,  the  chemical  preservative  should  be  ad- 
mitted, provided  it  is  not  used  in  large  quantities.  The  argument  is  not 
logical,  and  has  no  weight  whatever  when  analyzed  in  the  proper  way. 

Artificial  Colors. — Another  form  of  adulteration  which  may  be  detected 
sometimes  without  much  difficulty  is  the  use  of  artificial  colors.  The  presence 
of  these  is  excused  by  some  writers  on  the  ground  that  they  come  to  the  aid  of 
digestion  through  the  optic  nerve,  just  as  taste  comes  to  its  aid  through  the 
gustatory  and  odor  through  the  olfactory  nerve.  There  is  some  reasonable 
ground  for  this  statement.  It  is  true  that  the  foods  appeal  to  us  very  strongly  by 


OBSOLETE   ADULTERATIONS.  595 

their  color,  provided  the  color  is  a  natural  one.  When,  however,  it  is  known 
that  the  color  which  is  seen  in  the  food  is  of  artificial  production,  it  loses  its 
esthetic  appeal  as  well  as  its  exciting  effect  upon  the  digestive  organs.  Its 
value,  therefore,  depends  wholly  on  deception.  The  effect  which  is  produced 
on  the  mind  by  a  known  artificial  color  in  foods  is  rather  one  of  disgust  than 
of  pleasure.  Especially  is  this  true  since  the  vegetable  colors,  which  are  the  only 
ones  natural  in  foods,  have  been  so  largely  supplanted  by  the  artificial  colcrs 
produced  by  chemical  means.  It  follows,  I  think,  without  contention,  that  if 
we  admit  artificial  colors  at  all  in  foods  they  should  be-of  vegetable  origin. 
The  question  of  the  propriety  of  admitting  them  has  both  a  legal  andan  ethical 
aspect.  The  coloring  of  foods  is  illegal  if  it  conceals  inferiority  or  is  in  any  way 
deceptive.  The  coloring  of  foods  is  contrary  to  the  esthetic  instinct  if  it  is 
glaring,  assertive,  and  intense.  Usually  in  attempts  to  imitate  a  natural  color 
in  foods  by  artificial  tints,  Herod  is  out-Heroded,  and  the  final  tint  is  usually 
much  more  intense  than  that  which  nature  paints.  The  general  effect,  there- 
fore, of  artificial  colors  is  to  affront  the  artistic  nature  of  the  consumer,  and  thus 
any  possible  benefit  which  could  have  come  from  the  use  of  the  tint  is  dis- 
counted. The  only  case  in  which  it  is  tolerable  to  use  artificial  colors  is  in  those 
compounded  foods  which  of  themselves  have  no  natural  color  and  which  may 
be  made,  by  tinting  with  a  harmless  color  especially  of  vegetable  origin,  to 
appeal  to  the  eye  of  the  consumer.  There  are,  however,  very  few  foods  of 
this  kind,  and  I  am  strongly  of  the  opinion  that  the  eye  would  be  better  pleased 
in  the  majority  of  cases  if  all  artificial  colors  were  excluded  from  foods.  There 
could  not  possibly  any  harm  come  to  the  consumer,  and  a  great  deal  of  gcod 
would  be  accomplished.  To  the  real  connoisseur  there  is  nothing  more  re- 
pellent than  to  sit  down  to  foods  gorgeously  and  inartistically  tinted  and  be 
expected  to  eat  them  with  rehsh  and  enthusiasm. 

These  three  forms  of  adulteration,  namely,  mixing,  preserving,  and  coloring, 
are  the  most  common  forms,  with  perhaps  the  exception  of  the  extraction  of 
some  valuable  ingredient,  or  the  addition  of  a  neutral  or  inactive  substance 
to  dilute  the  strength  of  the  natural  product. 

Obsolete  Adulterations. — There  are  many  forms  of  adulteration  which 
are  believed  to  exist,  and  which  perhaps  did  exist  once,  that  have  not  been 
practiced  in  this  country,  to  any  extent,  for  many  years.  In  this  csLtegory 
may  be  mentioned  the  old  fable  of  the  addition  of  sand  to  sugar,  of  g}^sum 
and  terra  alba  to  flour,  and  of  alum  to  bread.  Flour  has  been  adulterated 
in  other  ways,  however.  As  stated  in  connection  with  diabetes,  a  great  deal 
of  so-called  gluten  flour  is  only  ordinary  flour  with  an  exceptionally  high  con- 
tent of  crude  protein.  There  has  also  been  a  large  amount  of  adulteration 
by  mixing  two  or  more  flours  and  calling  the  product  by  the  name  of  the  more 
expensive  constituent,  as,  for  instance,  buckwheat  made  partially  of  rye  or 
oat  flour  or  both. 


596  SIMPLE   METHODS   FOR   DETECTING   FOOD   ADULTERATIONS. 

This  brief  summary  of  the  common  forms  of  adulteration  is  not  intended  by 
any  means  to  exhibit  the  whole  range  of  adulterated  products,  but  to  serve 
only  as  an  introduction  to  some  of  the  simple  methods  of  detection. 


MATERIALS  AND  REAGENTS. 
Definitions. — The  term  '^reagent"  is  applied  to  a  chemical  or  an  agent  of 
some  kind,  by  means  of  which  definite  chemical  changes  are  produced  which 
are  more  or  less  easy  of  observation.    Some  of  the  materials  used  in  making 
simple  tes^ts,  such  as  will  be  described,  are  as  follows: 

1.  Turmeric  Paper. — This  is  an  cM^dinary  white  filter-paper  made  of  pure 
fiber  which  has  been  cut  into  strips,  dipped  in  a  tincture  of  turmeric,  and  dried. 
It  has  the  characteristic  color  of  the  turmeric  itself. 

2.  Alum. — There  are  several  alums  which  may  be  used  for  chemical  pur- 
poses. The  ordinary  iron,  potassium  or  ammonium  alum  may  be  used  for  all 
simple  tests. 

3.  Hydrochloric  Acid. — This  is  a  substance  which  is  usually  called  ''muri- 
atic acid,"  and  can  be  obtained  at  any  drug-store.  All  tests  in  which  hydro- 
chloric acid  is  used  should  be  conducted  in  glass  or  stoneware,  as  this  acid 
will  attack  many  metals,  such  as  iron,  tin,  zinc,  etc.  It  does  not,  however, 
attack  silver  or  gold.  Care  must  be  exercised  not  to  spill  any  of  the  acid  over 
the  skin  or  clothing,  as  it  will  burn  both. 

4.  lodin. — The  ordinary  tincture  of  iodin  of  the  drug-store  is  used. 

5.  Potassium  Permanganate. — These  bright  colored  crystals,  which  give 
a  purple  red  solution,  can  be  obtained  at  any  drug-store.  Dissolve  about  one 
part  of  the  crystals  in  99  parts  of  water. 

6.  Alcohol. — Pure  alcohol,  whether  distilled  from  grain  or  other  sources, 
can  be  used. 

7.  Chloroform. — The  ordinary  reagent  used  for  producing  anesthesia  is  em- 
ployed. 

8.  Boric  Acid  or  Borax. — This  is  a  very  common  chemical,  kept  in  almost 
every  house. 

9.  Ammonia  Water. — This  is  the  very  common  reagent  kept  for  cleaning 
purposes,  especially  for  removing  grease  spots. 

10.  Halphen  Reagent. — This  is  a  reagent  by  means  of  which  cottonseed  cil 
can  be  detected.  In  this  case  it  would  be  advisable  to  have  the  reagent  pre- 
pared by  the  druggist  according  to  the  following  formula :  Dissolve  one-third 
of  a  teaspoonful  of  finely  divided  sulphur  in  from  three  to  four  ounces  of  carbon 
bisulphid  and  mix  the  solution  with  an  equal  volume  of  fusel  oil  (amyl-alcchol). 
This  reagent  must  be  used  with  as  much  care  as  gasoline,  as  it  is  very  inflam- 
mable. 


SACCHARIN.  597 

TESTS  FOR  DETECTING  CHEMICAL  PRESERVATIVES. 

Boric  Acid. — Boric  acid  or  borax  may  be  easily  detected  when  present 
in  such  commodities  as  sausage,  butter,  or  milk,  in  which  it  was.  often  used 
before  the  enactment  of  the  Food  and  Drugs  Act.  If  the  boric  acid  is  in  meat, 
a  small  sample  should  be  rubbed  thoroughly  with  a  little  water,  which  dis- 
solves a  large  part  of  the  preservative,  and  the  liquid  filtered  to  remove  the 
sohd  matter.  In  the  case  of  butter  a  teaspoonful  is  placed  in  a  cup  with  double 
the  quantity  of  hot  water,  which  will  melt  the  butter.  After  melting,  the  con- 
tents of  the  cup  are  well  stirred  with  a  teaspoon  and  set  aside  in  a  cool  place 
until  the  butter  solidifies.  The  butter  will  be  attached  to  the  spoon  and  can 
be  lifted  out,  the  remaining  liquid  being  strained  through  a  white  cotton  cloth 
or  filter-paper.  It  is  not  necessary  that  all  the  hquid  should  pass  through,  but 
only  a  sufficient  quantity  to  get  the  test.  In  the  case  of  milk,  two  or  three 
tablespoonfuls  are  mixed  with  twice  that  quantity  of  a  solution  of  a  teaspoonful 
of  alum  in  a  pint  of  water,  shaken  vigorously,  and  filtered. 

Applying  the  Test. — About  a  tablespoonful  of  the  Hquid,  obtained  by  treating 
the  sample  as  just  described,  is  placed  in  a  dish  with  five  drops  of  hydrochloric 
acid.  A  strip  of  turmeric  paper  is  dipped  into  the  liquid  and  afterward  re- 
moved and  held  in  a  warm  place,  but  not  warm  enough  to  char  the  paper, 
until  dry.  In  the  case  of  the  presence  of  boric  acid  or  borax,  the  turmeric 
paper  assumes  a  bright  cherry-red  color  on  drying.  If  now  a  drop  of  anmionia 
is  added,  the  red  color  changes  to  dark  green  or  greenish-black.  This  test 
will  be  found  satisfactory  even  in  the  hands  of  a  beginner. 

Benzoic  Acid. — Among  the  substances  most  frequently  preserved  with 
benzoic  acid  may  be  mentioned  tomato  catsup  as  well  as  mincemeat,  certain 
fruit  juices,  etc.  In  acid  media,  such  as  catsup,  the  benzoate  of  soda  is  decom- 
posed and  free  benzoic  acid  is  produced.  If  any  considerable  quantity  of 
benzoate  of  soda  has  been  used  in  tomato  catsup,  it  can  be  detected  by  setting 
aside  in  an  ordinary  dish  in  a  warm  place,  as,  for  instance,  near  a  radiator, 
covering  to  keep  out  the  dust,  and  allowing  to  stand  for  a  few  days,  so  that  the 
evaporation  goes  on  very  slowly.  As  the  concentration  takes  place  beautiful 
lamellar  crystals  of  benzoic  acid  are  formed.  These  sometimes  grow  up  from 
the  magma  to  the  height  of  a  half  inch  or  even  more.  If  the  content  of  benzoic 
acid  is  very  small,  it  may  be  extracted  by  acidifvang  and  shaking  with  chlo- 
roform and  then  be  set  aside  in  a  cool  place  to  evaporate.  The  chloroform 
should  be  subjected  to  only  a  gentle  temperature,  so  that  the  evaporation  may 
be  slow.  The  characteristic  appearance  of  the  lamellar  crystals  as  before  in- 
dicates the  presence  of  benzoic  acid. 

Saccharin. — Saccharin  is  a  very  sweet  substance  prepared  from  coaL-tar 
and  has  been  used  largely  for  sweetening  purposes  instead  of  sugar.  One  part 
of  saccharin  is  said  to  have  as  much  sweetening  power  as  400  to  500  parts  of 


598  SIMPLE   METHODS   FOR   DETECTING   FOOD   ADULTERATIONS. 

sugar.  Saccharin  has  some  preservative  power  also,  but  is  never  used  solely 
for  this  purpose,  the  preserving  influence  being  only  incidental.  In  the  detec- 
tion of  saccharin  the  substance  containing  it,  which  is  usually  a  Hquid,  is 
shaken  with  chloroform,  which  settles  to  the  bottom  and  is  removed  by  means 
of  a  medicine-dropper.  The  saccharin  enters  into  solution  in  the  chloroform, 
while  sugar,  if  present,  does  not.  The  chloroform  solution  is  then  evaporated 
by  heating  gently,  and  if  saccharin  has  been  present  the  residue  has  a  dis- 
tinctly sweet  taste.  This  method  is  not  applicable  to  substances  whose  chloro- 
form layer  contains  a  flavor  that  would  mask  the  sweet  taste  of  the  saccharin, 
as,  for  instance,  ginger  ale. 

Salicylic  Acid. — Salicylic  acid  at  the  present  time  is  scarcely  used  at  all 
in  this  country  in  preserving  foods.  It  was  formerly  found  in  the  same  class 
of  foods  which  are  now  preserved  by  benzoic  acid.  The  detection  of  salicylic 
acid  is  a  very  simple  matter.  Solid  and  semi-solid  foods,  such  as  jelly,  should 
be  mixed  with  sufficient  water  to  make  a  thin  liquid.  In  the  case  of  food 
containing  insoluble  material,  such  as  jams,  after  macerating  for  some  time 
the  liquid  portion  may  be  separated  by  straining  through  a  piece  of  white 
cotton  cloth.  A  gentle  heat  may  be  used,  if  desirable,  during  the  macerating 
process.  Two  or  three  ounces  of  the  liquid  obtained  as  described  are  placed  in 
a  narrow  bottle  holding  about  5  ounces  with  about  a  quarter  of  a  teaspoonful 
of  cream  of  tartar,  or,  better,  if  at  hand,  a  few  drops  of  oil  of  vitriol  (sulphuric. 
acid).  The  mixture  is  well  shaken  for  two  or  three  minutes  and  again  filtered 
into  a  second  bottle.  To  this  filtered  Hquid  three  or  four  tablespoonfuls  of 
chloroform  are  added  and  the  contents  mixed  by  a  vigorous  rotary  motion. 
After  well  mixing,  the  contents  of  the  bottle  may  be  poured  into  an  ordinary 
glass  tumbler  and  allowed  to  stand  until  the  chloroform  settles  to  the  bottom, 
it  being  heavier  than  water.  Shaking  should  be  avoided  as  much  as  possible, 
since  it  causes  an  emulsion  of  the  chloroform  with  the  water  which  is  difficult 
to  break  up.  The  chloroform  layer  contains  the  salicylic  acid,  if  any  is  pres- 
ent, and  should  be  removed  from  the  aqueous  liquid  by  means  of  an  ordinary 
dropping  tube,  or  a  glass  tube  with  a  small  opening  and  a  bulb,  into  which  the 
chloroform  can  be  sucked.  This  chloroform  mixture  is  placed  in  a  small  tube 
with  a  little  water  and  a  small  fragment,  not  much  larger  than  a  pinhead, 
of  iron  alum.  The  contents  of  the  tube  are  thoroughly  shaken  and  again 
allowed  to  stand  until  the  chloroform  settles  to  the  bottom.  If  salicyhc  acid 
is  present,  the  upper  portion  of  the  liquor  will  assume  a  purple  or  purplish 
color. 

DETECTION  OF  ARTIFICIAL  COLORING. 
Copper. — The  presence  of  copper  in  foods  is  very  easily  detected.     It  is 
usually  employed  only  for  the  purpose  of  producing  an  intense  green  color  in 
goods  which  are  naturally  green,  such  as  green  beans,  peas,  etc.    In  this  case, 


TURMERIC.  599 

add  a  drop  or  two  of  hydrochloric  acid,  mix  thoroughly,  and  place  a  bright 
steel  knife-blade  in  the  solution.  If  copper  salts  are  present,  copper,  easily 
recognized  by  its  reddish  color,  will  be  deposited  upon  the  knife-blade.  If  it 
is  not  desired  to  coat  a  knife-blade,  a  bright  iron  or  steel  nail  will  serve  the 
same  purpose. 

Caramel. — Caramel  is  often  used  to  color  freshly  made  distilled  hquors 
so  as  to  give  them  the  appearance  of  great  age.  It  is  also  employed  to  simulate 
the  natural  colors  in  flavoring  extracts,  such  as  vanilla,  and  in  fact  is  very  com- 
monly used  whenever  it  is  desired  to  produce  a  red  or  Brownish-red  color  in 
food  products  in  general,  both  solid  and  Hquid.  Caramel  is  produced  by 
heating  sugar  to  a  high  temperature  until  it  is  partially  decomposed.  In  this 
condition  sugar  to  a  great  extent  loses  its  sweet  taste  and  its  solubihty  in  water. 

To  detect  caramel  two  test-tubes  or  small  bottles  or  phials  of  equal  size  and 
shape  are  employed,  and  two  or  three  tablespoonfuls  of  the  suspected  sample 
are  placed  in  at  least  two  of  these  bottles.  To  one  is  added  a  teaspoonful  of 
fuller's  earth,  which  can  be  secured  at  any  drug-store.  The  mixture  is  thor- 
oughly shaken  for  two  or  three  minutes  and  filtered  through  filter-paper,  the 
first  portion  of  the  filtered  Hquid  being  returned  to  the  filter-paper  and  the 
sample  finally  replaced  in  the  original  test-tube  or  bottle.  The  filtered  liquid 
is  compared  with  the  untreated  sample,  and  if  the  former  has  lost  a  good  part 
of  its  color,  it  may  be  taken  for  granted  that  the  color  of  the  original  article 
was  largely  due  to  caramel,  since  this  body  is  removed  to  a  large  extent  by  the 
fuller's  earth. 

This  test  is  a  little  more  difficult  than  those  which  have  preceded  it,  and,  of 
course,  would  not  be  conclusive  in  the  case  of  bodies  which  contain  natural 
caramel;  in  other  words,  such  as  are  prepared  in  any  way  with  sugar  which 
is  subjected  during  the  process  of  manufacture  to  a  high  temperature  capable 
of  converting  a  portion  of  the  sugar  into  caramel.  For  instance,  in  the  drying 
of  malt  the  heat  is  often  such  as  to  partially  char  the  malt,  and  the  products 
made  from  this  malt,  such  as  malt  vinegar,  might  show  the  presence  of  caramel 
when  it  had  not  been  added  thereto.  Again,  in  the  roasting  of  coffee  a  consid- 
erable quantity  of  caramel  is  produced  by  the  action  of  heat  on  the  sugar 
which  the  coffee  bean  contains.  Hence,  the  presence  of  caramel  in  roasted 
coffee  would  not  be  evidence  that  it  had  been  added  as  an  adulterant,  or 
otherwise. 

Turmeric. — Turmeric  is  often  used  to  give  a  yellow  color  to  such  prepara- 
tions as  mustard,  especially  if  the  mustard  has  been  adulterated  with  flour  or 
other  white  substances.  In  this  case  it  has  been  quite  a  common  practice  to 
restore  the  color  of  the  mixture  to  the  normal  yellow  color  of  the  mustard 
meal  itself,  and  turmeric  is  one  of  the  most  common  of  the  coloring-matters 
used  for  that  purpose.  In  the  detection  of  turmeric,  a  teaspoonful  of  the  sus- 
pected sample  is  thoroughly  stirred  with  a  small  quantity  of  alcohol  and  the 


600  SIMPLE   METHODS   FOR   DETECTING   FOOD   ADULTERATIONS. 

mixture  is  allowed  to  stand  for  fifteen  minutes,  or  until  there  is  a  distinct 
separation— the  turbid  or  solid  matter  setthng  and  leaving  a  practically  clear 
liquid  above  it.  This  alcoholic  solution  is  then  poured  into  a  clean  glass  or 
bottle.  About  one-third  of  a  tablespoonful  of  the  liquid  thus  prepared  is 
used  for  the  experiment  and  is  placed  in  a  clean  dish  and  mixed  with  four  or 
five  drops  of  a  concentrated  solution  of  boric  acid  or  borax  and  about  ten  drops 
of  hydrochloric  acid,  by  stirring  well  with  a  splinter  of  wood.  A  wedge-shaped 
strip  of  filter-paper,  about  two  or  three  inches  long,  one  inch  wide  at  the  upper 
end,  and  one-fourth  inch  at  the  lower  end,  is  then  suspended  in  the  liquid  so 
that  the  narrow  end  is  immersed  in  the  solution,  and  is  allowed  to  stand  for 
two  or  three  hours.  If,  while  the  paper  is  suspended  in  the  liquid,  air  is  allowed 
to  circulate  around  the  mixture,  it  is  better.  If  turmeric  is  present,. a  cherry-red 
color  forms  on  the  filter-paper  a  short  distance  below  the  upper  limit  to  which 
the  liquid  is  absorbed  by  the  paper,  and  at  times  an  inch  or  more  above  the 
surface  of  the  liquid  itself.  A  drop  of  ammonia  changes  this  red  color  to  a 
dark  green,  as  in  the  case  of  the  test  for  borax  just  described.  In  fact,  the  test 
for  turmeric,  as  is  seen,  is  exactly  the  same  as  the  test  for  borax,  the  only  differ- 
ence being  in  the  unknown  substance  to  be  determined. 


DETECTION  OF  SOME  COMMON  ADULTERANTS. 

Cottonseed  Oil. — Cottonseed  oil  has  been  one  of  the  most  common  adul- 
terants for  olive  oil,  but  the  ease  with  which  it  is  detectable  and  the  rigidity 
of  State  and  national  laws  have  reduced  this  fraud  very  greatly.  Nevertheless, 
cases  are  occasionally  found  where  admixtures  of  cottonseed  oil  with  olive  oil 
have  been  made.  It  will  be  useful,  therefore,  to  give  a  simple  and  yet  reliable 
test  for  the  presence  of  cottonseed  oil,  which  will  detect  even  minute  additions 
of  this  adulterant  to  olive  oil.  The  test  which  is  employed  is  known  as  the 
"Halphen  test,"  from  the  name  of  its  discoverer.  The  danger  attending  the 
use  of  the  Halphen  reagent  has  already  been  described.  The  test  is  applied 
as  follows: 

Two  or  three  tablespoonfuls  of  the  Halphen  reagent  are  mixed  in  a  bot- 
tle or  glass  vessel  with  an  equal  volume  of  the  suspected  sample  of  oil  and 
heated,  with  precautions  to  avoid  the  burning  of  the  reagent,  in  a  vessel  of 
boiling  salt  solution,  prepared  by  dissolving  one  tablespoonful  of  salt  in  a  pint 
of  boiling  water,  the  boiling  continuing  for  from  ten  to  fifteen  miniites.  At 
the  end  of  this  time,  if  even  a  small  percentage  of  cottonseed  oil  is  present,  the 
mixture  will  be  of  a  distinct  reddish  color,  and  if  the  sample  consists  largely 
or  entirely  of  cottonseed  oil,  the  color  will  be  deep  red. 

Glucose. — Glucose  is  very  commonly  used  as  a  substitute  for  sugar  in  the 
making  of  jams,  jellies,  preserves,  and  confectioner's  goods.  The  method  of 
detecting  glucose  in  jellies,  jams,  etc.,  is  as  follows: 


INVERT-SUGAR    IN    HONEY.  6oi 

Place  a  teaspoonful  of  the  jelly  in  a  glass  or  bottle  with  two  or  three  table- 
spoonfuls  of  water;  set  the  vessel  in  hot  water  in  order  to  hasten  the  solution. 
In  the  case  of  a  jam  or  marmalade,  after  adding  the  water  the  solution  is 
filtered  to  separate  the  insoluble  matter,  and  is  then  allowed  to  cool.  An 
equal  volume,  or  a  little  more,  of  strong  alcohol  is  added.  If  the  sample  is 
a  pure  fruit  product,  the  addition  of  alcohol  causes  no  precipitation,  except 
that  a  very  slight  amount  of  proteid  bodies  may  be  thrown  down.  If  glucose 
has  been  employed  in  the  manufacture  of  the  article,  however,  a  dense  white  pre- 
cipitate (dextrin)  separates  and  after  a  time  settles  to  the  bottom  of  the  liquid. 

Glucose  in  molasses,  sirups,  honies,  etc.,  may  be  more  certainly  detected  by 
the  coloration  produced  by  iodin.  The  starch  from  which  glucose  is  made 
gives  a  blue  coloration  with  iodin.  As  the  starch  disappears  the  blue  color 
fades,  and  when  glucose  is  reached  the  color  changes  to  a  red  tint,  due  to  the 
presence  of  erythrodextrin  in  the  mixture.  The  suspected  sample  is  dissolved 
in  water  and  treated  with  a  small  quantity  of  iodin  solution.  If  glucose  be 
present  the  color  produced  is  red  or  violet  according  to  the  nature  of  the  glucose 
present  and  its  quantity.  A  blank  test  with  honey,  sirup,  or  molasses  known 
to  contain  no  glucose  should  be  made  for  comparative  purposes. 

Often  the  substance  to  be  examined  has  a  red  color  of  its  own  and  in  this 
case  proceed  as  follows: 

Place  a  small  quantity  of  the  substance  in  a  small  glass,  dilute  with  a  httle 
water  in  the  case  of  a  molasses,  but  with  a  sirup  this  is  not  necessary,  and  pre- 
cipitate with  95  percent  alcohol,  shaking  all  the  time  or  until  no  more  precipita- 
tion occurs.  Allow  to  settle,  then  decant  the  clear  liquid,  take  up  the  residue 
with  the  smallest  quantity  of  water  that  will  dissolve  it,  and  heat,  if  necessary, 
to  complete  the  solution.  Cool,  and  reprecipitate  with  95  percent  alcohol. 
Decant,  dissolve  the  gum  again,  using  the  smallest  quantity  of  water  prac- 
ticable and  heating  if  necessary.  Cool,  add  a  drop  of  hydrochloric  acid  to 
render  the  brown  coloring  substances  soluble  in  alcohol,  then  precipitate  all  the 
gums  with  strong  alcohol.  Allow  the  gums  to  settle,  then  decant.  Wash  with 
strong  alcohol,  and  dissolve  in  a  small  quantity  of  water;  if  still  colored  repeat 
the  hydrochloric  acid  treatment  or  filter  the  liquid  through  animal  charcoal. 
This  should  give  a  clear  water-white  solution,  to  which,  in  a  test  tube,  add  an 
iodin  solution.  To  another  test  tube  of  the  same  size  and  containing  the  same 
quantity  of  water  add  the  same  amount  of  iodin  solution.  Note  the  two  colors 
produced.  If  glucose  is  present  the  water  solution  of  gums  will  be  a  dark  red 
while  the  plain  water  solution  varies  in  color  from  yellow  to  a  light  reddish- 
yellow,  according  to  the  strength  of  the  iodin. 

Invert-sugar  in  Honey. — Since  honey  is  composed  almost  entirely  of 
invert-sugar,  the  practice  of  adulterating  it  with  this  substance  has  come  into 
use,  but  happily  not  very  generally.  Invert-sugar  in  honey  may  be  detected 
by  a  very  simple  test.     The  reagent  used  is  anilin  acetate  prepared  by  shaking 


6o2  SIMPLE   METHODS   FOR   DETECTING    FOOD   ADULTERATIONS. 

equal  parts  of  anilin  and  water  and  adding  enough  strong  acetic  acid  to  clear 
the  mixture.  The  reagent  is  prepared  fresh  for  each  day.  To  a  small  quan- 
tity of  strong  honey  solution  add  a  less  quantity  of  the  reagent  by  allowing  it  to 
flow  down  the  sides  of  the  vessel  so  as  to  form  a  layer  on  top  of  the  honey- 
Turn  the  vessel  gently  so  as  to  mix  the  two  solutions  on  the  plane  of  contact. 
The  formation  of  a  red  color  at  the  surfaces  of  contact  of  the  two  solutions  in- 
dicates the  presence  of  invert-sugar.  If  honey  be  stronjgly  heated  for  some 
time  it  will  give  the  same  reaction,  but  such  treatment  will  spoil  its  flavor. 
This  coloration  is  due  to  the  formation  of  minute  quantities  of  furfurol  when 
sugar  is  heated.     The  test  should  be  compared  with  a  genuine  honey. 

Starch  in  Jellies. — Starch  is  sometimes  used  in  cheap  jellies  as  a  thickener. 
A  teaspoonful  of  the  jelly  is  dissolved  in  a  teacup,  adding  enough  water  to 
half  fill  it,  and  the  contents  are  heated  to  boiling.  While  boiling,  a  solution  of 
potassium  permanganate  is  added,  drop  by  drop,  stirring  constantly  with  a 
teaspoon,  until  the  solution  is  almost  colorless.  The  mixture  is  allowed  to  cool, 
and  to  hasten  the  cooling  the  vessel  may  be  placed  in  cold  water.  It  is  then 
tested  with  a  drop  of  the  tincture  of  iodin.  If  the  jam  or  jelly  contains  any 
starch,  a  blue  color  will  be  produced.  Starch  may  be  a  natural  constit- 
uent of  some  fruits,  as  apples,  and  hence  the  blue  color  produced  may  not 
be  a  positive  proof  of  the  addition  of  starch. 

Starch  in  Spices  and  Condiments. — The  test  for  added  starch  in  condi- 
ments is  rendered  the  more  difficult  because  most  of  the  condimental  sub- 
stances, that  is,  the  several  peppers,  etc.,  contain  starch  of  their  own.  The 
only  way  to  distinguish  in  this  case  is  by  means  of  the  microscope,  and  this 
can  only  be  used  with  success  in  the  hands  of  a  skilled  observer.  There  are 
spices,  however,  which  contain  no  starch,  such  as  cloves,  mustard,  and  cayenne 
pepper,  and  in  these  products  added  starch  can  be  readily  detected  by  means 
of-  the  iodin  test  already  described.  To  conduct  the  manipulation  a  half  tea- 
spoonful  of  the  spice  is  stirred  into  half  a  cupful  of  boiling  water  and  the 
boiling  continued  for  two  or  three  minutes,  by  means  of  which  any  starch  which 
may  be  present  is  reduced  to  a  state  which  is  more  or  less  soluble.  After 
cooling,  artificially  or  otherwise,  if  the  color  is  dark  the  mixture  should  be 
diluted  with  water,  thus  reducing  the  color  so  that  the  characteristic  blue 
tint  of  the  reaction  may  be  seen.  The  test  is  made  as  already  described,  by 
dropping  a  small  portion  of  the  iodin  mixture  into  the  boiled  and  cooled  spice 
and  watching  the  effect.  The  appearance  of  a  pronounced  blue  color  is  a 
positive  indication  that  starch  has  been  added. 


EXAMINATION   OF   CERTAIN  FOODS   FOR   ADULTERATIONS. 

Coffee. — A  number  of  simple  tests  for  the  presence  of  adulterants  in  ground 

coffee  may  be  given.    If  the  coffee  is  not  ground,  a  careful  inspection  of  the 


COFFEE.  603 

beans  will  disclose  the  number  of  imperfect,  split,  or  defective  beans,  or  the 
presence  of  grit,  gravel,  dirt,  or  foreign  bodies  of  any  kind.  By  picking  out 
these  imperfect  and  foreign  bodies,  and  weighing  them,  the  relative  amount 
of  adulterants  present  is  determined,  or  it  may  be  estimated  with  a  good  deal 
of  accuracy  simply  by  inspection.  This  method  will  also  detect  any  artificial 
beans,  if  they  are  present.  The  price  of  coffee  has  been  so  low,  however,  for  a 
number  of  years  that  it  has  not  been  profitable  to  manufacture  imitation  coffee 
beans  of  any  kind.  When  the  coffee  is  ground,  however,  the  presence  of 
adulterants,  such  as  chicory,  is  more  difficult  to  ascertain.  The  difference 
between  the  genuine  ground  coffee  and  the  adulterated  article  may,  however, 
be  sometimes  detected  by  simple  inspection  without  the  aid  of  the  microscope. 
This  is  particularly  true  if  the  product  be  coarsely  ground  or  crushed,  but  the 
difficulty  of  this  kind  of  inspection  increases  with  the  fineness  of  the  grinding. 
Ground  coffee  has  a  uniform  appearance,  whereas  if  beans,  peas,  cereals, 
chicory,  etc.,  have  been  added,  the  heterogeneous  character  of  the  mixture  is 
more  or  less  evident.  By  the  use  of  the  magnifying  glass  the  adulteration  is 
still  more  apparent.  It  is  even  possible,  with  a  sharp-pointed  instrument  such 
as  a  penknife,  to  pick  out  the  particles  which  are  not  coffee.  Chicory  particles 
especially  are  easily  detected,  as  they  are  dark  looking,  gummy,  and  not 
granular  in  character.  They  stand  out  in  strong  contrast  to  the  particles  of 
coffee  and  also  to  the  other  adulterants  which  have  been  mentioned.  Chicory 
particles  have  a  bitter  and  somewhat  astringent  taste,  which  is  easily  distin- 
guished by  those  who  are  famihar  with  it.  The  real  coffee  particles  have  a 
distinct  appearance.  They  usually  have  a  dull  surface,  whereas  some  of  the 
coffee  substitutes,  such  as  peas  and  beans,  often  present  a  polished  surface. 

Test  in  Water. — After  the  gross  inspection  has  been  made  by  the  eye  or  with 
the  aid  of  the  magnifying  glass,  a  portion  of  the  ground  coffee  may  be  placed 
in  a  glass  or  other  vessel  partly  filled  with  water,  and  the  mixture  well  shaken. 
The  vessel  is  then  set  aside  for  a  moment  and  its  appearance  observed.  Pure 
coffee  contains  a  large  quantity  of  oil,  and  for  this  reason  the  greater  number 
of  the  particles  will  float  in  water.  Nearly  all  of  the  coffee  substitutes,  however, 
are  heavier  than  water,  and  will  sink  to  the  bottom,  carrying  with  them,  of 
course,  some  of  the  particles  of  the  real  coffee.  In  this  way  a  very  fair  idea  of 
the  purity  of  the  coffee  is  obtained.  It  may  be  certain,  in  testing  ground  coffee 
in  this  way,  that  if  there  is  a  very  large  deposit  the  coffee  is  adulterated. 

Color  Test  for  Chicory. — Chicory  mixed  with  ground  coffee  can  be  detected 
by  a  water  test,  usually  with  considerable  ease.  The  suspected  sample  is 
dropped,  a  few  particles  at  a  time,  into  a  glass  of  water,  and,  being  slightly 
heavier  than  water,  they  sink,  leaving  behind  them  a  brownish  streak.  This 
test,  however,  must  be  made  with  some  care,  as  it  is  apt  to  lead  to  errors  in  the 
hands  of  persons  who  are  not  well  acquainted  with  the  characteristic  colorings 
of  chicory.    It  is  advisable  to  get  some  pure  chicory  and  pure  coffee  and  experi- 


604  SIMPLE  METHODS    FOR   DETECTING    FOOD   ADULTERATIONS. 

ment  with  each  separately,  and  then  with  the  mixtures  of  known  proportions 
of  each,  to  train  the  eye  to  observe  the  various  phenomena.  When  this  is  done, 
the  test  becomes  very  useful. 

Test  for  Cereals,  etc. — Coffee  is  distinguished  from  the  cereals  and  legu- 
minous seeds  which  are  usually  substituted  for  it  by  the  fact  that  it  contains  no 
starch,  while  the  cereals  and  legumes,  such  as  peas  and  beans,  contain  very  large 
quantities.  Even  when  the  coffee  and  its  substitutes  are  roasted,  there  may 
be  enough  starch  present  to  respond  to  the  test,  which  is  extremely  simple. 
The  method  given  above  for  the  detection  of  starch  in  spices  and  condi- 
ments is  used  to  detect  cereals  in  coffee. 

If  the  sample  contain  much  starch,  the-  dilution  before  testing  should  be 
carried  to  a  greater  degree.  Care  must  be  taken  to  add  only  a  drop  of  the 
tincture  of  iodin  at  first;  but  if  no  blue  color  is  developed,  more  may  be  used. 

Canned  Goods. — Canned  goods  in  the  United  States  are  very  rarely  adul- 
terated, either  with  coloring-matter  or  with  any  added  substances  such  as 
preservatives.  The  only  examination,  therefore,  of  canned  goods  that  may  be 
made  with  profit,  is  of  the  condition  of  the  can,  to  see  if  it  has  been  properly 
sealed,  or  to  determine  whether  the  contents  of  the  can  have  acted  on  the 
tin.  For  this  purpose  the  can  should  be  cut  open  and  the  inner  surface  of 
the  tin  examined.  If  it  appears  to  be  corroded  and  is  covered  with  figures  of 
various  kinds,  the  contents  of  the  can  may  have  dissolved  quantities  of  the  tin 
which  may  be  deemed  injurious,  but  this  deduction  is  not  always  correct. 

More  important  yet  is  the  examination  of  the  can  to  see  if  it  has  been  per- 
fectly sterilized  as  well  as  sealed.  This  is  especially  true  of  cans  which  con- 
tain lobster,  fish,  and  similar  products.  There  is  no  kind  of  food  in  which  de- 
cay is  more  dangerous,  as  it  is  attended  often  with  the  development  of 
ptomains,  which  are  powerful  poisons.  If  the  can  is  found  to  bear  the  trace  of 
only  partial  sterilization,  or  of  imperfect  sealing,  as  determined  by  appear- 
ance, taste  or  smell,  it  should  be  at  once  rejected.  Especial  attention 
should  be  paid  to  the  behavior  of  a  can  when  a  small  hole  is  made  in  it 
preparatory  to  opening.  If  an  escape  of  gas  is  noticed,  the  contents  of 
the  can  should  be  rejected.  Rusty,  old,  and  soiled  cans  should  be  looked 
upon  with  suspicion.  There  is  no  simple  way  of  determining  the  quan- 
tity of  tin  or  lead  in  canned  foods.  The  presence  of  these  bodies  may  be 
avoided  by  using  a  can  lacquered  on  the  inside  or  one  made  of  glass.  In 
general,  the  canned  goods  on  the  market  are  in  excellent  condition.  Any  pos- 
sible danger  may  be  avoided  by  the  careful  examination  of  cans  and  their 
contents  before  they  are  offered  for  consumption. 

Eggs. — It  is  highly  important  that  eggs  be  examined  for  the  grosser  forms 
of  decomposition.  By  a  cultivated  taste,  perfectly  fresh  eggs  may  be  distin- 
guished from  eggs  which  have  been  properly  kept  in  cold  storage  for  some 
time.    But  where  marked  changes  have  gone  on  in  the  egg  substances,  due 


FLAVORING    EXTRACTS    (VANILLA   AND    LEMON).  605 

to  Storage,  either  with  or  without  refrigeration,  there  are  certain  other  char- 
acteristics developed  which  can  be  easily  determined.  The  most  important 
of  these  tests  is  what  is  known  as  "candling."  This  consists  in  holding 
the  egg  between  the  eye  and  a  proper  light  and  observing  the  illumina- 
tion within  the  shell.  The  room  should  always  be  darkened.  If  dark  spots 
are  found  in  the  egg,  it  is  certain  that  it  is  not  perfectly  fresh,  since  a  fresh 
egg  presents  a  homogeneous,  translucent,  and  attractive  appearance.  More- 
over, there  is  found  in  the  larger  end  of  a  fresh  egg,  between  the  shell  and  the 
lining  membrane,  a  small  air  cell  which  is  distinctly  transparent.  In  an  egg 
which  is  not  perfectly  fresh  this  space,  unless  the  egg  is  stored  with  the  large  end 
up,  becomes  filled  with  egg  substance  and  presents  the  same  appearance  as 
the  rest  of  the  egg.  Eggs  which  have  been  stored  a  long  time  and  not  properly 
turned  tend  to  show  the  yolk  on  the  underside,  often  adhering  to  the  shell 
itself,  and  this  is  always  an  indication  that  the  egg  has  been  stored  and  kept 
still  at  the  same  time.  The  best  of  all  tests,  however,  is  to  open  the  egg  and 
examine  its  general  appearance,  its  mobility,  and  its  odor  and  taste,  and 
by  these  means  determine  whether  or  not  it  is  fresh  or  stored.  Eggs  which 
have  been  stored  some  time  show  a  tendency  in  the  white  and  yolk  to  run 
together,  and  whenever  this  phenomenon  is  noticed,  it  may  be  certain  that 
the  egg,  if  the  hen  has  been  properly  fed,  is  not  a  fresh  one,  although  no 
perceptible  odor  of  decay  may  be  developed. 

The  Salt  Solution  Test. — Perfectly  fresh  eggs  will  just  sink  in  a  lo  percent 
salt  solution  at  70°  F.  This  test  is  quickly  applied  and  will  distinguish  the 
really  fresh  egg  from  one  which  is  even  a  few  days  old.  It  is  possible  also  to 
apply  the  sinking  and  floating  test  on  a  large  scale.  Salt  water  tanks  of  any 
size  are  easily  constructed  into  which  hundreds  of  dozens  of  eggs  may  be 
placed  at  once,  thus  effecting  a  speedy  separation  of  sinkers  and  floaters,  and 
at  a  minimum  expense.  There  are  some  instances  where  a  fresh  egg  will  not 
sink  in  these  circumstances,  but  such  cases  are  not  numerous  enough  to  be  of 
any  importance.  It  is  claimed,  however,  that  this  treatment  impairs  the  keep- 
ing quality  of  the  eggs  when  placed  in  cold  storage. 

Flavoring  Extracts  (Vanilla  and  Lemon). — ^Vanilla  extract  is  one  of  the 
most  common  of  the  flavoring  materials  employed  in  the  home.  In  the  past 'few 
years  it  has  also  been  one  of  the  products  most  frequently  adulterated,  and 
many  imitations  or  substitutes  for  vanifla  extract  have  been  sold  under  the 
name  of  the  extract  itself,  as  vanilla  flavor,  etc.  The  true  product  is  made  by 
extracting  vanilla  beans  with  alcohol,  and  the  flavoring  matter  consists  of  an 
alcoholic  solution  of  vanillin,  which  is  the  chief  flavoring  ingredient  of  the 
vanilla  bean,  together  with  other  constituents  of  the  bean  soluble  in  alcohol 
which  are  classed  principally  under  the  head  of  resins.  These  resins,  although 
present  in  a  very  small  amount,  and  having  only  a  slight  flavor  in  themselves, 
are  yet  able  to  affect  very  materially  the  flavor  of  the  product. 


6o6  SIMPLE   METHODS   FOR   DETECTING    FOOD   ADULTERATIONS. 

Common  Adulterants. — One  of  the  most  common  adulterations  of  vanilla 
is  an  extract  made  from  the  tonka  bean,  which  in  some  respects  resembles  that 
of  the  vanilla  bean,  but  is  much  cheaper  and  is  far  inferior  in  flavoring  proper- 
ties. It  has  a  marked  penetrating,  almost  pungent  odor,  in  sharp  contrast  to 
the  flavor  of  the  vanilla  extract.  By  having  at  hand  a  httle  vanilla  extract 
of  known  purity,  and  a  genuine  tonka  extract,  anyone  can  very  readily  dis- 
criminate between  them  by  their  odor  and  taste. 

Artificial  Vanillin. — Another  adulterant  of  vanilla  extract  is  artificial  vanil- 
lin, a  synthetic  product.  Extracts  made  of  this  substance  contain  no  resins, 
which  is  one  of  the  means  of  determining  v/hether  or  not  the  vaniUin  used  is 
an  artificial  preparation.  Extracts  made  from  artificial  vanillin  are  de- 
cidedly inferior  in  all  valuable  qualities  to  the  true  vanilla  extract  and  are 
generally  colored  so  as  to  imitate  the  natural  product.  Caramel  is  the  usual 
coloring-matter  employed,  and  its  presence  can  be  detected  by  shaking  and 
observing  the  color  of  the  resulting  foam  after  a  moment's  standing.  The 
foam  of  pure  extracts  is  colorless.  If  caramel  is  present,  a  color  persists  at 
the  points  of  contact  till  the  last  bubble  has  disappeared. 

Examination  oj  the  Resin. — If  pure  vanilla  extract  slightly  acidified  with 
acetic  acid  be  evaporated  to  about  one-third  its  volume,  the  resins,  which  were 
before  in  solution,  are  separated  and  settle  to  the  bottom  of  the  vessel.  On 
the  other  hand,  artificial  extracts  remain  clear  under  the  same  treatment.  In 
the  examination  of  vanilla  extract  the  character  of  these  resins  is  studied.  For 
this  purpose  a  dish  containing  about  an  ounce  of  the  extract  is  placed  over  a 
teakettle  or  other  vessel  of  boiling  water  until  the  liquid  evaporates  to  about 
one-third  or  less  of  its  volume.  The  alcohol  having  been  by  this  time  all 
driven  off,  the  resins  become  insoluble  and  separate.  Water  is  added  to  bring 
the  liquid  back  approximately  to  its  original  volume.  This  separates  the  resins, 
which  will  be  thrown  out  as  a  brown  flocculent  precipitate.  A  few  drops  of 
hydrochloric  acid  are  added,  the  liquid  is  stirred,  and  the  insoluble  matter 
allowed  to  settle.  It  is  then  filtered,  and  the  resin  on  the  filter-paper  is  washed 
with  water  and  afterward  dissolved  in  a  little  alcohol.  To  one  portion  of  this 
solution  is  added  a  small  particle  of  ferric  alum,  and  to  another  portion  a  few 
drops  of  hydrochloric  acid.  If  the  resin  is  that  of  the  vanilla  bean,  neither 
ferric  alum  nor  hydrochloric  acid  will  produce  more  than  a  slight  change  in 
color.  With  resins  from  most  other  sources,  however,  one  or  both  ol  these 
substances  causes  a  distinct  color  change. 

Lemon  Extract. — Lemon  extract  is  a  flavoring  material  made  by  dissolving 
oil  of  lemon  in  strong  alcohol.  If  oil  of  lemon  is  poured  into  dilute  alcohol, 
large  quantities  of  its  constituents  are  separated,  but  they  are  held  in  solution 
if  the  alcoholic  strength  of  the  extract  does  not  fall  below  80  percent.  Alcohol 
is,  therefore,  one  of  the  most  valuable  constituents  of  lemon  extract,  for  without 
it  the  product  would  be  precipitated  and  unusable.     Owing  to  the  fact  that 


FLOUR.  607 

lemon  extract  is  a  5  percent  solution  of  oil  of  lemon  in  strong  alcohol,  the 
sample  may  be  examined  by  simply  diluting  with  water.  A  teaspoonful  of  the 
extract  is  placed  in  the  bottom  of  a  glass  tumbler  and  two  or  three  teaspoon- 
fuls  of  water  added.  If  the  sample  is  real  lemon  extract,  the  lemon  oil  will  be 
thrown  out  of  solution  by  reason  of  its  insolubility  in  the  alcohol  after  its  dilu- 
tion with  water.  The  first  result  is  a  marked  turbidity,  and  later  the  separation 
of  the  oil  of  lemon  on  the  top  of  the  aqueous  fluid  takes  place.  If  the  sample 
remains  perfectly  clear  after  the  addition  of  water,  no  marked  turbidity  being 
produced,  it  is  undoubtedly  a  very  low-grade  product,  and  contains  little,  if 
any,  of  the  real  oil  of  lemon. 

Flour. — Within  the  last  decade  a  process  for  artificially  bleaching  flour 
has  been  quite  widely  introduced.  A  bleached  flour  is  of  a  dead  white  color, 
and  the  loaf  of  bread  baked  therefrom  is  usually  a  dingy  white,  and  not  a 
faint  amber  as  would  be  expected  from  a  natural  flour.  The  bleaching 
process  results  in  the  addition  of  small  amounts  of  nitrogen  peroxid  and 
renders  the  oil  present  nearly  colorless  instead  of  yeHow.  On  these  two 
facts  the  following  tests  are  based. 

Method  I  {for  Nitrites),  Solutions. —  (i)  Dissolve  0.5  gram  (7.7  grains)  of 
sulphanilic  acid  in  150  c.c.  (5  oz.)  of  dilute  acetic  acid  (about  20  percent). 
Keep  well  stoppered.  (2)  Dissolve  0.2  gram  (3.1  grains)  of  alpha-naphthyl- 
amin  hydrochlorid  in  20  c.c.  (0.7  oz.)  of  strong  acetic  acid  (glacial),  and  add 
130  c.c.  (4.4  oz.)  of  dilute  acetic  acid  (20  percent).  Keep  well  stoppered. 
Mix  I  and  2  for  use.  These  reagents  should  be  prepared  by  a  pharmacist. 
The  mixed  reagent  keeps  for  several  weeks. 

Preliminary  test:  The  water  to  be  used  should  first  be  tested  for  nitrites 
by  adding  to  a  4-ounce  bottle  of  water  about  one  teaspoonful  of  the  mixed  re- 
agent. If  after  shaking  and  allowing  to  stand  for  about  twenty  minutes  the 
solution  remains  colorless  or  is  a  very  faint  pink  color,  the  water  is  suitable 
for  making  the  following  test.  Distilled  water  is  best  for  this  purpose  if  ob- 
tainable. 

Determination:  Place  a  heaping  teaspoonful  of  the  flour  to  be  exam- 
ined in  a  wide-mouth,  glass-stoppered,  4-ounce  bottle.  Nearly  fill  with 
water  and  add  about  a  teaspoonful  of  the  solution.  Stopper  the  bottle  and 
shake  vigorously  for  a  few  minutes;  then  allow  to  settle  for  from  fifteen  to 
twenty  minutes. 

Under  these  conditions  bleached  flour  will  impart  to  the  liquid  a  color 
ranging  from  a  Hght  pink  to  a  deep  red,  depending  on  the  degree  of  bleaching; 
unbleached  flour  should  give  no  more  color  than  the  water  alone.  If  a  flour 
that  is  known  to  be  unbleached  can  be  obtained,  it  is  well  to  make  the  test  on 
this  at  the  same  time,  for  purposes  of  comparison. 

Method  II  Qor  Color  of  Oil). — Place  2  heaping  teaspoonfuls  (20  grams)  of 
the  flour  in  a  wide-mouth,  glass-stoppered,  4-ounce  bottle,  nearly  fill  the  bottle 


6o8  SIMPLE   METHODS   FOR   DETECTING   FOOD   ADULTERATIONS. 

with  gasoline,  shake,  and  allow  to  settle.  If  the  flour  is  unbleached,  the  gaso- 
line will  become  distinctly  yellow;  if  bleached,  it  will  remain  nearly  colorless. 
It  is  well  to  conduct  this  test  also  with  a  known  unbleached  flour  for  compari- 
son. This  experiment  must  not  be  made  in  a  room  where  there  is  any  kind 
of  fire,  flame  or  spark. 

Vinegar. — Vinegar  has  been  subjected  to  many  kinds  of  substitution,  imi- 
tation, and  adulteration.  The  term  vinegar  in  this  country  is,  by  common 
consent,  and  also  by  the  statutes  of  several  of  the  States  and  by  the  regulations 
of  the  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture,  applied  to  cider  vinegar. 
In  France  the  principal  vinegar  employed  is  made  from  wine,  while  in  England 
it  is  usually  made  from  malt.  The  tests  applied  in  this  country,  therefore,  are 
to  determine  whether  the  product  is  made  from  cider  or  not.  Vinegar  made 
from  wine  has  a  distinct  wine  odor;  on  the  other  hand,  cider  vinegar  has 
the  peculiar  odor  of  the  apple.  If  the  vinegar  is  evaporated  slowly  almost  to 
dryness,  the  characteristic  odor  of  the  malt,  or  wine,  or  cider  vinegar  can  be 
very  readily  detected  in  the  warm  residue.  The  residue  from  cider  vinegar 
wiU  smell  something  like  baked  apples,  and  that  from  wine  hke  grapes.  If  the 
vinegar,  however,  is  made  from  what  is  known  as  distilled  vinegar,  the  color 
of  the  residue  will  be  very  dark,  almost  black,  and  the  odor  will  be  entirely 
distinct  from  that  of  the  other  vinegars  mentioned.  The  test  may  be  continued 
further  by  heating  the  dish  until  the  residue  commences  to  burn.  In  this  test 
the  residue  from  cider  vinegar  will  have  the  odor  of  scorched  apples,  while 
distilled  vinegar,  which  has  been  colored  with  caramel,  will  have  the  odor  of 
burnt  sugar.  Unfortunately,  however,  the  low-grade  vinegars  often  have  a 
small  amount  of  concentrated  apple  juice  added  to  them,  and  this,  of  course, 
obscures  these  physical  tests  to  a  certain  extent.  They  will,  however,  enable 
a  person  unskilled  in  chemistry  to  distinguish  perfectly  between  cider  vinegar, 
malt  vinegar,  wine  vinegar,  and  distilled  vinegar  made  by  the  acetification  of 
dilute  alcohol. 

How  to  Distinguish  Genuine  Butter  from  Renovated.— r/?e  boiling 
test. — An  important  means  employed  in  distinguishing  between  genuine  and 
renovated  butter  is  the  boihng  test.  This  test  distinguishes  between  genuine 
butter  on  the  one  hand  and  oleomargarine  and  renovated  butter  on  the  other; 
and,  fortunately,  it  is  so  simple  of  execution  that  it  can  be  employed  in  any 
kitchen  almost  as  well  as  in  the  laboratory,  and  requires  no  special  skill  on  the 
part  of  the  operator.  It  consists  merely  in  boiling  briskly  a  small  portion  of  the 
sample  and  observing  its  behavior  the  while. 

The  test  may  be  conducted  as  follows:  Using  as  the  source  of  heat  an 
ordinary  kerosene  lamp,  turned  low  and  with  chimney  off,  melt  the  sample  to 
be  tested  (a  piece  the  size  of  a  small  chestnut)  in  an  ordinary  tablespoon,  has- 
tening the  process  by  stirring  with  a  splinter  of  wood  (for  example,  a  match). 
Then,  increasing  the  heat,  bring  to  as  brisk  a  boil  as  possible,  and  after  the 


TEST    FOR    OLEOMARGARINE.  609 

boiling  has  begun,  stir  the  contents  of  the  spoon  thoroughly,  not  neglecting  the 
outer  edges,  two  or  three  times  at  intervals  during  the  boiling — always  shortly 
before  the  boiling  ceases.  In  the  laboratory  a  test  tube,  a  spoon,  or  sometimes 
a  small  tin  dish,  is  used  in  making  this  test. 

A  gas  flame,  if  available,  can  be  used  perhaps  more  conveniently  than  a 
kerosene  lamp. 

Oleomargarine  and  renovated  butter  boil  noisily,  sputtering  (more  or  less) 
like  a  mixture  of  grease  and  water  when  boiled,  and  produce  no  foam,  or  but 
very  Httle.     Renovated  butter  produces  usually  a  very  small  amount. 

Genuine  butter  boils  usually  with  less  noise,  and  produces  an  abundance  of 
foam. 

The  difference  in  regard  to  foam  is  very  marked,  as  a  rule.  Rarely,  a  butter 
is  found  which  yields  an  uncertain  result;  such  a  butter  should  receive  the 
attention  of  the  grocer. 

To  Distinguish  Oleomargarine  from  Renovated  and  Genuine  Butters. 
— Utensils  required. — The  utensils  required  in  the  test  to  distinguish  oleo- 
margarine from  renovated  and  genuine  butters  are  as  follows: 

(i)  A  one-half  pint  tin  "measuring  cup,"  common  in  kitchen  use,  marked 
at  the  half  and  quarters;  or  a  plain  one-half  pint  tin  measure,  ordinary  narrow 
form;  or  an  ordinary  small  tin  cup,  2|  inches  in  diameter  and  2  inches  in 
height,  holding  about  one  gill  and  a  half. 

(2)  A  common  kitchen  pan,  about  gi  inches  in  diameter  at  the  base. 

(3)  A  small  rod  of  wood,  of  the  thickness  of  a  match  and  of  convenient 
length  for  stirring. 

(4)  A  clock  or  watch. 

The  process. — The  process  for  distinguishing  oleomargarine  from  reno- 
vated and  genuine  butters  is  as  follows: 

Use  sweet  skimmed  milk,  obtained  by  setting  fresh  milk  in  a  cool  place  for 
twelve  to  twenty-four  hours  and  removing  cream  as  fully  as  possible.  Half 
fill  with  this  milk  the  half-pint  cup  or  measure,  or  two-thirds  fill  the  smaller 
cup  mentioned,  measuring  accurately  the  gill  of  milk  when  possible;  heat 
nearly  to  boiling,  add  a  slightly  rounded  teaspoonful  of  the  butter  or  butter 
substitute,  stir  with  the  wooden  rod,  and  continue  heating  until  the  milk  ''boils 
up,"  remove  at  once  from  the  heat  and  place  in  the  pan  (arranged  while  milk 
and  fat  are  heating)  containing  pieces  of  ice  with  a  very  Httle  ice  w^ater,  the  ice 
to  be  mostly  in  pieces  of  the  size  of  one  to  two  hen's  eggs  (not  smaller,  as  small 
fragments  melt  too  rapidly)  and  sufficient  in  quantity  to  cover  two-thirds  of  the 
bottom  of  the  pan;  the  water  to  be  in  quantity  sufficient,  when  the  cup  is  first 
placed  in  the  pan,  to  reach  on  the  outside  of  the  cup  to  only  one-fourth  the 
height  of  the  milk  within;  any  water  in  excess  of  that  amount  must  be  removed. 
This  refers  to  the  condition  at  the  beginning  of  the  cooling;  later,  as  the  ice 
melts,  the  water  will  rise  to  a  higher  level.  Stir  the  contents  of  the  cup  rather 
40 


6lO  SIMPLE   METHODS   FOR   DETECTING    FOOD   ADULTERATIONS. 

rapidly,  with  a  rotary  and  a  cross- wise  motion  in  turn,  continuously  throughout 
the  test,  except  during  the  moment  of  time  required  for  each  stirring  of  the  ice 
and  water  in  the  pan,  which  must  be  done  thoroughly  once  every  minute  by  the 
clock.  This  is  done  by  moving  the  cup  about,  in  a  circle,  following  the  edge  of 
the  pan.  Proceed  in  this  manner  for  ten  minutes,  unless  before  that  time  the 
fat  has  gathered  or  has  allowed  itself  to  be  easily  gathered,  in  a  lump  or  a  soft 
mass,  soon  hardening.  If  it  so  gathers,  the  sample  is  oleomargarine;  if  not^ 
it  is  either  genuine  or  renovated  butter. 

The  boiling  test  enables  one  to  distinguish  in  the  great  majority  of  cases  be- 
tween genuine  butter  on  the  one  hand  and  oleomargarine  and  renovated  butter 
on  the  other;  the  Waterhouse  test,  household  adaptation  as  just  given,  enables 
one  to  distinguish  between  the  two  last  named;  and  so,  by  the  use  of  the  two 
tests,  one  can  determine  in  nearly  every  instance  which  of  the  three  he  has  in 
hand.  There  are  many  persons  who  are  able  to  recognize  oleomargarine, 
almost  without  fail,  by  taste  and  smell  alone.  To  those  not  possessed  of  this 
power  the  boiling  test,  which  is  performed  with  almost  no  trouble,  will  serve 
every  needful  purpose. 

In  every  instance  it  is  advisable  to  try  the  tests  on  samples  of  known  origin 
in  order  to  be  more  certain  of  the  results  when  samples  of  unknown  origin  are 
used. 

Watered  Milk. — Nearly  all  natural  water  contains  a  trace  of  nitric  acid 
as  nitrates,  and  this  fact  has  led  to  the  following  test: 

Nitrates  in  milk  may  be  detected  as  follows:  The  serum  of  the  milk  is  prepared 
by  adding  2  parts  of  25  percent  acetic  acid  to  100  parts  of  milk  and  heating  for 
twenty  minutes  at  a  temperature  of  160°.  If  desired,  alum  may  be  employed 
in  place  of  acetic  acid.  When  the  milk  is  evidently  coagulated,  the  beaker  is 
placed  in  ice  water  until  thoroughly  cooled  and  the  clear  serum  is  then  separated 
from  the  curd  by  filtering.  A  few  drops  of  the  serum  are  placed  in  a  white 
porcelain  dish  or  saucer  and  i  or  2  drops  of  strong  sulfuric  acid  (at  least  8a 
percent)  containing  o.i  gram  diphenylamin  per  100  c.c.  is  added.  The  pres- 
ence of  nitrates  is  indicated  by  the  formation  within  a  minute  or  two  of  a  deep 
blue  color.  If  the  sulfuric  acid  is  placed  in  the  milk  serum  without  mixing,  it 
will  settle  through  the  serum  to  the  bottom  and  a  blue  ring  will  be  apparent  at 
the  edge  of  the  rim  of  sulfuric  acid.  The  test  is  an  exceedingly  delicate  one 
and  blank  tests  must  be  made  with  the  reagents  employed  in  order  to  be  sure 
a  trace  of  nitrate  is  not  obtained  with  them.  Milk  known  to  be  free  from  ni- 
trates should  also  be  employed  as  a  means  of  testing  the  reagents.  It  is  our 
experience  that  milk  giving  this  diphenylamin  reaction  for  nitrates  has 
always  been  watered.  At  the  same  time,  the  test  has  been  objected  to  on  the 
ground  that  dung  dropping  from  the  cow  into  the  bucket  during  the  opera- 
tion of  milking  was  likely  to  introduce  nitrates  into  the  milk. 

Gelatin  in  Ice  Cream. — The  method  for  the  detection  of  gelatin  in  ice 


GELATIN    IN    ICE    CREAM.  6ll 

cream  is  as  follows:  Fifty  parts  of  the  ice  cream  are  treated  with  25  parts  of 
water  and  brought  to  the  boiling  point  to  dissolve  any  thickener  that  may  be 
present  and  not  in  complete  solution.  Ten  parts  of  this  preparation  are 
treated  as  follows:  Prepare  an  acid  solution  of  mercuric  nitrate  by  dissolving 
mercury  in  twice  its  weight  of  nitric  acid  of  1.42  specific  gravity,  and  diluting 
this  solution  to  25  times  its  bulk  with  water.  To  10  parts  of  the  milk  or  cream 
to  be  examined,  add  an  equal  volume  of  the  acid  mercuric  nitrate  solution, 
shake  the  mixture,  add  20  parts  of  water,  shake  again,^  allow  to  stand  five 
minutes,  and  filter.  If  much  gelatin  is  present  the  filtrate  will  be  opalescent 
and  can  not  be  obtained  quite  clear.  To  a  portion  of  the  filtrate  contained  in  a 
test  tube,  add  an  equal  volume  of  a  saturated  aqueous  solution  of  picric  acid. 
A  yellow  precipitate  will  be  produced  in  presence  of  any  considerable  amount  of 
gelatin,  while  smaller  amounts  will  be  indicated  by  a  cloudiness.  In  the  ab- 
sence of  gelatin  the  filtrate  obtained  will  remain  perfectly  clear. 


APPENDIX. 
UNITED  STATES  DEPARTMENT  OF  AGRICULTURE, 

OFFICE  OF  THE  SECRETARY— Circular  No.  19. 


STANDARDS  OF  PURITY  FOR  FOOD  PRODUCTS. 

Superseding  Circulars  Nos,  13  and  17, 
Supplemental  Proclamation. 


Referring  to  Circular  No.  13  of  this  Office,  dated  December  20,  1904,  and  to  Circular 
No.  17  of  this  Office,  dated  March  8,  1906,  the  following  food  standards  are  hereby  es- 
tablished as  superseding  and  supplemental  to  those  proclaimed  on  the  dates  above  named. 

James  Wilson, 
Secretary  of  Agriculture. 
Washington,  D.  C,  June  26,  1906. 

LETTER  OF  SUBMITTAL. 

The  Honorable  the  Secretary  of  Agriculture: 

Sir:  The  undersigned,  representing  the  Association  of  Official  Agricultural  Chemists 
of  the  United  States  and  the  Interstate  Food  Commission,  and  commissioned  by  you, 
under  authority  given  by  the  act  of  Congress  approved  March  3,  1903,  to  collaborate  with 
you  "to  establish  standards  of  purity  for  food  products  and  to  determine  what  are  regarded 
as  adulterations  therein,"  respectfully  report  that  they  have  carefully  reviewed,  in  the  light 
of  recent  investigations  and  correspondence,  the  standards  earlier  recommended  by  them 
and  have  prepared  a  set  of  amended  schedules,  in  which  certain  changes  have  been  intro- 
duced for  the  purpose  of  securing  increased  accuracy  of  expression  and  a  more  perfect  cor- 
respondence of  the  chemical  limits  to  the  normal  materials  designated,  and  from  which 
standards  previously  proclaimed  for  several  manufactured  articles  have  been  omitted 
because  of  the  unsatisfactory  condition  of  trade  nomenclature  as  applied  thereto;  and  also 
additional  schedules  of  standards  for  ice  creams,  vegetables  and  vegetable  products,  tea, 
and  coffee.  They  respectfully  recommend  that  the  standards  herewith  submitted  be 
approved  and  proclaimed  as  the  established  standards,  superseding  and  supplementing 
those  established  on  December  20,  1904,  and  March  8,  .1906. 

The  principles  that  have  guided  us  in  the  formulation  of  these  standards  are  appended 
hereto. 

613 


^j  .  STANDARDS   OF   PURITY. 

The  several  schedules  of  additional  standards  recommended  have  been  submitted,  in  a 
tentative  form,  to  the  manufacturing  firms  and  the  trade  immediately  interested,  and  also 
to  the  State  food-control  ofiicials  for  criticism. 

Respectfully,  William  Frear, 

Edward  H.  Jenkins, 
m.  a.  scovell, 
H.  A.  Weber, 
H.  W.  Wiley, 
Committee  on  Food  Standards,  Association  of  Official  Agricultural  Chemists. 

Richard  Fischer, 
Representing  the  Interstate  Food  Commission. 
Washington,  D.  C,  June  26, 1906. 

PRINCIPLES  ON  WHICH  THE  STANDARDS  ARE  BASED. 

The  general  considerations  which  have  guided  the  committee  in  preparing  the  standards 
for  food  products  are  the  following: 

1.  The  standards  are  expressed  in  the  form  of  definitions,  with  or  without  accompany- 
ing specifications  of  limit  in  composition. 

2.  The  main  classes  of  food  articles  are  defined  before  the  subordinate  classes  are  con- 
sidered. 

3.  The  definitions  are  so  framed  as  to  exclude  from  the  articles  defined  substances  not 
included  in  the  definitions,  — 

4.  The  definitions  include,  where  possible,  those  qualities  which  make  the  articles  de- 
scribed wholesome  for  human  food. 

5.  A  term  defined  in  any  of  the  several  schedules  has  the  same  meaning  wherever  else  it 
is  used  in  this  report. 

6.  The  names  of  food  products  herein  defined  usually  agree  with  existing  American 
trade  or  manufacturing  usage;  but  where  such  usage  is  not  clearly  established  or  where 
trade  names  confuse  two  or  more  articles  for  which  specific  designations  are  desirable, 
preference  is  given  to  one  of  the  several  trade  names  applied. 

7.  Standards  are  based  upon  data  representing  materials  produced  under  American 
conditions  and  manufactured  by  American  processes  or  representing  such  varieties  of 
foreign  articles  as  are  chiefly  imported  for  American  use. 

8.  The  standards  fixed  are  such  that  a  departure  of  the  articles  to  which  they  apply, 
above  the  maximum  or  below  the  minimum  limit  prescribed,  is  evidence  that  such  articles 
are  of  inferior  or  abnormal  quality. 

9.  The  limits  fixed  as  standard  are  not  necessarily  the  extremes  authentically  recorded 
for  the  article  in  question,  because  such  extremes  are  commonly  due  to  abnormal  condi- 
tions of  production  and  are  usually  accompanied  by  marks  of  inferiority  or  abnormality 
readily  perceived  by  the  producer  or  manufacturer. 

FOOD  STANDARDS. 

I.  ANIMAL  PRODUCTS. 
A.  Meats  and  the  Principal  Meat  Products. 

a.    MEATS. 

I.  Meat,  flesh,  is  any  clean,  sound,  dressed,  and  properly  prepared  edible  part  of  ani 
mals  in  good  health  at  the  time  of  slaughter,  and  if  it  bears  a  name  descriptive  of  its  kind, 


ANIMAL   PRODUCTS. 


615 


composition,  or  origin,  it  corresponds  thereto.  The  term  "animals,"  as  herein  used,  in- 
cludes not  only  mammals,  but  fish,  fowl,  crustaceans,  mollusks,  and  all  other  animals  used 
as  food. 

2.  Fresh  meat  is  meat  from  animals  recently  slaughtered  and  properly  cooled  until 
delivered  to  the  consumer. 

3.  Cold  storage  meat  is  meat  from  animals  recently  slaughtered  and  preserved  by  re- 
frigeration until  delivered  to  the  consumer.* 

4.  Salted,  pickled,  and  smoked  meats  are  unmixed  meats  preserved  by  salt,  sugar,  vine- 
gar, spices,  or  smoke,  singly  or  in  combination,  whether  in  bulk  or  in  suitable  containers. f 

b.    MANUFACTURED    MEATS. 

I.  Manufactured  meats  are  meats  not  included  in  paragraphs  2,  3,  and  4,  whether 
simple  or  mixed,  whole  or  comminuted,  in  bulk  or  in  suitable  containers,!  with  or  without 
the  addition  of  salt,  sugar,  vinegar,  spices,  smoke,  oils,  or  rendered  fat.  If  they  bear 
names  descriptive  of  kind,  composition,  or  origin,  they  correspond  thereto,  and  when  bear- 
ing such  descriptive  names,  if  force  or  flavoring  meats  are  used,  the  kind  and  quantity 
thereof  are  made  known. 

C.  MEAT  EXTRACTS,  MEAT  PEPTONES,  ETC. 

(Schedule  in  preparation.) 

d.    LARD. 

1.  Lard  is  the  rendered  fresh  fat  from  hogs  in  good  health  at  the  time  of  slaughter,  is 
clean,  free  from  rancidity,  and  contains,  necessarily  incorporated  in  the  process  of  render- 
ing, not  more  than  one  (i)  percent  of  substances,  other  than  fatty  acids  and  fat. 

2.  Leaf  lard  is  lard  rendered  at  moderately  high  temperatures  from  the  internal  fat  of 
the  abdomen  of  the  hog,  excluding  that  adherent  to  the  intestines,  and  has  an  iodin  number 
not  greater  than  sixty  (60). 

3.  Neutral  lard  is  lard  rendered  at  low  temperatures. 

B.  Milk  and  Its  Products. 

a.    MILKS. 

1.  Milk  is  the  fresh,  clean,  lacteal  secretion  obtained  by  the  complete  milking  of  one 
or  more  healthy  cows,  properly  fed  and  kept,  excluding  that  obtained  within  fifteen  days 
before  and  ten  days  after  calving,  and  contains  not  less  than  eight  and  one-half  (8.5)  per- 
cent of  solids  not  fat,  and  not  less  than  three  and  one-quarter  (3.25)  percent  of  milk  fat. 

2.  Blended  milk  is  milk  modified  in  its  composition  so  as  to  have  a  definite  and  stated 
percentage  of  one  or  more  of  its  constituents. 

*  The  establishment  of  proper  periods  of  time  for  cold  storage  is  reserved  for  future  consideration 
when  the  investigations  on  this  subject,  authorized  by  Congress,  are  completed. 

t  Suitable  containers  for  keeping  moist  food  products  such  as  sirups,  honey,  condensed  milk, 
soups,  meat  extracts,  meats,  manufactured  meats,  and  undried  fruits  and  vegetables,  and  wrappersin 
contact  with  food  products,  contain  on  their  surfaces,  in  contact  with  the  food  product,  no  lead,  anti- 
mony, arsenic,  zinc,  or  copper,  or  any  compounds  thereof  or  any  other  poisonous  or  injurious  substance. 
If  the  containers  are  made  of  tin  plate  they  are  outside-soldered  and  the  plate  in  no  place  contains 
less  than  one  hundred  and  thirteen  (113)  milligrams  of  tin  on  a  piece  live  (5)  centimeters  square  or  one 
and  eight-tenths  (1.8)  grains  on  a  piece  two  (2)  inches  square. 

The  inner  coating  of  the  containers  is  free  from  pin-holes,  blisters,  and  cracks. 

If  the  tin  plate  is  lacquered,  the  lacquer  completely  covers  the  tinned  surface  within  the  container 
and  yields  to  the  contents  of  the  container  no  lead,  antimony,  arsenic,  zinc,  or  copper  or  any  com- 
pounds thereof,  or  any  other  poisonous  or  injurious  substance. 


5i6  STANDARDS   OF   PURITY. 

3.  Skim  milk  is  milk  from  which  a  part  or  all  of  the  cream  has  been  removed  and  con- 
tains not  less  than  nine  and  one-quarter  (9.25)  percent  of  milk  solids. 

4.  Pasteurized  milk  is  milk  that  has  been  heated  below  boiling  but  sufficiently  to  kill 
most  of  the  active  organisms  present  and  immediately  cooled  to  50°  Fahr.  or  lower. 

5.  Sterilized  milk  is  milk  that  has  been  heated  at  the  temperature  of  boiling  water  or 
higher  for  a  length  of  time  sufficient  to  kill  all  organisms  present. 

6.  Condensed  milk,  evaporated  milk,  is  milk  from  which  a  considerable  portion  of  water 
has  been  evaporated,  and  contains  not  less  than  twenty-eight  (28)  percent  of  milk  solids 
of  which  not  less  than  twenty-seven  and  five-tenths  (27.5)  percent  is  milk  fat. 

7.  Sweetened  condensed  milk  is  milk  from  which  a  considerable  portion  of  water  has  been 
evaporated  and  to  which  sugar  (sucrose)  has  been  added,  and  contains  not  less  than  twenty- 
eight  (28)  percent  of  milk  solids,  of  which  not  less  than  twenty-seven  and  five-tenths 
(27.5)  percent  is  milk  fat. 

8.  Condensed  skim  milk  is  skim  milk  from  which  a  considerable  portion  of  water  has 
been  evaporated. 

9.  Buttermilk  is  the  product  that  remains  when  butter  is  removed  from  milk  or  cream 
in  the  process  of  churning. 

10.  Goat's  milk,  ewe's  milk,  et  cetera,  are  the  fresh,  clean,  lacteal  secretions,  free  from 
colostrum,  obtained  by  the  complete  milking  of  healthy  animals  other  than  cows,  properly 
fed  and  kept,  and  conform  in  name  to  the  species  of  animal  from  which  they  are  obtained. 

b.    CREAM. 

1.  Cream  is  that  portion  of  milk,  rich  in  milk  fat,  which  rises  to  the  surface  of  milk  on 
standing,  or  is  separated  from  it  by  centrifugal  force,  is  fresh  and  clean  and  contains  not 
less  than  eighteen  (18)  percent  of  milk  fat. 

2.  Evaporated  cream,  clotted  cream,  is  cream  from  which  a  considerable  portion  of  water 
has  been  evaporated. 

C.    MILK   FAT    OR   BUTTER   FAT. 

I.  Milk  fat,  butter  fat,  is  the  fat  of  milk,  and  has  a  Reichert-Meissl  number  not  less  than 

twenty-four  (24)  and  a  specific  gravity  not  less  than  0.905  (  — 5-^-  ). 

\40   C/ 

d.  BUTTER. 

1.  Butter  is  the  clean,  non-rancid  product  made  by  gathering  in  any  manner  the  fat  of 
fresh  or  ripened  milk  or  cream  into  a  mass,  which  also  contains  a  small  portion  of  the 
other  milk  constituents,  with  or  without  salt,  and  contains  not  less  than  eighty-two  and 
five-tenths  (82.5)  percent  of  milk  fat.  By  acts  of  Congress  approved  August  2,  1886, 
and  May  9,  1902,  butter  may  also  contain  added  coloring  matter. 

2.  Renovated  butter,  process  butter,  is  the  product  made  by  melting  butter  and  rework- 
ing, without  the  addition  or  use  of  chemicals  or  any  substances  except  milk,  cream,  or  salt, 
and  contains  not  more  than  sixteen  (16)  percent  of  water  and  at  least  eighty-two  and  five- 
tenths  (82.5)  percent  of  milk  fat. 

e.  CHEESE. 

1.  Cheese  is  the  sound,  solid,  and  ripened  product  made  from  milk  or  cream  by  coagu- 
lating the  casein  thereof  with  rennet  or  lactic  acid,  with  or  without  the  addition  of  ripening 
ferments  and  seasoning,  and  contains,  in  the  water-free  substance,  not  less  than  fifty  (50) 
percent  of  milk  fat.  By  act  of  Congress,  approved  June  6,  1896,  cheese  may  also  contain 
added  coloring  matter. 

2.  Skim  milk  cheese  is  the  sound,  solid,  and  ripened  product,  made  from  skim  milk 


VEGETABLE   PRODUCTS.  5j- 

by  coagulating  the  casein  thereof  with  rennet  or  lactic  acid,  with  or  without  the  addition 
of  ripening  ferments  and  seasoning. 

3.  Goat^s  milk  cheese,  ewe's  milk  cheese,  et  cetera,  are  the  sound,  ripened  products  made 
from  the  milks  of  the  animals  specified,  by  coagulating  the  casein  thereof  with  rennet  or 
lactic  acid,  with  or  without  the  addition  of  ripening  ferments  and  seasoning. 

f.    ICE   CREAMS. 

1.  Ice  cream  is  a  frozen  product  made  from  cream  and  sugar,  with  or  without  a  natural 
flavoring,  and  contains  not  less  than  fourteen  (14)  percent  of  milk  fat. 

2.  Fruit  ice  cream  is  a  frozen  product  made  from  cream,  sugaj,  and  sound,  clean,  mature 
fruits,  and  contains  not  less  than  twelve  (12)  percent  of  milk  fat. 

3.  Nut  ice  cream  is  a  frozen  product  made  from  cream,  sugar,  and  sound,  non-rancid 
nuts,  and  contains  not  less  than  twelve  (12)  percent  of  milk  fat. 

g.    MISCELLANEOUS    MILK   PRODUCTS. 

1.  Whey  is  the  product  remaining  after  the  removal  of  fat  and  casein  from  milk  in  the 
process  of  cheese-making. 

2.  Kumiss  is  the  product  made  by  the  alcoholic  fermentation  of  mare's  or  cow's  milk. 

II.  VEGETABLE  PRODUCTS. 
A.  Grain  Products. 

a.    GRAINS    AND    MEALS. 

1.  Grain  is  the  fully  matured,  clean,  sound,  air-dry  seed  of  wheat,  maize,  rice,  oats, 
rye,  buckwheat,  barley,  sorghum,  millet,  or  spelt. 

2.  Meal  is  the  clean,  sound  product  made  by  grinding  grain. 

3.  Flour  is  the  fine,  clean,  sound  product  made  by  bolting  wheat  meal  and  contains 
not  more  than  thirteen  and  one-half  (13.5)  percent  of  moisture,  not  less  than  one  and 
twenty-five  hundredths  (1.25)  percent  of  nitrogen,  not  more  than  one  (i)  percent  of  ash, 
and  not  more  than  fifty  hundredths  (0.50)  percent  of  fiber. 

4.  Graham  -flour  is  unbolted  wheat  meal. 

5.  Gluten  flour  is  the  clean,  sound  product  made  from  flour  by  the  removal  of  starch 
and  contains  not  less  than  five  and  six-tenths  (5.6)  percent  of  nitrogen  and  not  more  than 
ten  (10)  percent  of  moisture. 

6.  Maize  meal,  corn  meal,  Indian  corn  meal,  is  meal  made  from  sound  maize  grain  and 
contains  not  more  than  fourteen  (14)  percent  of  moisture,  not  less  than  one  and  twelve- 
hundredths  (1.12)  percent  of  nitrogen,  and  not  more  than  one  and  six-tenths  (1.6)  per- 
cent of  ash. 

7.  Rice  is  the  hulled,  or  hulled  and  polished  grain  of  Oryza  sativa. 

8.  Oatmeal  is  meal  made  from  hulled  oats  and  contains  not  more  than  twelve  (12)  per- 
cent of  moisture,  not  more  than  one  and  five-tenths  (1.5)  percent  of  crude  fiber,  not  less 
than  two  and  twenty-four  hundredths  (2.24)  percent  of  nitrogen,  and  not  more  than  two 
and  two-tenths  (2.2)  percent  of  ash. 

9.  Rye  flour  is  the  fine,  clean,  sound  product  made  by  bolting  rye  meal  and  contains 
not  more  than  thirteen  and  one-half  (13.5)  percent  of  moisture,  not  less  than  one  and 
thirty-six  hundredths  (1.36)  percent  of  nitrogen,  and  not  more  than  one  and  twenty-five 
hundredths  (1.25)  percent  of  ash. 

10.  Buckwheat  flour  is  bolted  buckwheat  meal  and  contains  not  more  than  twelve  (12) 
percent  of  moisture,  not  less  than  one  and  twenty-eight  hundredths  (1.28)  percent  of 
nitrogen,  and  not  more  than  one  and  seventy-five  hundredths  (1.75)  percent  of  ash. 


5i8  STANDARDS   OF   PURITY. 

B.  Fruit  and  Vegetables. 

a.    FRUIT    AND   FRUIT    PRODUCTS. 

(Except  fruit  juices,  fresh,  sweet,  and  fermented,  and  vinegars.) 

1.  Fruits  are  the  clean,  sound,  edible,  fleshy  fructifications  of  plants,  distinguished  by 
their  sweet,  acid,  and  ethereal  flavors. 

2.  Dried  fruit*  is  the  clean,  sound  product  made  by  drying  mature,  properly  prepared, 
fresh  fruit  in  such  a  way  as  to  take  up  no  harmful  substance,  and  conforms  in  name  to  the 
fruit  used  in  its  preparation;  sun-dried  fruit  is  dried  fruit  made  by  drying  without  the  use 
of  artificial  means;  evaporated  fruit  is  dried  fruit  made  by  drying  with  the  use  of  arti- 
ficial means. 

3.  Evaporated  apples  are  evaporated  fruit  made  from  peeled  and  cored  apples,  and 
contain  not  more  than  twenty-seven  (27)  percent  of  moisture  determined  by  the  usual 
commercial  method  of  drying  for  four  (4)  hours  at  the  temperature  of  boiling  water. 

(Standards  for  other  dried  fruits  are  in  preparation.) 

4.  Canned  fruit  is  the  sound  product  made  by  sterilizing  clean,  sound,  properly  matured 
and  prepared  fresh  fruit,  by  heating,  with  or  without  sugar  (sucrose)  and  spices,  and  keep- 
ing in  suitable,  clean,  hermetically  sealed  containers  and  conforms  in  name  to  the  fruit 
used  in  its  preparation. 

5.  Preserveii  is  the  sound  product  made  from  clean,  sound,  properly  matured  and  pre- 
pared fresh  fruit  and  sugar  (sucrose)  sirup,  with  or  without  spices  or  vinegar,  and  con- 
forms in  name  to  that  of  the  fruit  used,  and  in  its  preparation  not  less  than  forty-five  (45) 
pounds  of  fruit  are  used  to  each  fifty-five  (55)  pounds  of  sugar. 

6.  Honey  preserve  f  is  preserve  in  which  honey  is  used  in  place  of  sugar  (sucrose)  sirup. 

7.  Glucose  preserve  f  is  preserve  in  which  a  glucose  product  is  used  in  place  of  sugar 
(sucrose)  sirup. 

8.  Jam,  marmalade,f  is  the  sound  product  made  from  clean,  sound,  properly  matured 
and  prepared  fresh  fruit  and  sugar  (sucrose),  with  or  without  spices  or  vinegar,  by  boiling 
to  a  pulpy  or  semisolid  consistence,  and  conforms  in  name  to  the  fruit  used,  and  in  its 
preparation  not  less  than  forty-five  (45)  pounds  of  fruit  are  used  to  each  fifty-five  (55) 
pounds  of  sugar. 

9.  Glucose  jam,  glucose  marmalade,^  is  jam  in  which  a  glucose  product  is  used  in  place  of 
sugar  (sucrose). 

10.  Fruit  butter^  is  the  sound  product  made  from  fruit  juice  and  clean,  sound,  properly 
matured  and  prepared  fruit,  evaporated  to  a  semisolid  mass  of  homogeneous  consistence, 
with  or  without  the  addition  of  sugar  and  spices  or  vinegar,  and  conforms  in  name  to  the 
fruit  used  in  its  preparation. 

11.  Glucose  fruit  butter^  is  fruit  butter  in  which  a  glucose  product  is  used  in  place  of 
sugar  (sucrose). 

12.  Jellyf  is  the  sound,  semisolid,  gelatinous  product  made  by  boiling  clean,  sound, 
properly  matured  and  prepared  fresh  fruit  with  water,  concentrating  the  expressed  and 
strained  juice,  to  which  sugar  (sucrose)  is  added,  and  conforms  in  name  to  the  fruit  used 
in  its  preparation. 

13.  Glucose  jelly\  is  jelly  in  which  a  glucose  product  is  used  in  place  of  sugar  (sucrose). 

*  The  subject  of  sulfurous  acid  in  dried  fruits  is  reserved  for  consideration  in  connection  with  the 
schedule  "  Preservatives  and  Coloring  Matters." 

t  Products  made  with  mixtures  of  sugar,  glucose,  and  honey,  or  any  two  thereof,  are  reserved  for 
future  consideration. 


SUGARS. 


619 


b.    VEGETABLES    AND   VEGETABLE   PRODUCTS. 

1.  Vegetables  are  the  succulent,  clean,  sound,  edible  parts  of  herbaceous  plants  used 
for  culinary  purposes. 

2.  Dried  vegetables  are  the  clean,  sound  products  made  by  drying  properly  matured 
and  prepared  vegetables  in  such  a  way  as  to  take  up  no  harmful  substance,  and  conform 
in  name  to  the  vegetables  used  in  their  preparation;  sun-dried  vegetables  are  dried  vege- 
tables made  by  drying  without  the  use  of  artificial  means;  evaporated  vegetables  are  dried 
vegetables  made  by  drying  with  the  use  of  artificial  means. 

3.  Canned  vegetables  are  sound,  properly  matured  and  prepared  fresh  vegetables,  with 
or  without  salt,  sterilized  by  heat,  with  or  without  previous  cocking  in  vessels  from  which 
they  take  up  no  metallic  substance,  kept  in  suitable,  clean,  hermetically  sealed  containers, 
are  sound  and  conform  in  name  to  the  vegetables  used  in  their  preparation. 

4.  Pickles  are  clean,  sound,  immature  cucumbers,  properly  prepared,  without  taking 
up  any  metallic  compound  other  than  salt,  and  preserved  in  any  kind  of  vinegar,  with  or 
without  spices;  pickled  onions,  pickled  beets,  pickled  beans,  and  other  pickled  vegetables 
are  vegetables  prepared  as  described  above,  and  conform  in  name  to  the  vegetables  used. 

5.  Salt  pickles  are  clean,  sound,  immature  cucumbers,  preserved  in  a  solution  of  com- 
mon salt,  with  or  without  spices. 

6.  Sweet  pickles  are  pickled  cucumbers  or  other  vegetables  in  the  preparation  of  which 
sugar  (sucrose)  is  used. 

7.  Sauerkraut  is  clean,  sound,  properly  prepared  cabbage,  mixed  with  salt,  and  sub- 
jected to  fermentation. 

8.  Catchup  {ketchup,  catsup)  is  the  clean,  sound  product  made  from  the  properly  pre- 
pared pulp  of  clean,  sound,  fresh,  ripe  tomatoes,  with  spices  and  with  or  without  sugar  and 
vinegar;  mushroom  catchup,  walnut  catchup,  et  cetera,  are  catchups  made  as  above  de- 
scribed and  conform  in  name  to  the  substances  used  in  their  preparation. 

C.  Sugars  and  Related  Substances. 
a.  sugar  and  sugar  products. 

SUGARS. 

1.  Sugar  is  the  product  chemically  known  as  sucrose  (saccharose)  chiefly  obtained 
from  sugar  cane,  sugar  beets,  sorghum,  maple,  and  palm. 

2.  Granulated,  loaf,  cut,  milled,  and  powdered  sugars  are  different  forms  of  sugar  and 
contain  at  least  ninety-nine  and  five-tenths  (99.5)  percent  of  sucrose. 

3.  Maple  sugar  is  the  solid  product  resulting  from  the  evaporation  of  maple  sap,  and 
contains,  in  the  water-free  substance,  not  less  than  sixty-five  one-hundredths  (0.65)  per- 
cent of  maple  sugar  ash. 

4.  Massecuite,  melada,  mush  sugar,  and  concrete  are  products  mad^  by  evaporating 
the  purified  juice  of  a  sugar-producing  plant,  or  a  solution  of  sugar,  to  a  solid  or  semisolid 
consistence,  and  in  which  the  sugar  chiefly  exists  in  a  crystalline  state. 

MOLASSES    AND   REFINER'S    SIRUP. 

1.  Molasses  is  the  product  left  after  separating  the  sugar  from  massecuite,  melada, 
mush  sugar,  or  concrete,  and  contains  not  more  than  twenty-five  (25)  percent  of  water 
and  not  more  than  five  (5)  percent  of  ash. 

2.  Refiners^  sirup,  treacle,  is  the  residual  liquid  product  obtained  in  the  process  of  re^ 
fining  raw  sugars  and  contains  not  more  than  twenty-five  (25)  percent  of  water  and  not 
more  than  eight  (8)  percent  of  ash. 


620  STANDARDS   OF   PURITY. 

SIRUPS. 

1.  Sirup  is  the  sound  product  made  by  purifying  and  evaporating  the  juice  of  a  sugar- 
producing  plant  without  removing  any  of  the  sugar. 

2.  Sugar-cane  sirup  is  sirup  made  by  the  evaporation  of  the  juice  of  the  sugar  cane  or 
by  the  solution  of  sugar-cane  concrete,  and  contains  not  more  than  thirty  (30)  percent 
of  water  and  not  more  than  two  and  five-tenths  (2.5)  percent  of  ash. 

3.  Sorghum  sirup  is  sirup  made  by  the  evaporation  of  sorghum  juice  or  by  the  solution 
of  sorghum  concrete,  and  contains  not  more  than  thirty  (30)  percent  of  water  and  not 
more  than  two  and  five-tenths  (2.5)  percent  of  ash. 

4.  Maple  sirup  is  sirup  made  by  the  evaporation  of  maple  sap  or  by  the  solution  of 
maple  concrete,  and  contains  not  more  than  thirty-two  (32)  percent  of  water  and  not  less 
than  forty-five  hundredths  (0.45)  percent  of  maple  sirup  ash. 

5.  Sugar  sirup  is  the  product  made  by  dissolving  sugar  to  the  consistence  of  a  sirup 
and  contains  not  more  than  thirty-five  (35)  percent  of  water. 

b.   GLUCOSE  PRODUCTS. 

1.  starch  sugar  is  the  solid  product  made  by  hydrolyzing  starch  or  a  starch-containing 
substance  until  the  greater  part  of  the  starch  is  converted  into  dextrose.  Starch  sugar 
appears  in  commerce  in  two  forms,  anhydrous  starch  sugar  and  hydrous  starch  sugar. 
The  former,  crystallized  without  water  of  crystallization,  contains  not  less  than  ninety- 
five  (95)  percent  of  dextrose  and  not  more  than  eight-tenths  (0.8)  percent  of  ash.  The 
latter,  crystallized  with  water  of  crystallization,  is  of  two  varieties — 70  sugar,  also  known 
as  brewers'  sugar,  contains  not  less  than  seventy  (70)  percent  of  dextrose  and  not  more 
than  eight-tenths  (0.8)  percent  of  ash;  80  sugar,  climax  or  acme  sugar,  contains  not  less 
than  eighty  (80)  percent  of  dextrose  and  not  more  than  one  and  one-half  (1.5)  percent 
of  ash. 

The  ash  of  all  these  products  consists  almost  entirely  of  chlorids  and  sulfates. 

2.  Glucose,  mixing  glucose,  confectioner's  glucose,  is  a  thick,  sirupy,  colorless  product 
made  by  incompletely  hydrolyzing  starch,  or  a  starch-containing  substance,  and  decolorizing 
and  evaporating  the  product.  It  varies  in  density  from  forty-one  (41)  to  forty-five  (45) 
degrees  Baume  at  a  temperature  of  100°  Fahr.  (37.7°  C),  and  conforms  in  density,  within 
these  limits,  to  the  degree  Baume  it  is  claimed  to  show,  and  for  a  density  of  forty-one  (41) 
degrees  Baume  contains  not  more  than  twenty-one  (21)  percent  and  for  a  density  of  forty- 
five  (45)  degrees  not  more  than  fourteen  (14)  percent  of  water.  It  contains  on  a  basis 
of  forty-one  (41)  degrees  Baume  not  more  than  one  (i)  percent  of  ash,  consisting  chiefly 
of  chlorids  and  sulfates. 

C.    CANDY. 

I.  Candy  is  a  product  made  from  a  saccharine  substance  or  substances  with  or  with- 
out the  addition  of  harmless  coloring,  flavoring,  or  filling  materials  and  contains  no  terra 
alba,  barytes,  talc,  chrome  yellow,  or  other  mineral  substances,  or  poisonous  colors  or 
flavors,  or  other  ingredients  deleterious  or  detrimental  to  health,  or  any  vinous,  malt,  or 
spiritous  liquor  or  compound,  or  narcotic  drug. 

d.    HONEY. 

1.  Honey  is  the  nectar  and  saccharine  exudations  of  plants  gathered,  modified,  and 
stored  in  the  comb  by  honey  bees  (Apis  mellifica  and  A.  dorsata);  is  laevo-rotatory,  con- 
tains not  more  than  twenty-five  (25)  percent  of  water,  not  more  than  twenty-five  hun- 
dredths (0.25)  percent  of  ash,  and  not  more  than  eight  (8)  percent  of  sucrose. 

2.  Comb  honey  is  honey  contained  in  the  cells  of  the  comb. 


CONDIMENTS.  52 1 

3.  Extracted  honey  is  honey  which  has  been  separated  from  the  uncrushed  comb  by 
centrifugal  force  or  gravity. 

4.  Strained  honey  is  honey  removed  from  the  crushed  comb  by  straining  or  other 
means. 

D.  Condiments  (except  Vinegar  and  Salt). 

a.  spices. 

1.  Spices  are  aromatic  vegetable  substances  used  for  the  seasoning  of  food  and  from 
which  no  portion  of  any  volatile  oil  or  other  flavoring  principle  has  been  removed  and  which 
are  clean,  sound,  and  true  to  name. 

2.  Allspice,  pimento,  is  the  dried  fruit  of  the  Pimenta  pimentct  (L.)  Karst.,  and  contains 
not  less  than  eight  (8)  percent  of  quercitannic  acid*;  not  more  than  six  (6)  percent  of 
total  ash,  not  more  than  five-tenths  (0.5)  percent  of  ash  insoluble  in  -hydrochloric  acid, 
and  not  more  than  twenty-five  (25)  percent  of  crude  fiber. 

3.  Anise  is  the  fruit  of  the  Pimpinella  anisum  L. 

4.  Bay  leaf  is  the  dried  leaf  of  Laurus  nobilis  L. 

5.  Capers  are  the  flower  buds  of  Capparis  spinosa  L. 

6.  Caraway  is  the  fruit  of  Carum  carvi  L. 

CAYENNE    AND    RED    PEPPERS. 

7.  Red  pepper  is  the  red,  dried,  ripe  fruit  of  any  species  of  Capsicum. 

8.  Cayenne  pepper,  cayenne,  is  the  dried  ripe  fruit  of  Capsicum  frtitescens  L.,  Capsi- 
cum haccattum  L.,  or  some  other  small-fruited  species  of  Capsicum,  and  contains  not  less 
than  fifteen  (15)  percent  of  non-volatile  ether  extract;  not  more  than  six  and  five-tenths 
(6.5)  percent  of  total  ash;  not  more  than  five -tenths  (0.5)  percent  of  ash  insoluble  in 
hydrochloric  acid;  not  more  than  one  and  five-tenths  (1.5)  percent  of  starch,  and  not 
more  than  twenty-eight  (28)  percent  of  crude  fiber. 

9.  Paprika  is  the  dried  ripe  fruit  of  Capsicum  annum  L.,  or  some  other  large-fruited 
species  of  Capsicum,  excluding  seeds  and  stems. 

10.  Celery  seed  is  the  dried  fruit  of  A  plum  graveolens  L. 

11.  Cinnamon  is  the  dried  bark  of  any  species  of  the  genus  Cinnamomum  from  which  the 
outer  layers  may  or  may  not  have  been  removed. 

12.  True  cinnamon  is  the  dried  inner  bark  of  Cinnamomum  zeylanicum  Breyne. 

13.  Cassia  is  the  dried  bark  of  various  species  of  Cinnamomum,  other  than  Cinna- 
momum zeylanicum,  from  which  the  outer  layers  may  or  may  not  have  been  removed. 

14.  Cassia  buds  are  the  dried  immature  fruit  of  species  of  Cinnamomum. 

15.  Ground  cinnamon,  ground  cassia,  is  a  powder  consisting  of  cinnamon,  cassia,  or 
cassia  buds,  or  a  mixture  of  these  spices  and  contains  not  more  than  six  (6)  percent  of  total 
ash  and  not  more  than  two  (2)  percent  of  sand. 

16.  Cloves  are  the  dried  flower  buds  of  Caryophyllus  aromaticus  L.,  which  contain  not 
more  than  five  (5)  percent  of  clove  stems;  not  less  than  ten  (10)  percent  of  volatile 
ether  extract;  not  less  than  twelve  (12)  percent  of  quercitannic  acid;*  not  more  than 
eight  (8)  percent  of  total  ash;  not  more  than  five-tenths  (0.5)  percent  of  ash  insoluble  in 
hydrochloric  acid,  and  not  more  than  ten  (10)  percent  of  crude  fiber. 

17.  Coriander  is  the  dried  fruit  of  Coriandrum  sativum  L. 

18.  Cumin  seed  is  the  fruit  of  Cuminum  cyminum  L. 

19.  Dill  seed  is  the  ivuit  of  Anethum  graveolens  L,. 

20.  Fennel  is  the  fruit  of  Foeniculum  fceniculum  (L.)  Karst. 

21.  Ginger  is  the  washed  and  dried  or  decorticated  and  dried  rhizome  of  Zingiber  zin- 

*  Calculated  from  the  total  oxygen  absorbed  by  the  aqueous  extract. 


622 


STANDARDS   OF   PURITY. 


giber  (L.)  Karst.,  and  contains  not  less  than  forty-two  (42)  percent  of  starch;  not  more 
than  eight  (8)  percent  of  crude  fiber,  not  more  than  six  (6)  percent  of  total  ash,  not  more 
than  one  (i)  percent  of  lime,  and  not  more  than  three  (3)  percent  of  ash  insoluble  in  hydro- 
chloric acid. 

22.  Limed  ginger,  bleached  ginger,  is  whole  ginger  coated  with  carbonate  of  lime  and 
contains  not  more  than  ten  (10)  percent  of  ash,  not  more  than  four  (4)  percent  of  carbonate 
of  lime,  and  conforms  in  other  respects  to  the  standard  for  ginger. 

23.  Horse-radish  is  the  root  of  Roripa  armoracia  (L.)  Hitchcock,  either  by  itself  or 
ground  and  mixed  with  vinegar. 

24.  Mace  is  the  dried  arillus  of  Myristica  fragrans  Houttuyn,  and  contains  not  less  than 
twenty  (20)  nor  more  than  thirty  (30)  percent,  of  non-volatile  ether  extract,  not  more  than 
three  (3)  percent  of  total  ash,  and  not  more  than  five-tenths  (0.5)  percent  of  ash  insoluble 
in  hydrochloric  acid,  and  not  more  than  ten  (10)  percent  of  crude  fiber. 

25.  Macassar  mace,  Papua  mace,  is  the  dried  arillus  of  Myristica  argentea  Warb. 

26.  Bombay  mace  is  the  dried  arillus  of  Myristica  malabarica  Lamarck. 

27.  Marjoram  is  the  leaf,  flower  and  branch  of  Major  ana  major  ana  (L.)  Karst. 

28.  Mustard  seed  is  the  seed  of  Sinapis  alba  L.  (white  mustard),  Brassica  nigra  (L.) 
Koch  (black  mustard),  or  Brassica  juncea  (L.)  Cosson  (black  or  brown  mustard). 

29.  Ground  mustard  is  a  powder  made  from  mustard  seed,  with  or  without  the  removal 
of  the  hulls  and  a  portion  of  the  fixed  oils,  and  contains  not  more  than  two  and  five-tenths 
(2.5)  percent  of  starch  and  not  more  than  eight  (8)  percent  of  total  ash. 

30.  Prepared  mustard,  German  mustard,  French  mustard,  mustard  paste,  is  a  paste  com- 
posed of  a  mixture  of  ground  mustard  seed  or  mustard  flour  with  salt,  spices,  and  vinegar, 
and,  calculated  free  from  water,  fat,  and  salt,  contains  not  more  than  twenty-four  (24)  per- 
cent of  carbohydrates,  calculated  as  starch,  determined  according  to  the  official  metTiods, 
not  more  than  twelve  (12)  percent  of  crude  fiber  nor  less  than  thirty-five  (35)  percent  of 
protein,  derived  solely  from  the  materials  named. 

31.  Nutmeg  is  the  dried  seed  of  the  Myristica  fragrans  Houttuyn,  deprived  of  its  testa, 
with  or  without  a  thin  coating  of  lime,  and  contains  not  less  than  twenty-five  (25)  percent 
of  non-volatile  ether  extract,  not  more  than  five  (5)  percent  of  total  ash,  not  more  than  five- 
tenths  (0.5)  percent  of  ash  insoluble  in  hydrochloric  acid,  and  not  more  than  ten  (10)  per- 
cent of  crude  fiber, 

32.  Macassar  nutmeg,  Papua  nutmeg,  male  nutmeg,  long  nutmeg,  is  the  dried  seed  of  My- 
ristica argentea  Warb.  deprived  of  its  testa. 

PEPPER. 

33.  Black  pepper  is  the  dried  immature  berry  of  Piper  nigrum  L.  and  contains  not  less 
than  six  (6)  percent  of  non-volatile  ether  extract,  not  less  than  twenty-five  (25)  percent  of 
starch,  not  more  than  seven  (7)  percent  of  total  ash,  not  more  than  two  (2)  percent  of  ash 
insoluble  in  hydrochloric  acid,  and  not  more  than  fifteen  (15)  percent  of  crude  fiber.  One 
hundred  parts  of  the  non-volatile  ether  extract  contain  not  less  than  three  and  one  quarter 
(3.25)  parts  of  nitrogen.  Ground  black  pepper  is  the  product  made  by  grinding  the  entire 
berry  and  contains  the  several  parts  of  the  berry  in  their  normal  proportions. 

34.  Long  pepper  is  the  dried  fruit  of  Piper  longum  L, 

35.  White  pepper  is  the  dried  mature  berry  of  Piper  nigrum  L.  from  which  the  outer 
coating  or  the  outer  and  inner  coatings  have  been  removed  and  contains  not  less  than  six  (6) 
percent  of  non- volatile  ether  extract,  not  less  than  fifty  (50)  percent  of  starch,  not  more  than 
four  (4)  percent  of  total  ash,  not  more  than  five-tenths  (0.5)  percent  of  ash  insoluble  in 
hydrochloric  acid,  and  not  more  than  five  (5)  percent  of  crude  fiber.  One  hundred  parts 
of  the  non-volatile  ether  extract  contain  not  less  than  four  (4)  parts  of  nitrogen. 


FLAVORING   EXTRACTS. 


623 


36.  Saffron  is  the  dried  stigma  of  Crocus  sativus  L. 

37.  Sage  is  the  leaf  of  Salvia  officinalis  L. 

38.  Savory,  summer  savory,  is  the  leaf,  blossom,  and  branch  of  Satureja  hortensis  L. 

39.  Thyme  is  the  leaf  and  tip  of  blooming  branches  of  Thymus  vulgaris  L. 

b.    FLAVORING    EXTRACTS. 

1.  A  flavoring  extract*  is  a  solution  in  ethyl  alcohol  of  proper  strength  of  the  sapid  and 
odorous  principles  derived  from  an  aromatic  plant,  or  parts  of  the  plant,  with  or  without 
its  coloring  matter,  and  conforms  in  name  to  the  plant  used  in  its  preparation. 

2.  Almond  extract  is  the  flavoring  extract  prepared  from  oil  of  bitter  almonds,  free  from 
hydrocyanic  acid,  and  contains  not  less  than  one  (i)  percent  by  volume  of  oil  of  bitter 
almonds. 

2.*  Oil  of  hitter  almonds,  commercial,  is  the  volatile  oil  obtained  from  the  seed  of  the 
bitter  almond  (Amygdalus  communis  L.),  the  apricot  {Prunus  armeniaca  L.),  or  the  peach 
{Amygdalus  persica  L.). 

3.  Anise  extract  is  the  flavoring  extract  prepared  from  oil  of  anise,  awd  contains  not  less 
than  three  (3)  percent  by  volume  of  oil  of  anise. 

3.*  Oil  of  anise  is  the  volatile  oil  obtained  from  the  anise  seed. 

4.  Celery  seed  extract  is  the  flavoring  extract  prepared  from  celery  seed  or  the  oil  of 
celery  seed,  or  both,  and  contains  not  less  than  three-tenths  (0.3)  percent  by  volume  of  oil 
of  celery  seed. 

4.*  Oil  of  celery  seed  is  the  volatile  oil  obtained  from  celery  seed. 

5.  Cassia  extract  is  the  flavoring  extract  prepared  from  oil  of  cassia  and  contains  not  less 
thanJ;wo  (2)  percent  by  volume  of  oil  of  cassia. 

5.*  Oil  of  cassia  is  the  lead-free  volatile  oil  obtained  from  the  leaves  or  bark  of  Cinna- 
momum  cassia  BL,  and  contains  not  less  than  seventy-five  (75)  percent  by  weight  of  cin- 
namic  aldehyde. 

6.  Cinnamon  extract  is  the  flavoring  extract  prepared  from  oil  of  cinnamon,  and  con- 
tains not  less  than  two  (2)  percent  by  volume  of  oil  of  cinnamon. 

6.*  Oil  of  cinnamon  is  the  lead-free  volatile  oil  obtained  from  the  bark  of  the  Ceylon 
cinnamon  (Cinnamomum  zeylanicum  Breyne),  and  contains  not  less  than  sixty-five  (65)  per- 
cent by  weight  of  cinnamic  aldehyde  and  not  more  than  ten  (10)  percent  by  weight  of 
eugenol. 

7.  Clove  extract  is  the  flavoring  extract  prepared  from  oil  of  cloves,  and  contains  not 
less  than  two  (2)  percent  by  volume  of  oil  of  cloves. 

7.*  Oil  of  cloves  is  the  lead-free,  volatile  oil  obtained  from  cloves. 

8.  Ginger  extract  is  the  flavoring  extract  prepared  from  ginger  and  contains  in  each 
one  hundred  (100)  cubic  centimeters,  the  alcohol-soluble  matters  from  not  less  than  twenty 
(20)  grams  of  ginger. 

9.  Lemon  extract  is  the  flavoring  extract  prepared  from  oil  of  lemon,  or  from  lemon 
peel,  or  both,  and  contains  not  less  than  five  (5)  percent  by  volume  of  oil  of  lemon. 

ga.  Oil  of  lemon  is  the  volatile  oil  obtained,  by  expression  or  alcoholic  solution,  from 
the  fresh  peel  of  the  lemon  {Citrus  limonum  L,),  has  an  optical  rotation  (25°  C.)  of  not  less 
than  -f-6o°  in  a  100-millimeter  tube,  and  contains  not  less  than  four  (4)  percent  by  weight 
of  citral. 

10.  Terpeneless  extract  of  lemon  is  the  flavoring  extract  prepared  by  shaking  oil  of  lemon 
with  dilute  alcohol,  or  by  dissolving  terpeneless  oil  of  lemon  in  dilute  alcohol,  and  contains 
not  less  than  two-tenths  (0.2)  percent  by  weight  of  citral  derived  from  oil  of  lemon. 

*  The  flavoring  extracts  herein  described  are  intended  solely  for  food  purposes  and  are  not  to  be 
confounded  with  similar  preparations  described  in  the  Pharmacopoeia  for  medicinal  purposes. 


,  STANDARDS   OF   PURITY. 

loa.  Terpeneless  oil  of  lemon  is  oil  of  lemon  from  which  all  or  nearly  all  of  the  terpenes 
have  been  removed. 

11.  Nutmeg  extract  is  the  flavoring  extract  prepared  from  oil  of  nutmeg,  and  contains 
not  less  than  two  (2)  percent  by  volume  of  oil  of  nutmeg. 

1 1  a.  Oil  of  nutmeg  is  the  volatile  oil  obtained  from  nutmegs. 

12.  Orange  extract  is  the  flavoring  extract  prepared  from  oil  of  orange,  or  from  orange 
peel,  or  both,  and  contains  not  less  than  five  (5)  percent  by  volume  of  oil  of  orange. 

12a.  Oil  of  orange  is  the  volatile  oil  obtained,  by  expression  or  alcoholic  solution,  from 
the  fresh  peel  of  the  orange  {Citrus  aurantium  L.)  and  has  an  optical  rotation  (25°  C.)  of 
not  less  than  +  95°  in  a  loo-millimeter  tube. 

13.  Terpeneless  extract  of  orange  is  the  flavoring  extract  prepared  by  shaking  oil  of 
orange  with  dilute  alcohol,  or  by  dissolving  terpeneless  oil  or  orange  in  dilute  alcohol, 
and  corresponds  in  flavoring  strength  to  orange  extract. 

13a.  Terpeneless  oil  of  orange  is  oil  of  orange  from  which  all  or  nearly  all  of  the  terpenes 
have  been  removed. 

14.  Peppermint  extract  is  the  flavoring  extract  prepared  from  oil  of  peppermint,  or 
from  peppermint,  or  both,  and  contains  not  less  than  three  (3)  percent  by  volume  of  oil 
of  peppermint. 

14a.  Peppermint  is  the  leaves  and  flowering  tops  of  Mentha  piperita  L. 
146.  Oil  of  peppermint  is  the  volatile  oil  obtained  from  peppermint  and  contains  not 
less  than  fifty  (50)  percent  by  weight  of  menthol. 

15.  Rose  extract  is  the  flavoring  extract  prepared  from  otto  of  roses,  with  or  without 
red  rose  petals,  and  contains  not  less  than  four-tenths  (0.4)  percent  by  volume  of  otto  of 
roses. 

15a.  Otto  of  roses  is  the  volatile  oil  obtained  from  the  petals  of  Rosa  damascena  Mill., 
R.  centi folia  L.,  or  R.  moschata  Herrm. 

16.  Savory  extract  is  the  flavoring  extract  prepared  trom  oil  of  savory,  or  from  savory, 
or  both,  and  contains  not  less  than  thirty-five  hundredths  (0.35)  percent  by  volume  of  oil 
of  savory. 

1 6a.  Oil  of  savory  is  the  volatile  oil  obtained  from  savory. 

17.  Spearmint  extract  is  the  flavoring  extract  prepared  from  oil  of  spearmint,  or  from 
spearmint,  or  both,  and  contains  not  less  than  three  (3)  percent  by  volume  of  oil  of  spear- 
mint. 

17a.  Spearmint  is  the  leaves  and  flowering  tops  of  Mentha  spicata  L. 
1 76.  Oil  of  spearmint  is  the  volatile  oil  obtained  from  spearmint. 

18.  Star  anise  extract  is  the  flavoring  extract  prepared  from  oil  of  star  anise,  and  con- 
tains not  less  than  three  (3)  percent  by  volume  of  oil  of  star  anise. 

1 8a.  Oil  of  star  anise  is  the  volatile  oil  distilled  from  the  fruit  of  the  star  anise  (Illicium 
verum  Hook). 

19.  Sweet  basil  extract  is  the  flavoring  extract  prepared  from  oil  of  sweet  basil,  or  from 
sweet  basil,  or  both,  and  contains  not  less  than  one-tenth  (o.i)  percent  by  volume  of  oil 
of  sweet  basil. 

19a.  Sweet  basil,  basil,  is  the  leaves  and  tops  of  Ocymum  basilicum  L. 
19&.  Oil  of  sweet  basil  is  the  volatile  oil  obtained  from  basil. 

20.  Sweet  marjoram  extract,  marjoram  extract,  is  the  flavoring  extract  prepared  from 
the  oil  of  marjoram,  or  from  marjoram,  or  both,  and  contains  not  less  than  one  (i)  percent 
by  volume  of  oil  of  marjoram. 

2oa.  Oil  of  marjoram  is  the  volatile  oil  obtained  from  marjoram. 

21.  Thyme  extract  is  the  flavoring  extract  prepared  from  oil  of  thyme,  or  from  thyme, 
or  both,  and  contains  not  less  than  two-tenths  (0.2)  percent  by  volume  of  oil  of  thyme. 


V-EGETABLE    OILS   AND   FATS.  ^2? 

2ia.  Oil  of  thynie  is  the  volatile  oil  obtained  from  thyme. 

22.  Tonka  extract  is  the  flavoring  extract  prepared  from  tonka  bean,  with  or  without 
sugar  or  glycerine,  and  contains  not  less  than  one-tenth  (o.  i)  percent  by  weight  of  coumarin 
extracted  from  the  tonka  bean,  together  with  a  corresponding  proportion  of  the  other  soluble 
matters  thereof. 

22a.  Tonka  heart  is  the  seed  of  Coumarouna  odorata  Aublet  {Dipteryx  odorala  (Aubl.) 
WUld.). 

23.  Vanilla  extract  is  the  flavoring  extract  prepared  from  vanilla  bean,  with  or  without 
sugar  or  glycerine,  and  contains  in  one  htmdred  (100)  cubic  centimenters  the  soluble  matters 
from  not  less  than  ten  (10)  grams  of  the  vanilla  bean. 

23a.   Vanilla  bean  is  the  dried,  cured  fruit  of  Vanilla  planifolia  Andrews. 

24.  Wintergreen  extract  is  the  flavoring  extract  prepared  from  oil  of  wintergreen,  and 
contains  not  less  than  three  (3)  percent  by  volume  of  oil  of  wintergreen. 

24a.  Oil  of  wintergreen  is  the  volatile  oil  distilled  from  the  leaves  of  the  Gatdtheria 
procumbens  L. 

C.    EDIBLE   X-EGETABLE   OILS    AND   FATS. 

* 

I.  Olive  oil  is  the  oil  obtained  from  the  sound,  mature  fruit  of  the  cultivated  olive  tree 
(Olea  europcea  L.)  and  subjected  to  the  usual  refining  processes;  is  free  from  rancidity; 
has  a  refractive  index  (25°  C.)  not  less  than  one  and  forty-six  hundred  and  sLxty  ten- 
thousandths  (1.4660)  and  not  exceeding  one  and  forty-six  hundred  and  eight}'  ten-thou- 
sandths (1.4680);  and  an  iodin  number  not  less  than  seventy-nine  (79)  and  not  exceed- 
ing ninety  (90). 

I.  Virgin  olive  oil  is  olive  oil  obtained  from  the  first  pressing  of  carefully  selected,  hand- 
picked  olives. 

3.  Cottonseed  oil  is  the  oil  obtained  from  the  seeds  of  cotton  plants  {Gossypium  hir- 
sutum  L.,  G.  barbadense  L.,  or  G.  herhaceum  L.)  and  subjected  to  the  usual  refining  processes; 
is  free  from  rancidity:  has  a  refractive  index  (25°  C.)  not  less  than  one  and  forty-seven  hun- 
dred ten-thousandths  (1.4700)  and  not  exceeding  one  and  forty-seven  hundred  and  twenty- 
five  ten-thousandths  (1.4725);  and  an  iodin  number  not  less  than  one  hundred  and  four 
(104)  and  not  exceeding  one  hundred  and  ten  (no). 

4.  "Winter -yellow"  cottonseed  oil  is  expressed  cottonseed  oil  from  which  a  portion  of 
the  stearin  has  been  separated  by  chilling  and  pressure,  and  has  an  iodin  number  not  less 
than  one  hundred  and  ten  (no)  and  not  exceeding  one  hundred  and  sixteen  (116). 

5.  Peanut  oil,  arachis  oil,  earthnut  oil,  is  the  oil  obtained  from  the  peanut  (Arachis 
hypogcpa  L.)  and  subjected  to  the  usual  refining  processes;  is  free  from  rancidity;  has  a 
refractive  index  (25°  C.)  not  less  than  one  and  forty-six  hundred  and  ninety  ten-thousandths 
(1.4690)  and  not  exceeding  one  and  forty-seven  hundred  and  seven  ten-thousandths  (1.4707); 
and  an  iodin  number  not  less  than  eighty-seven  (87)  and  not  exceeding  one  hundred  (100). 

6.  "Cold-drawn'^  peanut  oil*  is  peanut  oil  obtained  by  pressure  without  heating. 

7.  Sesame  oil,  gingili  oil,  teel  oil,  is  the  oil  obtained  from  the  seeds  of  the  sesame  plants 
{Sesamum  orientale  L.  and  S.  radiatum  Schum.  and  Thonn.)  and  subjected  to  the  usual 
refining  processes;  is  free  from  rancidity;  has  a  refractive  index  (25°  C.)  not  less  than  one 
and  forty-seven  hundred  and  four  ten-thousandths  (1.4707)  and  not  exceeding  one  and 
forty-seven  hundred  and  seventeen  ten-thousandths  (1.47 17);  and  an  iodin  number  not  less 
than  one  hundred  and  three  (103)  and  not  exceeding  one  hundred  and  twelve  (112). 

8.  " Cold-drawn^'  sesame  oil*  is  sesame  oil  obtained  by  pressure  without  heating. 

9.  Poppy-seed  oil  is  the  oil  obtained  from  the  seed  of  the  poppy  {Papaver  somniferum 
L.)  subjected  to  the  usual  refining  processes  and  free  from  rancidity. 

*  The  fixing  of  limits  for  chemical  and  physical  properties  is  reserved  for  future  consideration. 
41 


^26  STANDARDS    OF   PURITY. 

10.  White  poppy-seed  oil,  "cold-drawn"  poppy-seed  oil,*  is  poppy-seed  oil  of  the  first 
pressing  without  heating. 

11.  Coconut  oil*  is  the  oil  obtained  from  the  kernels  of  the  coconut  (Cocos  nucijera 
L.)  and  subjected  to  the  usual  refining  processes  and  free  from  rancidity. 

12.  Cochin  oil  is  coconut  oil  prepared  in  cochin  (Malabar). 

13.  Ceylon  oil  is  coconut  oil  prepared  in  Ceylon. 

14.  Copra  oil  is  coconut  oil  prepared  from  copra,  the  dried  kernels  of  the  coconut. 

15.  Rape-seed  oil,  colza  oil,  *  is  the  oil  obtained  from  the  seeds  of  the  rape  plant  (Brassica 
napus  L.)  and  subjected  to  the  usual  refining  processes  and  free  from  rancidity. 

16.  "Cold-drawn"  rape-seed  oil*  is  rape-seed  oil  obtained  by  the  first  pressing  without 
heating. 

17.  Sunflower  oil*  is  the  oil  obtained  from  the  seeds  of  the  sunflower  (Helianthus 
annuus  L.)  and  subjected  to  the  usual  refining  processes  and  free  from  rancidity. 

18.  "Cold-drawn"  sunflower  oil*  is  sunflower  oil  obtained  by  the  first  pressing  without 
heating. 

19.  Maize  oil,  corn  oil,*  is  the  oil  obtained  from  the  germ  of  the  maize  {Zea  mays  L.) 
and  subjected  to  the  usual  refining  processes  and  free  from  rancidity. 

20.  Cocoa  butter,  cacao  butter,  is  the  fat  obtained  from  roasted,  sound  cocoa  beans, 
and  subjected  to  the  usual  refining  processes;  is  free  from  rancidity;  has  a  refractive 
index  (40°  C.)  not  less  than  one  and  forty-five  hundred  and  sixty-six  ten-thousandths  (1.4566) 
and  not  exceeding  one  and  forty-five  hundred  and  ninety-eight  ten-thousandths  (1.4598); 
an  iodin  number  not  less  than  thirty-three  (^^)  and  not  exceeding  thirty-eight  (38) ;  and 
a  melting-point  not  lower  than  30°  C.  nor  higher  than  35°  C. 

21.  Cottonseed  oil  stearin  is  the  solid  product  made  by  chilling  cottonseed  oil  and 
separating  the  solid  portion  by  filtration,  with  or  without  pressure,  and  having  an  iodin 
number  not  less  than  eighty-five  (85)  and  not  more  than  one  hundred  (100). 

E.  Tea,  Coffee,  and  Cocoa  Products. 


I.  Tea  is  the  leaves  and  leaf  buds  of  different  species  of  Thea,  prepared  by  the  usual 
trade  processes  of  fermenting,  drying,  and  firing;  meets  the  provisions  of  the  act  of  Congress 
approved  March  2,  1897,  and  the  regulations  made  in  conformity  therewith  (Treasury 
Department  Circular  16,  February  6,  1905);  conforms  in  variety  and  place  of  production 
to  the  name  it  bears;  and  contains  not  less  than  four  (4)  nor  more  than  seven  (7)  percent 
of  ash. 

b.    COFFEE. 

1.  Coffee  is  the  seed  of  Coffea  arabica  L.  or  Coffea  liberica  Bull.,  freed  from  all  but  a 
small  portion  of  its  spermoderm,  and  conforms  in  variety  and  place  of  production  to 
the  name  it  bears. 

2.  Roasted  coffee  is  coffee  which  by  the  action  of  heat  has  become  brown  and  developed 
its  characteristic  aroma,  and  contains  not  less  than  ten  (10)  percent  of  fat  and  not  less 
than  three  (3)  percent  of  ash. 

C.    COCOA   AND    COCOA   PRODUCTS. 

1.  Cocoa  beans  are  the  seeds  of  the  cacao  tree,  Theobroma  cacao  L. 

2.  Cocoa  nibs,  cracked  cocoa,  is  the  roasted,  broken  cocoa  bean  freed  from  its  shell 
or  husk. 

3.  Chocolate,  plain  chocolate,  bitter  chocolate,  chocolate  liquor,  bitter  chocolate  coatings, 
*The  fixing  of  limits  for  chemical  and  physical  properties  is  reserved  for  future  consideration. 


BEVERAGES. 


627 


is  the  solid  or  plastic  mass  obtained  by  grinding  cocoa  nibs  without  the  removal  of  fat  or 
other  constituents  except  the  germ,  and  contains  not  more  than  three  (3)  percent  of  ash 
insoluble  in  water,  three  and  fifty  hundredths  (3.50)  percent  of  crude  fiber,  and  nine  (9) 
percent  of  staich,  and  not  less  than  forty-five  (45)  percent  of  cocoa  fat. 

4.  Sweet  chocolate,  sweet  chocolate  coatings,  is  chocolate  mixed  with  sugar  (sucrose), 
with  or  without  the  addition  of  cocoa  butter,  spices,  or  other  flavoring  materials,  and 
qontains  in  the  sugar-  and  fat-free  residue  no  higher  percentage  of  either  ash,  fiber,  or 
starch  than  is  found  in  the  sugar-  and  fat-free  residue  of  chocolate. 

5.  Cocoa,  powdered  cocoa,  is  cocoa  nibs,  with  or  without  the  germ,  deprived  of  a  portion 
of  its  fat  and  finely  pulverized,  and  contains  percentages  of  ash,  crude  fiber,  and  starch 
corresponding  to  those  in  chocolate  after  correction  for  fat  removed. 

6.  Sweet  cocoa,  sweetened  cocoa,  is  cocoa  mixed  with  sugar  (sucrose),  and  contains 
not  more  than  sixty  (60)  percent  of  sugar  (sucrose),  and  in  the  sugar-  and  fat-free  residue 
no  higher  percentage  of  either  ash,  crude  fiber,  or  starch  than  is  found  in  the  sugar-  and 
fat-free  residue  of  chocolate. 

F.  Beverages. 

a.    ERUIT   JUICES — FRESH,    SWEET,    AND   FERMENTED. 
I.   FRESH   AND   2.    SWEET. 

(Schedules  in  preparation.) 

3.    FERMENTED    FRUIT  JUICES. 

1.  Wine  is  the  product  made  by  the  normal  alcoholic  fermentation  of  the  juice  of 
sound,  ripe  grapes,  and  the  usual  cellar  treatment,*  and  contains  not  less  than  seven 
(7)  nor  more  than  sixteen  (i6)  percent  of  alcohol,  by  volume,  and,  in  one  hundred  (loo) 
cubic  centimeters  (20°  C),  not  more  than  one-tenth  (o.i)  gram  of  sodium  chlorid  nor  more 
than  two-tenths  (0.2)  gram  of  potassium  sulfate;  and  for  red  wine  not  more  than  fourteen 
hundredths  (0.14)  gram,  and  for  white  wine  not  more  than  twelve  hundredths  (0.12) 
gram  of  volatile  acids  produced  by  fermentation  and  calculated  as  acetic  acid.  Red  wine 
is  wine  containing  the  red  coloring  matter  of  the  skins  of  grapes.  White  wine  is  wine 
made  from  white  grapes  or  the  expressed  fresh  juice  of  other  grapes. 

2.  Dry  wine  is  wine  in  which  the  fermentation  of  the  sugars  is  practically  complete 
and  which  contains,  in  one  hundred  (100)  cubic  centimeters  (20°  C),  less  than  one  (i) 
gram  of  sugars  and  for  dry  red  wine  not  less  than  sixteen  hundredths  (0.16)  gram  of 
grape  ash  and  not  less  than  one  and  six-tenths  (1.6)  grams  of  sugar-free  grape  solids, 
and  for  dry  white  wine  not  less  than  thirteen  hundredths  (0.13)  gram  of  grape  ash  and 
not  less  than  one  and  four-tenths  (1.4)  grams  of  sugar-free  grape  solids. 

3.  Fortiiied  dry  wine  is  dry  wine  to  which  brandy  has  been  added,  but  which  con- 
forms in  all  other  particulars  to  the  standard  of  dry  wine. 

4.  Sweet  wine  is  wine  in  which  the  alcoholic  fermentation  has  been  arrested,  and 
which  contains,  in  one  hundred  (100)  cubic  centimeters  (20°  C),  not  less  than  one  (i) 
gram  of  sugars,  and  for  sweet  red  wine  not  less  than  sixteen  hundredths  (0.16)  gram  of 
grape  ash,  and  for  sweet  white  wine  not  less  than  thirteen  hundredths  (0.13)  gram  of 
grape  ash. 

5.  Fortified  sweet  wine  is  sweet  wine  to  which  wine  spirits  have  been  added.  By 
act  of  Congress,  "sweet  wine"  used  for  making  fortified  sweet  wine  and  "wine  spirits" 
used  for  such  fortification  are  defined  as  follows  (sec.  43,  Act  of  October  i,  1890,  26  Stat., 
567,  as  amended  by  section  68,  Act  of  August  27,  1894,  28  Stat.,  509,  and  further  amended 

*  The  subject  of  sulfurous  acid  in  wine  is  reserved  for  consideration  in  connection  with  the 
schedule,  "  Preservatives  and  Coloring  Matters." 


528  STANDARDS   OF   PURITY. 

by  Act  of  Congress  approved  June  7,  1906):  "That  the  wine  spirits  mentioned  in  section 
42  of  this  act  is  the  product  resuhing  from  the  distillation  of  fermented  grape  juice  to 
which  water  may  have  been  added  prior  to,  during,  or  after  fermentation,  for  the  sole 
purpose  of  facilitating  the  fermentation  and  economical  distillation  thereof,  and  shall  be 
held  to  include  the  products  from  grapes  or  their  residues,  commonly  khown  as  grape 
brandy;  and  the  pure  sweet  wine,  which  may  be  fortified  free  of  tax,  as  provided  in  said 
section,  is  fermented  grape  juice  only,  and  shall  contain  no  other  substance  whatever 
introduced  before,  at  the  time  of,  or  after  fermentation,  except  as  herein  expressly  provided; 
and  such  sweet  wine  shall  contain  not  less  than  four  per  centum  of  saccharine  matter, 
which  saccharine  strength  may  be  determined  by  testing  with  Balling's  saccharometer  or 
must  scale,  such  sweet  wine,  after  the  evaporation  of  the  spirits  contained  therein,  and 
restoring  the  sample  tested  to  original  volume  by  addition  of  water:  Provided,  That  the 
addition  of  pure  boiled  or  condensed  grape  must  or  pure  crystallized  cane  or  beet  sugar 
or  pure  anhydrous  sugar  to  the  pure  grape  juice  aforesaid,  or  the  fermented  product  of 
such  grape  juice  prior  to  the  fortification  provided  by  this  Act  for  the  sole  purpose  of  per- 
fecting sweet  wine  according  to  commercial  standard,  or  the  addition  of  water  in  such 
quantities  only  as  may  be  necessary  in  the  mechanical  operation  of  grape  conveyers, 
crushers,  and  pipes  leading  to  fermenting  tanks,  shall  not  be  excluded  by  the  definition 
of  pure  sweet  wine  aforesaid:  Provided,  however,  That  the  cane  or  beet  sugar,  or  pure 
anhydrous  sugar,  or  water,  so  used  shall  not  in  either  case  be  in  excess  of  ten  (10)  per 
centum  of  the  weight  of  the  wine  to  be  fortified  under  this  Act:  And  provided  further y 
That  the  addition  of  water  herein  authorized  shall  be  under  such  regulations  and  limita- 
tions as  the  Commissioner  of  Internal  Revenue,  with  the  approval  of  the  Secretary  of 
the  Treasury,  may  from  time  to  time  prescribe;  but  in  no  case  shall  such  wines  to  which 
water  has  been  added  be  eligible  for  fortification  under  the  prosivions  of  this  Act  where 
the  same,  after  fermentation  and  before  fortification,  have  an  alcoholic  strength  of  less 
than  five  per  centum  of  their  volume." 

6.  Sparkling  wine  is  wine  in  which  the  after  part  of  the  fermentation  is  completed 
in  the  bottle,  the  sediment  being  disgorged  and  its  place  supplied  by  wine  or  sugar  liquor, 
and  which  contains,  in  one  hundred  (100)  cubic  centimeters  (20°  C),  not  less  than  twelve 
hundredths  (0.12)  gram  of  grape  ash. 

7.  Modified  wine,  ameliorated  wine,  corrected  wine,  is  the  product  made  by  the  alco- 
holic fermentation,  with  the  usual  cellar  treatment,  of  a  mixture  of  the  juice  of  sound, 
ripe  grapes  with  sugar  (sucrose),  or  a  sirup  containing  not  less  than  sixty-five  (65)  percent 
of  sugar  (sucrose),  and  in  quantity  not  more  than  enough  to  raise  the  alcoholic  strength 
after  fermentation,  to  eleven  (11)  percent  by  volume. 

8.  Raisin  wine  is  the  product  made  by  the  alcoholic  fermentation  of  an  infusion  of 
dried  or  evaporated  grapes,  or  of  a  mixture  of  such  infusion  or  of  raisins  with  grape  juice. 

b.    MEAD,    ROOT    BEER,    ETC. 

(Schedule  in  preparation.) 

C.    MALT   LIQUORS. 

(Schedule  in  preparation.) 

d.   SPIRITUOUS  LIQUORS. 

(Schedule  in  preparation.) 

e.    CARBONATED   WATERS,   ETC. 

(Schedule  in  preparation.) 


SALT.  529 

G.  Vinegar. 

1.  Vinegar,  cider  vinegar,  apple  vinegar,  is  the  product  made  by  the  alcoholic  and 
subsequent  acetous  fermentations  of  the  juice  of  apples,  is  laevo-rotator}',  and  contains 
not  less  than  four  (4)  grams  of  acetic  acid,  not  less  than  one  and  six-tenths  (1.6)  grams 
of  apple  solids,  of  which  not  more  than  fifty  (50)  percent  are  reducing  sugars,  and  not 
less  than  twenty-five  hundredths  (0.25)  gram  of  apple  ash  in  one  hundred  (100)  cubic 
centimeters  (20°  C);  and  the  water-soluble  ash  from  one  hundred  (100)  cubic  centimeters 
(20°  C.)  of  the  vinegar  contains  not  less  than  ten  (10)  milligrams  of  phosphoric  acid  (P2O5), 
and  requires  not  less  than  thirty  (30)  cubic  centimeters  of  decinormal  acid  to  neutralize 
its  alkalinity. 

2.  Wine  vinegar,  grape  vinegar,  is  the  product  made  by  the  alcoholic  and  subsequent 
acetous  fermentations  of  the  juice  of  grapes  and  contains,  in  one  hundred  (100)  cubic 
centimeters  (20°  C),  not  less  than  four  (4)  grams  of  acetic  acid,  not  less  than  one  (i.o) 
gram  of  grape  solids,  and  not  less  than  thirteen  hundredths  (0.13)  gram  of  grape  ash. 

3.  Malt  vinegar  is  the  product  made  by  the  alcoholic  and  subsequent  acetous  fer- 
mentations, without  distillation,  of  an  infusion  of  barley  malt  or  cereals  whose  starch 
has  been  converted  by  malt,  is  dextro-rotatory,  and  contains,  in  one  himdred  (100)  cubic 
centimeters  (20°  C),  not  less  than  four  (4)  grams  of  acetic  acid,  not  less  than  two  (2) 
grams  of  solids,  and  not  less  than  two-tenths  (0.2)  gram  of  ash;  and  the  water-soluble 
ash  from  one  hundred  (100)  cubic  centimeters  (20°  C.)  of  the  vinegar  contains  not  less 
than  nine  (9)  milligrams  of  phosphoric  acid  (PjO.),  and  requires  not  less  than  four  (4) 
cubic  centimeters  of  decinormal  acid  to  neutralize  its  alkalinity. 

4.  Sugar  vinegar  is  the  product  made  by  the  alcoholic  and  subsequent  ■  acetous  fer- 
mentations of  solutions  of  sugar,  sirup,  molasses,  or  refiners'  sirup,  and  contains,  in  one 
hundred  (100)  cubic  centimeters  (20°  C),  not  less  than  four  (4)  grams  of  acetic  acid. 

5.  Glucose  vinegar  is  the  product  made  by  the  alcoholic  and  subsequent  acetous  fer- 
mentations of  solutions  of  starch  sugar  or  glucose,  is  dextro-rotatory,  and  contains,  in  one 
hundred  (100)  cubic  centimeters  (20°  C),  not  less  than  four  (4)  grams  of  acetic  acid. 

6.  Spirit  vinegar,  distilled  vinegar,  grain  vinegar,  is  the  product  made  by  the  acetous 
fermentation  of  dilute  distilled  alcohol,  and  contains,  in  one  hundred  (100)  cubic  cen- 
timeters (20°  C),  not  less  than  four  (4)  grams  of  acetic  acid. 

III.  SALT. 
I.  Table  salt,  dairy  salt,  is  fine-grained  crystalline  salt  containing  on  a  water-free 
basis,  not  more  than  one    and   four-tenths  (1.4)  percent   of   calcium   sulfate  (CaSOJ,- 
nor  more  than  five-tenths  (0.5)  percent  of  calcium  and  magnesium  chlorids  (CaClg  and 
MgClg),  nor  more  than  one-tenth  (o.i)  percent  of  matters  insoluble  in  water. 

IV.  PRESERVATIVES  AND  COLORING  MATTERS. 
(Schedules  in  preparation.) 


ijd 


INDEX 


Acid  in  fruits,  369 
Acom,  413 

oil,  396 
Adulteration,  frequency,  57 

simple  tests,  593 
Adulterations,  gross  physical,  593 

obsolete,  595 
Aerating  agents,  251 
Alcohol  in  confectioner,  485 

in  mother's  diet,  508 

industrial,  297,  481 
Alewife,  121 
Allspice,  322 
Almond  oil,  396 
Almonds,  414 

Alum  residues,  character,  253 
Amido  bodies,  89 
Amids,  nutritive  value,  567 
Anchovy,  122 

Animals,  preparation  as  food,  12 
Anise,  323 
Anona,  343 

preserves,  344 
Appendix,  food  standards,  501 

food  and  drugs  act,  533 
Applebutter,  385 
Apples,  330 

acidity,  330 

adulterations,  330 

composition,  331,  332 

dietetic  value,  332 

dried,  335 

evaporated,  335 

length  of  harvest,  333 

pectose  content,  ^^3 

picking  and  care,  333 

preparation  for  drying,  334 

storage,  334 

tannin  content,  334 

varieties,  330 
Arrowroot,  317 

Bermuda,  318 

Madagascar,  319 

South  African,  320 
Artichoke,  274 

composition,  275 

Jerusalem,  274 
Artificial  colors,  594 
Ash,  9 


Ash  of  tropical  fruits,  368 
Asparagus,  275 
Atropin,  448 
Avocado,  344 


B. 

Bacillus  Bulgaricus,  554-555 

advertising  claims,  556 
Bacon,  canned,  48 

composition  of  canned,  48,  49 
Bacterial  characteristics  of  milk,  538 
Baking  powders,  251 
alum,  252 

cream  of  tartar,  252 
phosphate,  252 
residues,  253 
Bananas,  345 

composition,  347 
Barley,  217 
acreage  and  yield,  217 
composition,  217 
protein,  218 
starch,  218 
Bay  leaf,  323 
Bean,  275 
butter,  276 
green,  276 
kidney,  276 
lima,  276 
string,  276 
Beans,  adulteration  of  canned,  308 
canned,  307,  312 
composition  of  canned,  307 
Bechi  test,  66 
Beechnuts,  415 

Beef,  adulteration  of  potted,  52 
commercial  cuts,  17 
composition  of  canning,  43 

potted,  53 
extract,  79 
names,  80 

nitrogenous  bodies,  79 
nutritive  properties,  80 
fat  crystals,  67 
juice,  81 

composition,  81 
preservatives,  81 
trade-names,  82 
potted,  52 


631 


632 


INDEX. 


Beef  tea,  84 

composition,  85 
Beefsteak,  21 
Bees,  swarming,  488 
Beet  sugar,  456 
historical,  457 
manufacture,  461-464 
BeetST-277 

Benzoic  acid,  simple  test,  557 
Beri-beri,  553 
Berkshire  pig,  analytical  data,  29,  30 

percentages  of  parts,  31,  32 
Beverages  in  diabetes,  575 
Biscuits,  composition,  258 
Black  ba^s,  122 

strap,  481 
Blackberries,  342 
Bleached  flour,  detection,  607 

gasoline  test,  607 
Blood  preparations,  83 
Bluefish,  122 
Bondon  cheese,  208 
Bonnyclabber,  181 
Borax,  simple  test,  597 
Boric  acid,  simple  test,  597 
Bottle-feeding,  dangers,  501 
Brandied  fruit,  385 
Brazil-nut,  415 
Bread,  249 

comparative  nutritive  properties,  256 

composition,  254,  255 

quantity  of  ash,  256 
of  sugar,  256 

typical,  255 

varieties,  249 
Breakfast  foods,  267 
classification,  268 
composition,  268 
value,  271 
Brie,  manufacture,  207 
Brook  trout,  149 
Brown  grease,  71 
Brussels  sprouts,  278 
Buckwheat,  219 

acreage,  219 

adulterations,  221 

cakes,  220 

composition,  219 

milling,  219 

starch,  221 
Butcher's  lard,  70 
Butter,  182-187 

adulterated,  186 

affected  by  food,  186 

coloring,  185 

melting  point,  186 

pure  and  renovated,  608 

renovated,  186 

salting,  183 

standard,  186 

treatment,  182 
Buttermilk,  181 
Butternut,  416 


C. 

Cabbage,  278 
Cacao  butter,  410 

composition,  181 
Cainito,  366 
Cakes,  265 

adulteration,  266 

composition,  266 
Calories,  9 

Calorific  value,  computation,  501 
Camembert,  manufacture,  206 
Candy,  food  value,  483 
Cane  sirup,  475 

composition,  476 
geographical  distribution,  475 

sugar,  manufacture,  465,  466 
Canna  edulis,  318 
Canned  corn,  adulteration,  228 
souring  and  swelling,  312 

goods,  examination,  607 
Canning  industries,  importance,  386-388 

liquid,  composition,  47 

principles,  306 

without  parboiling,  47 
Cans,  character,  311 
Cantaloupe,  284 
Capers,  323 
Capons,  103 

Caramel,  simple  test,  599 
Caraway,  323 

Carbohydrates,  digestion  by  infants,  518 
Carcasses,  preparation  of,  14 
Carp,  123 
Carrot,  279 

Casein,  preparations,  215 
Caseinogen,  530 
Cashew,  348 
Cassia,  323 

buds,  323 
Catfish,  123 
Cat's  milk,  513 
Cauliflower,  279 
Caviar,  145 
Celery,  280 

seed,  323 
Cepe,  445 

Cereal,  addition  to  infants'  foods,  517 
Cereals,  detection  in  coffee,  604 
Certified  milk,  547 

inadequacy,  547 
Ceylon  oil,  411 

Cheddar  cheese,  manufacture,  204 
Cheese,  190-216 

adulteration  and  misbranding,  192 

American,  197 

artificial  coloring,  192 

bacterial  activity,  211 

Cheddar,  203 

chemical  changes  during  ripening,  212- 
214^ 

Cheshire,  203 

comparative  composition,  199 

cottage,  195 


INDEX. 


633 


Cheese,  cream,  201 

curing,  200 

digestibility,  214 

effect  of  cold  storage,  215 

filled,  194 

French  varieties,  206 

goats'  milk,  192 

historical,  190 

kinds,  191 

manufacture,  196,  197 

of  foreign  types,  201 

preservatives,  194 

principal  English  kinds,  203 

quality  of  American,  200 

raw  materials,  194 

sage,  203 

salting,  199 

Stilton,  203 
Chemical  composition,  index  of  value,  525 

leavening  agents,  254 

preservatives  in  milk,  532 
preservation,  37 

terms,  explanation,  8 

versus  condimental  preservatives,  594 
Cherries,  336 

canned,  370 

maraschino,  371 

varieties,  337 
Chestnut,  416 

composition,  417 
Chicken,  95 

adulteration,  103 
of  potted,  102 

composition  of  white  meat,  loi 

preserved,  102 
Chickens,  artificial  feeding,  99 

drawn  and  undrawn,  100 

fresh  killed,  99 

preparation  for  food,  96 

preparing  for  market,  99 
Chicks,  influence  of  temperature,  97 

market,  98 
Chicory,  280 

color  test,  603 

detection,  603 

roasted,  280 
Chinese  nut,  417 
Cinnamon,  323 
Citrus  fruits,  348 
Clams,  153 

canned,  156 

chowder,  79 

soup,  79 
Cloves,  323 
Coconut  butter,  411 

oil,  411 
Cod,  common,  124 

composition,  125 

liver  oil,  adulteration,  166 

salted  and  dried,  125 
Codfish,  124 

balls,  126 
Coffee,  adulteration,  602 


Cold  storage,  effect  on  meats,  35 

of  milk,  532 
Coloring,  artificial,  380 
matter,  55 

indirect,  55 
Colors,  artificial,  594 
Colza  oil,  407 
Comb  honey,  489 
Commercial    formulas  for  infants'   foods, 

52s 
Condensed  milk,  533 
composition,  534 
difficulties  of  manufacture,  535 
solids,  535 
Condimental  substance,  curing,  35,  36 
Condiments,  322 
Confectionery,  482 
alcohol  forbidden,  486 
manufacture,  482 
materials,  482 
mineral  colors,  485 
wholesomeness,  484 
Confections,  adulteration,  483 
Conger  eel,  127 
Consumer,  rights  of,  14 
Cooking,  3 
Copper,  in  peas,  313 
simple  test,  598 
tests,  314,  598 
Copra  oil,  411 
Coriander,  324 
Com  bread,  232 
canned,  227 
meal,  230 

adulteration,  232 
pudding,  257 
Cottonseed  oil,  397 
Bechi  test,  66 
detection,  600 

extraction  with  petroleum,  401 
Halphen  test,  65 
magnitude  of  industry,  397 
manufacture,  397,  398 
refining,  399,  400 
Council    on    Pharmacy    and    Chemistry, 

559 
Cow's  milk,  513 
Crabs,  155 

canned,  156 
Cramming  machine,  11 1 
Cranberry,  281 
Crawfish,  156 
Cream,  175 

standards,  176 
Creatin,  90 
Cress,  281 
Cucumber,  281 
Curd,  cutting,  198 

forming,  197 

gathering,  199 

heating,  198 

milling,  199 

separating,  199 


634 


INDEX. 


Cured  meats,  canned,  59 
Cumin  seed,  324 
Cuts  of  beef,  15 


D. 
Death  rate,  influence  of  milk,  548 
Deviled  meats,  potted,  52 
Dewberry,  342 
Diabetes,  cause,  569 
nature,  567 
test  diet,  572-573 
Diabetic  flours,  composition,  570 
foods,  foreign,  576  • 
composition,  576 
Diet  at  weaning,  502 
during  second  year,  503 
in  diabetes,  567 
in  nephritis,  577 
in  obesity,  577,  578 
Dietaries  for  generous  appetites,  588 
Dill,  324 
Dogs'  milk,  513 
Dried  meats,  85 
Drying  milk,  536 
Duck,  104 
composition,  108 
varieties,  105 
Aylesbury,  105 
Cayuga,  105 
crested  white,  105 
East  Indian,  105 
gray,  105 
Pekin,  105 
Rover,  105 
white  call,  105 
white  Muscovy,  105 
Dust,  protection  of  food,  550 


Edam  cheese,  210 
Edible  oils,  uses,  395 

parts,  names,  15 
Eels,  126 
Egg  plant,  282 

substitutes,  115 
Eggs,  112 

broken,  115 

candling,  605 

cold  storage,  114 

composition,  113 

detection  of  stale,  604 

dried,  115 

parasites,  116 

poisonous  principles,  116 

preservation,  113 

salt  solution  test,  605 
Emmenthaler  cheese,  manufacture,  207 
Entire  wheat  flour,  244 
Enzyme  action,  effect  of  low  temperature, 

23 
Ether  extract,  9 


Evaporated  milk,  534 
Extracts,  miscellaneous,  562 
classification,  562-563 


Fat  babies,  498 

identification  of  meats,  25 

in  milk,  variability,  500 

products,  inedible,  70 

test  for  adulteration,  51 

variation  in  mothers'  milk,  507 
Fats,  diet  in  obesity,  577 
Feeding,  frequency,  499 

infants,  quantity,  499 
Fennel,  324 

Ferments,  spontaneous,  250 
Fiber,  9 
Figs,  349 

caprification,  350 

composition,  349 

Smyrna,  349 
Filberts,  418 
Fish,  average  composition,  151 

canning,  152 

classification,  117,  118 
by  composition,  120,  121 

cold  storage,  151 

drying  and  salting,  152 

edible  portion,  119 

eggs,  composition,  146 

food  value,  153 

marketing,  151 

oils,  165 

principal  constituents,  119 

products,  adulteration,  152 
Flavoring  extracts,  326 

adulteration,  605 
Flavors,  artificial,  380 
Flesh,  edible,  11 
Flies,  contamination,  550 
Flounder,  summer,  127 
Flour,  242 

adulterations,  247 

age,  248 

bleaching,  247,  607 

commercial  value,  244 

composition,  245 

special  names,  243 

standards,  248 

substitutes,  248 

varieties,  242 
Fluorids  in  fish,  151 
Foods,  care  in  the  home,  549 

cause  of  disease,  553 

classification,  2,  7 

composition,  6 

condimental,  8 

contamination  by  domesticated  animals, 
550 
by  flies  and  mosquitoes,  550 

ordinary  natural,  552 

protection  from  dust,  550 


INDEX. 


63s 


Foods,  social  functions,  5 

standards,  613-620 

toleration,  551 
Fowls,  slaughtering,  in 
Fresh  meat,  adulteration  of  canned,  57 
delivery  to  consumers,  21 
preservation,  23 
Fruit,  brandied,  385 

butter,  385 

definition,  326 

juices,  preservatives,  557 

selection,  375 

sirups,  373 

adulterations,  374 
composition,  $7^ 
imitation,  374 
Fruits,  acid  content,  369 

adulteration  of  canned,  372 

canned,  370 

characteristics,  327 

composition  of  ash,  376 

crystallized,  483 

nutritive  uses,  328 

sugar  content,  369 
Fimgi,  food  value,  454 


Garlic,  282 
Geese,  feeding,  106 
Gelatine,  90 

addition  to  meat  extracts,  563 

adulteration,  91 

detection  in  ice  cream,  6 10-6 11 

preparation,  90 

raw  materials,  90,  91 
Gelatinoids,  nutritive  value,  564 
Gervais  cheese,  208 
Ginger,  324 
Glucose,  479 

detection,  600 

harmful  constituents,  485 

used  in  honey,  493 
Gluten,  241 

bread,  569 

preparation,  571 

flour,  244,  569 
composition,  570 
standard,  569 

separation,  245 

testing,  246,  247 
Goats'  milk  content  of  fat,  5 10-5 11 

value,  510 
Goggle-eye,  135 
Goose,  105 

composition,  108 

varieties,  106 
Gooseberry,  342 
Gorgonzola  cheese,  211 
Gourds,  282 
Graham  flour,  243 
Grape  fruit,  351 

composition,  351 


Grapes,  337 

composition,  338 
Graylings,  128 
Green  turtle,  157 

soup,  79 
Gruel  for  infants,  505,  506 
Gruyere  cheese,  210 
Guava,  352 

composition,  352 

preserves,  352 


H. 


Hake,  128 

Halibut,  128 

Halphen  test,  65 

Ham  and  bacon,  adulteration  of  canned,  50 

canned,  48 

composition  of  canned,  48 
Hazelnut,  419 

oil,  401 
Herring,  129 
Hicaco,  352 
Hickory-nut,  419 
Hippuric  acid,  avoidance,  577 
Hogfish,  130 
Hogs'  milk,  513 
Home  pasteurization,  540 

Straus  method,  541 
Honey,  adulteration,  493 

ash,  492 

cane  sugar  adulterant,  494 

comb,  489 

dextrose  and  levulose,  492 

distribution  of  industry,  489 

extracted,  490 

glucose,  493 

historical,  486 

hives,  488 

invert  sugar  content,  494,  601 

polarization,  491 

preparation,  487 

properties,  491 

strained,  491 

sucrose  content,  492 

water  content,  491 
Horse  mackerel,  130 

meat,  canned,  57 
composition,  58 
detection,  58 
Horse-radish,  283 
Huckleberry,  342 


I. 

Ice  chest,  care,  550 

Illinois  State  Board  of  Health,  diet  in  tu- 
berculosis, 586-587 
Immature  infants,  feeding,  498 
Incubator,  96,  97 
Indian  com,  222 

acreage  and  yield,  222 

adulteration  of  canned,  310 


636 


INDEX. 


Indian  corn,  canned,  308 

comparative  digestibility,  257 

composition  of  canned,  309 

extent  of  canning  industry,  309 

starch,  229 

varieties,  223 
Infant  feeding,  after  second  year,  504 

commercial  literature,  520 
nutrition,  fundamental  principles,  521 
Infants'  and  invalids'  foods,  497 
foods,  497 

analyses,  526,  590,  591 

calories,  500 

classes,  551 

commercial  formulas,  525 

composition,  499,  500 

multiplicity,  513 

solid,  498 

standard,  514 

substitutes,  518 
Inspection,  13 

Intestines  of  hogs,  disposition,  69 
Introduction,  i 
Invalids'  foods,  497,  498,  549 

analyses,  590-591 
Invert  sugar,  detection,  601 


Jams,  375,  376 

adulteration,  378,  379 
composition,  377,  378 
compound,  383 

Jellies,  375,  379 
adulteration,  380 
coloring,  380 
composition,  380,  381 
compound,  383 
manufacture,  381 
preservatives,  382 

Jerusalem  artichoke,  274 


K. 

Kale,  283 

Kedzie,  farinometer,  246 
Kephir,  179 
Ketchup,  colors,  317 

refuse  material,  317 

tomato,  316 
Kettle-rendered  lard,  68 
Kidney  bean,  276 
Kitchen  sanitation,  551 
Koumiss,  179 
Kumquat,  353 


L. 

Lake  herring,  130 
Lamb  chops,  22 

commercial  cuts,  19 
Lard,  63 

adulteration,  65 


Lard,  chemical  properties,  75 

color  reaction,  73 

commercial  classification,  68 

composition,  64 

crystals,  67 

detection  of  adulterations,  65 

leaf,  64 

melting  point,  73 

names  of  kinds,  64 

oil,  94 

adulteration,  94 
properties,  94 

parts  of  fat  used  for  making,  63 

physical  properties,  73 

properties,  75 

of  adulterated,  76 

rendering,  71,  72 

rise  of  temperature,  73,  74 

steam,  64 

stearin,  71 

summary,  76,  77 
Leaf  lard,  68 
Leek,  284 
Lemon  extract,  606 

test  of  purity,  607 
Lemons,  353 
Lethal  dose,  39,  40 
Lettuce,  284 
Limburger  cheese,  208 

composition,  209 
Lime,  354 

juice,  adulteration,  354 
Loaves,  size,  259 

texture,  259 
Lobster,  155 

canned,  156 
Longevity,  influence  of  sour  milk,  554 
Loomis,  rules  for  eating,  588 


M. 


Macaroni,  260 

composition,  260,  263 

domestic,  260 

manufacture,  263 
Mace,  324 
Mackerel,  131 
Maize,  222,  223 

composition,  223 

early  varieties,  227 

flour,  230,  231 

proteins,  227 

variation,  227 
Malted  foods,  516 
Mamey  Colorado,  354 

de  Santo  Domingo,  355 
Mango,  356 
Maple  sirup,  472 
ash,  473 
composition,  473 

sugar,  467,  469 
Maranon,  348 
Mares'  milk,  513 


INDEX. 


637 


Marjoram,  325 
Marmalade,  382 

Meat  broth,  composition  of  ash,  86 
chemical  detection,  24 
composition  of  fresh  and  canned,  46 
detection  of  different  kinds,  24 
disposition  of  fragments,  23 
dried,  25 
extract,  active  principles,  86 

adulteration,  86 

kinds  of  preparations,  88,  89 

nitrogenous  bases,  88 

relation  of  price  and  nutritive  value,  87 
extracts,  560 

analyses,  565 

preparation,  561 

soUd,  561 

substitutes,  561 
food  classification,  12 
free  diet,  advantages  over  disadvantages, 

584-585 
industry,  magnitude,  61 
juice,  composition  of  ash,  86 
juices,  560 

analyses,  564 
microscopic  appearance,  24 
odor  and  taste,  24 
powders,  analyses,  565,  566 
preparation  for  canning,  40-41 
Meats,  II 

adulterations  of  comminuted,  54 

deviled,  54 

miscellaneous,  54 

mixed,  54 

potted,  54 
effects  of  cold  storage,  35 
methods  of  preservation,  34,  35 
pickled,  26 
potted,  51 

summary  of  data,  92,  93 
Medicinal  foods,  analyses,  592 

value,  558 
Melons,  284 

composition,  285,  286 
Menhaden,  132 

Metchnikoff,  sour  milk  diet,  554 
Milk,  169 

adaptation  to  young  of  each  animal,  512 

content  of  fat,  174 
bacterial  characteristics,  538 

count,  499,  539 
calorific  value,  501 
certified,  171,  547 
character  of  environment,  170 
chromogenic  bacteria,  539 
comparative  analyses,  510 

composition,  175 
composition  in  relation  to  growth,  512- 

513 
computation  of  calorific  value,  501 
curd  test,  176 
detection  of  watered,  610 
influence  on  death  rate,  548 


Milk,  medium  for  bacterial  growth,  538 
modified,  499 
organisms,  539 

pasteurization,  537,  540,  542,  544 
pasteurized,  173 
powder,  keeping  qualities,  536 
preparation,  171 
preservation,  532 
storage,  532 
superheating,  545 
supply,  control,  545-546 

control  in  large  cities,  546 
variation  in  composition,  509 
Mince  meat,  494 

adulteration,  495 
pressed,  495 
Mixed  flour,  244 

foods,  time  of  beginning,  502 
Mock  turtle  soup,  79 
Modification  of  milk,  difl&culties,  524 
Modfied  miik,  addition  of  alkahes,  523 
addition  of  milk  sugar,  523 

of  substitutes,  523 
composition,  497 
directions  for  use,  528 
distribution,  527 
formulas,  527 

general  considerations,  521 
preparation  in  London  Hospital,  529 
reasons,  522 

sample  prescriptions,  531 
Straus  laboratory  formulas,  528 
Modifiers  of  milk,  bacterial  infection,  524 
Molasses,  477 
cane,  478 

first,  second,  and  third,  478 
refinery,  479 
sugar-house,  479 
Mosquitoes,  contamination,  550 
Mothers'   and  cows'   milk,  comparison  of 
composition,  530 
milk,  506 

comparison,  530 

composition  of  mineral  matter,  511- 

512 
importance,  508 
worry  and  excitement,  509 
variation  in  composition,  507 
Mulberry,  343 
Mullet,  132 
Muscarine,  447 
Mushroom,  cepe,  445 
common,  440 
fairy  ring,  443 
fly  amanita,  446 
horse,  441 
poisoning,  448 

treatment,  448 
shaggy,  442,  443 
Mushrooms,  adulteration,  449 
canned,  449 
composition,  432 
condition  of  growth,  431 


638 


INDEX. 


Mushrooms,  cultivation  in  France,  431 

edible  types,  440 

food  value,  454 

historical,  429 

mycelium,  430 

pieces  and  stems,  449 

poisonous  and  edible,  433,  434 

removal  of  poison,  448 

signs  of  edible  and  poisonous,  435-439 

soil,  430 

spawn,  430 

spores,  430 

varieties,  440  , 

Muskallunge,  133 
Muskmelon,  284 
Mussel,  158 
Mustard,  325 
Mutton,  commercial  cuts,  19 


N. 
Napoleon,  decree  relating  to  beet  sugar,  457 
Natural  foods,  552 
Neat's  foot  oil,  94 
Nephritis,  diet,  577 
Neutral  lard,  68 
Nitrogenous  bases,  88 
Noodles,  270 
Normal  dose,  39,  40 
Nutmeg,  325 
Nutrition,  disorder  by  illness,  551 

of  the  child,  498 
Nuts  as  a  diet,  428 

composition,  572 


O. 

Oatmeal,  adulteration,  235 

diet  in  diabetes,  574 
Oats,  232 

acreage  and  yield,  233 
composition,  234 
products,  234 
protein,  234 

ratio  of  kernel  to  hull,  233 
starch,  236 
Obesity,  diet,  577 
exercise,  580 

gradual  loss  of  weight,  580 
quantity  of  food,  579 
Odors,  absorption,  549 
Oil,  cod  Hver,  166 
salmon,  166 
sardine,  166 
Oils  and  fats,  chemical  characteristics,  389, 
390 
crystalline  characteristics,  391 
melting  point,  392 
physical  characteristics,  392 
refractive  index,  392 
Reichert-Meissl  number,  393 
saponification  value,  393 


Oils  and  fats,  specific  gravity,  393 
vegetable,  389 

animal,  165 

distribution,  391 

drying,  391 

terrestrial  animal,  93 
Okra,  286 
Oleomargarine,  187 

adulteration,  189 

boiling  test,  609,  610 

composition,  190 

detection,  609 

manufacture,  189 

materials,  188 

production,  190 
Olive  oil,  402 

adulteration,  402,  403 
color,  403 
constituents,  404 
manufacture,  405 
Olive-kernel  oil,  405 
Onion,  286 
Oranges,  357,  358 

seedless,  359 
Osborne,  danger  of  starch-free  diets,  572 
Overfeeding,  danger,  552 
Oyster,  age,  159 

cultivation,  159 

floating,  162,  163 

living,  160 

proportion  of  shell,  161 

season,  160 

size,  159 

soup,  78 
Oysters,  1 58-161 

adulteration,  164 

average  composition,  164 


P. 

Palm  oil,  412 
Paprika,  325 
Parboiling,  41 

effect,  43-45 
Parmesan  cheese,  210 
Parsnips,  287 
Pasteurization,  commercial,  544 

directions,  542 

in  Boston,  544 

method,  537 

results,  540 
Pasteurized    milk,    rapid    growth    of    or- 
ganisms, 544 
wholesomeness,  540 
Pates,  composition,  54 
Peach  preserves,  385 
Peaches,  339 

canned,  371 

cling,  341 

composition,  341 

free,  341 

use,  341 

varieties,  340 


INDEX. 


639 


PeanoHa,  421 
Peanut  butter,  412 

oil,  406 

Renard's  test,  406 

starch,  322 
Peanuts,  420 

localities  where  grown,  422 
Peas,  287 

adulteration  of  canned,  313 

canned,  312 

composition  of  canned,  313 
Pecan-nut,  424 
Pectose,  330 
Pepper,  325 

black,  325 

cayenne,  325 

red,  325 

white,  325 
Percentage  feeding,  500 
Permanganate  of  potash,  448 
Pickerel,  132 
Pie  fillers,  496 

adulteration,  496 
Pieces  of  edible  animals,  names,  17 
Pigeon,  domesticated,  107 
Pigs,  composition,  26,  27 
general  conclusions,  33 

weight  of  parts,  26 
Pig's-foot  grease,  71 
Pike,  132 
Pineapple,  360 

adulteration,  361 

Bahama,  363 

canned,  362 

composition,  363,  364 

Florida,  364 

Porto  Rican,  364 

Singapore,  365 
Pine-nuts,  424 
Pistachio,  426 
Plantain  meal,  319 
Plums,  341 

varieties,  342 
Polished  rice,  cause  of  disease,  554 
Pomelo,  351 
Pompono,  134 
Pont  L'Eveque  cheese,  208 
Popcorn,  225,  227 
Pork,  commercial  cuts,  19,  20 

important  meat  product,  33 
Port  du  Salut  cheese,  207 
Porterhouse  steak,  16 
Potato  starch  as  food,  322 

manufacture,  296 
Potatoes,  288 

acreage,  289 

ash,  294 

composition,  290,  292,  293 

effect  of  manure,  295 

for  alcohol,  296 

German,  293 

price,  289 

starch,  291 


Potatoes,  sugar  content.  290 

sweet  299 

used  in  spirit  manufacture,  297 

white,  294 

yield,  289 
Potted  tongue,  56 

adulteration,  56 
Poultry,  application  of  name,  95 

canned,  56 

cold  storage,  100 

forced  fattening,  109 

importance  of  animal  food,  108 

increase  in  weight,  no 
Predigested  mifk,  objections,  520 
Prepared     infants'     foods    not    generally 
recommended,  514,  515,  516 
professional  opinions,  513 
Preservatives,    chemical    vs.    condimental^ 

594   . 

fruit  juices,  557 

in  meats,  55 

kinds  used,  37 
Preserved  meats,  34 

standard,  57 
Preserves,  375,  384 

Proprietary  foods,  recommendation,  557 
Proteids,  nutritive  value,  564 
Protein,  infant  digestion,  504 
Puff-balls,  444 


Quince,  342 


Q. 


Radish,  298 
Rape  oil,  407 

adulterations,  408 
manufacture,  408 
Raspberry,  343 
Ration,  balanced,  5 

definition,  4 
Reagents,  used  in  simple  tests,  590 
Red  snapper,  134 
Redeye,  135 

Renovated  butter,  detection,  608-609 
Reptiles,  aquatic,  157 
Rhubarb,  299 
Rice,  236 

acreage  and  yield,  236 

starch,  236 
Roast  beef,  21 

lamb,  22 
Rochester,  death  rate  of  children,  548-549 
Rock  bass,  135 
Rolls,  264 

composition,  265 
Romaine  lettuce,  284 
Roquefort  cheese,  211 
Round  of  beef,  composition,  505 
Rye,  237 

acreage  and  yield,  237 


640 


INDEX. 


Rye  bread,  239 
cmposition,  238 
flour,  adulteration,  239 
protein,  238 


Saccharin  in  canned  com,  311 

in  tomatoes,  314,  316 

simple  test,  597 
Saffron,  326 
Sage,  326 
Sago,  320 

Salicylic  acid,  simple  test,  598 
Salmon,  135-138 

Atlantic  coast,  137 

blueback,  137 

canned,  137 

Chinook,  136 

Pacific,  136 

Sebago,  138 

sockeye,  137 
Salt  rising,  251 

Samples,  preparation  for  analysis,  2 
Sapodilla,  365 
Sapota,  365 
Sardines,  139 

adulteration,  140,  141 

California,  139 

European,  139 

French  fisheries,  140 

packed  in  oil,  140 
Sausage,  adulteration  of  canned,  60 

canned,  59 

composition,  59 
Savory,  326 
Scup,  141 

Scuppemong  grape  vine,  337 
Scurvy,  553 
Semolina,  263 
Sesame  oil,  408 

adulteration,  409 
Baudouin's  test,  409 

plant,  409 
Shad,  141 

roe,  143 

composition,  143 
Sheepshead,  143 
Shrimps,  156 

canned,  157 
Sirup,  cane,  475 

maple,  472 

sorghum,  476 
Sirups,  adulteration,  480 

general  observations,  481 

mixed,  479 
Skimmed  milk,  176 
Small  quantities,  argument,  38,  39 
Smelt,  144 
Sole,  146 

Soluble  meats,  82,  83 
composition,  83 
Sorghum  sirup,  476 


Soups,  77 

composition,  78 
preparation  of  stock,  77 
Sour  milk  and  longevity,  554 
Sour-sop,  343 

Soy  bean  as  infant  food,  504 
flour,  composition,  505 
value  in  diabetes,  575-576 
Spaghetti,  270 
Spanish  mackerel,  144 
Squash,  299 
Star-apple,  366 
Starch,  9 

detection  in  jellies,  602 

in  spices  and  condiments,  602 
free  diet,  danger,  572 
impracticable,  571 
in  sausages,  55 
Starches,  adulteration,  322 
as  foods,  317 
in  obesity,  579 
Starchy  foods,  517 

for  infants'  foods,  503 
Steam  lard,  68 
Sterilization,  42 
method,  537 
SteriHzing  meats,  general  observations,  62 
Stilton  cheese,  manufacture,  205 
Storage,  length,  22 

Straus,  views  on  pasteurization,  542-543 
Strawberry,  343 
Striped  bass,  146 
Sturgeon,  144 

Substitutes  for  human  milk,  516 
for  infants  foods,  518 

relative  nutritive  properties,  519 
Sugar,  9 

adulteration,  471 
application  of  name,  455 
as  food,  472 
beets,  cultivation,  458 
geographic  area,  459 
yield,  460 
cane,  growth,  465 
corn,  226 

lost  in  fermentation,  259 
origin,  455 
refining,  469,  470 
source  in  diabetes,  568 
world  production,  471 
Sugars  in  obesity,  579 
Sulfurous  acid,  334 
Sunflower  oil,  409 
Superheating  milk,  545 
Sweet  basil,  326 
corn,  226 

adulterations,  228 
potatoes,  299,  300 
acreage  and  yield,  303 
average  composition,  303 
changes  during  storage,  302 
composition,  301,  302 
cultivation,  300 


INDEX. 


641 


Sweet  potatoes,  yield,  301 
Sweetened  condensed  milk,  534-535 
Sweet-sop,  344 


Tamarind,  366 

composition,  367 
Tannin,  334 
.Tapioca,  320 

adulteration,  321 
Tautog,  147 
Terrapin,  157 
Tetanus  germs,  91,  92 
Thyme,  326 
Tilefish,  147 
Tinning,  42 
Toadstools,  434 
Tomatoes,  adulteration  of  canned,  315 

canned,  314 

composition  of  canned,  315 
Tongue,  adulteration  of  canned,  50 

canned,  50 
Tonka  bean,  adulterant  of  vanilla,  606 
Treacle,  481 

Tropical  fruits,  ash,  367 
Trout,  147 
Truffles,  450 

adulteration,  453 

cultivation,  451 

geographic  distribution,  451 

harvesting,  451,  452 

properties,  453 

varieties,  451 
Tuberculosis,  13 

amount  of  food,  581 

diet,  580 

economy  of  feeding,  584 

experiments  in  diet,  582-583 

forced  feeding,  582 

nature,  580 

no  universal  diet,  589 
Turbot,  149 
Turkey,  107 

adulteration  of  potted,  102 

composition,  108 
Turmeric,  simple  test,  599 
Turnip,  304 


U. 

Unsweetened  condensed  milk,  534 


V. 

Vanilla,  resins,  605-606 
Vanillin,  artificial,  606 
Veal,  commercial  cuts,  18 
Vegetable,  definition,  272 

oils,  edible,  393 
Vegetables,  canned,  305 

succulent,  274 

value,  273 
Vegetarianism,  93 

Vinegar,  adulteration  and  detection,  608 
Von  Noorden,  dietaries  for  diabetics,  574 


W. 

Wall-eyed  pike,  134 
Walnuts,  426 

English,  427 

white,  427 
Water,  in  diabetes,  575 
Watermelon,  284,  285 
Weakfish,  149 
Weaning,  diet,  502 
Weighing  infants,  importance,  499 
Weight,  relative,  of  canned  and  fresh  meat, 

48 
Westminster  Hospital,  principle  of  modifi- 
cation, 531 

Infants'  Hospital,  milk,  529 
Wheat,  239 

acreage  and  yield,  240 

comparative  digestibility,  257 

composition,  ^240 

products,  242 

standards,  241 

starch,  241 
Whey,  179 

composition,  179 

proteins,  530 
White  grease,  70 
Whitefish,,  150 


X. 


Xanthin  bases,  90 


Yam,  304 
Yeast,  250 

extracts,  561-562 
Yellow  grease,  71 


42 


^^.T 


HBT* 

m  " 

UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  LIBRARY 

"^ 

BERKELEY 

1 

Return  to  desk  from  which  borrowed. 

This  book  is  DUE  on  the  last  date  stamped  below. 

^^^^^4.., 

DEC  2 6 1952 

27Nov'5lVW 
4t5eV9W 

DEC  11^96^ 

JAN  2  5  1996 

JAN  ^^  '*337 

RECEIVED 

•     23Jan'58l!» 

NOV  0  3  1S36 

REC'D  LO 

CFlCULATiON " 

OT 

27Noy'R2JC 

LD  21-100l>l-9,'48(BS998l( 

i)476 

U.  C  Dtnr\t-i-^' 


C051H0S537 


